White Paper on the Ethical Dimensions of Climate Change

8/14/2019 White Paper on the Ethical Dimensions of Climate Change

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WhitePaperon the EthicalDimensions

ofClimateChange

Donald Brown Nancy Tuana Marilyn Averill Paul Baer Rubens BornCarlos Eduardo Lessa Brando Rober rodean Crisiaan oenuisRober rodean Crisiaan oenuis

Toas eyd Jon Leons Rober McKinsry Mark LuesBenio Mller Jos Doinos Gonzalez Miuez Moan Munasine

Maria Silvia Muylaer de Araujo Carlos Nobre Konrad Carlos Nobre Konrad Jouni Paavola Crisiano Pires de Caos Luiz Pinuelli RosaCrisiano Pires de Caos Luiz Pinuelli RosaLuiz Pinuelli Rosa

Jon Rosales Ada Rose Edward Wells Laura Wesra


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Ethical Dimensions of Climate Change

Rock Ethics Institute, Secretariat, Penn State University

Penn Sae Insiues o e Environen

Pennsylvania Consoriu or Inerdiscilinary Environenal Policy

Brazilian oru on Cliae Cane

Cener or Eics, Universiy o Monana

Cenre or Alied Eics, Cardi Universiy

Cenre or Global Eics, Birina Universiy

Coordinaion o Pos Graduae Proras in Enineerin o e ederal Universiy o

Rio de JaneiroTe Enery Plannin ProraEcoEquiy

Global Ecoloical Ineriy Grou

IUCN Environenal Law CoissionEics Secialis Grou

Inernaional Virual Insiue o Global Cane, ederal Universiy o Rio de Janeiro

Munasine Insiue or Develoen

New Direcions: Science, uaniies, Policy

xord Cliae Policy

Susainabiliy Researc Insiue, Universiy o Leeds

Tyndall Cenre or Cliae Cane Researc

Contact InormationRock Eics Insiue

http://rockethics.psu.edu/climate

Donald A. BrownProjec Coordinaor, Collaboraive Prora on e Eical Diensions o Cliae Cane

[email protected]

Nancy TuanaDirecor, Rock Eics Insiue

Secrearia, Collaboraive Prora on e Eical Diensions o Cliae [email protected]

Participating Institutions


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History o the Program

Te Prora on e Eical Diensions o Cliae Cane was launced a e 10 Conerence

o Paries o e Unied Naions raework Convenion on Cliae Cane a was eld in early

Deceber o 2004 in Buenos Aires, Arenina. Te ajor oucoe o is eein was e BuenosAires Declaraion on e Eical Diensions o Cliae Cane.

The Program on the Ethical Dimensions o Climate Change Seeks to:

aciliae exress exainaion o eical diensions o cliae cane aricularly or

ose issues enailed by secic osiions aken by overnens, businesses, NGs,

oranizaions, or individuals on cliae cane olicy aers;

Creae beer undersandin abou e eical diensions o cliae cane aon olicy

akers and e eneral ublic;

Assure a eole around e world, includin ose os vulnerable o cliae cane,

ariciae in any eical inquiry abou resonses o cliae cane;

Develo an inerdiscilinary aroac o inquiry abou e eical diensions o cliae

cane and suor ublicaions a exaine e eical diensions o cliae cane;

Make e resuls o scolarsi on e eical diensions o cliae cane available o

and accessible o olicy akers, scieniss, and ciizen rous;

Inerae eical analysis ino e work o oer insiuions enaed in cliae cane

olicy includin e Inerovernenal Prora on Cliae Cane and e Conerence oe Paries o e Unied Naions Conerence on Cliae Cane.

Further Inormation

or ore inoraion abou e rora, includin a biblioray on e eical diensions o

cliae cane, visi e Web sie a http://rockethics.psu.edu/climate .

About Us


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Contents

Preamble 7Ais 7

Te Buenos Aires Declaraion 7

Iniial Eical Princiles and Invesiaive Aroac 9

Ethical Issue One: Responsibility or Damages 10acual Conex 10

Relevan Cliae Cane Science 10

Disribuion o ars and Benes 11

Inernaional Neoiaions and Areeens 12

Eical Analysis o Issue ne 13

Issues o be Develoed 15

Ethical Issue Two: Atmospheric Targets 15acual Conex 15

Eical Analysis o Issue Two 17


Ethical Issue Three: Allocating Global Emissions among Nations 19acual Conex 19

Eical Analysis o Issue Tree 21


Ethical Issue Four: The Use o Scientifc Uncertainty in Policy Making acual Conex 23

Eical Analysis o Issue our 26


Ethical Issue Five: Cost to National Economies 9acual Conex 29

Eical Analysis o Issue ive 30


Ethical Issue Six: Independent Responsibility to Act acual Conex 32

Eical Analysis o Issue Six 33



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Contents

Ethical Issue Seven: Potential New Technologies acual Conex 34

Eical Analysis o Issue Seven 34

Ethical Issue Eight: Procedural Fairness 5acual Conex 35

Eical Analysis o Issue Ei 36


Reerences 9


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1 Te collaboraive rora on e Eical Diensions o Cliae Cane (EDCC) is an eor a as rown ou o ecollaboraion o any individuals and oranizaions. I reconizes a eics sould lay a cenral role in olicy decisionsa are bein ade abou cliae cane. Te Prora e or e rs ie a CP-10 Buenos Aires and e aain a CP-11 Monreal. Prora reresenaives are Donald Brown, [email protected] (Direcor, Pennsylvania Consoriu orInerdiscilinary Environenal Policy) and Nancy Tuana, [email protected] (Direcor, Rock Eics Insiue, Te PennsylvaniaSae Universiy). Te oranizaions include e Rock Eics Insiue, Penn Sae Universiy, EDDC Prora Secrearia;Pennsylvania Consoriu or Inerdiscilinary Environenal Policy; Penn Sae Insiues o e Environen; Brazilian oruon Cliae Cane; Coordinaion o Pos Graduae Proras in Enineerin o e ederal Universiy o Rio de JaneiroTe Enery Plannin Prora; Global Ecoloical Ineriy Grou; IUCN Coission on Environenal LawEics WorkinGrou; Cenre or Alied Eics a Cardi Universiy; Cenre or Global Eics a Birina Universiy; Tyndall Cenre orCliae Cane Researc; EcoEquiy; Cener or Eics, Universiy o Monana; New Direcions: Science, uaniies, Policy;xord Cliae Policy; IVIG Inernaional Virual Insiue on Global Cane-ederal Universiy o Rio de Janeiro; MunasineInsiue or Develoen; and Susainabiliy Researc Insiue, Universiy o Leeds. In addiion o ese insiuions, nuerousindividuals ave conribued o is Wie Paer. A lis o e iniial collaboraors can be ound on e rora Web sie ahttp://rockethics.psu.edu/climate.2 or a ore coreensive lis o reerences on is oic see: http://rockethics.psu.edu/climate.

White Paper on the Ethical Dimensions oClimate Change

I. Preamble

A. Aims

Tis aer describes e relevan acs, eical quesions, and reliinary eical analyses a willconsiue e iniial ase o e Collaboraive Prora on e Eical Diensions o Cliae (EDCC).1

Tis aer does no seek o deal wi ese aers exausively bu raer inends o creae a ocusor iniial inquiry and draw reliinary conclusions abou e eical diensions o several cliaecane issues a are ossible a is early sae o e work o e EDCC.2

By e use o e word eics in is aer is ean e eld o ilosoical inquiry a exainesconces and eir eloyen abou wa is ri and wron, obliaory and non-obliaory, and wenresonsibiliy sould aac o uan acions a cause ar. or is reason, an eical exainaion

o cliae cane issues will exlore rescriive asserions abou wa sould be done abou cliaecane raer an ocus on descriions o scienic and econoic acs alone, alou ood eicalanalyses o cliae cane issues us be sensiive o acs a rae any issue. or is reason, isaer idenies e scienic, econoic, and social acs associaed wi eac issue abou wic idraws eical conclusions.

B. The Buenos Aires Declaration

In Deceber 2004, e Collaboraive Prora on e Eical Diensions o Cliae Cane adoede Buenos Aires Declaraion on e uan Diensions o Cliae Cane a e 10 Conerenceo e Paries o e Unied Naions raework Convenion on Cliae Cane (UNCCC). (ore colee ex o is declaraion, see: http://rockethics.psu.edu/climate/declaration.pd.) Tisdocuen declared a refecion on e eical diensions o cliae cane was uren because:

Unless e eical diensions are considered, e inernaional couniy ay cooseresonses a are eically unsuorable or unjus;


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Many roound eical quesions are idden in scienic and econoic aruens abouvarious cliae cane olicy roosals;

An equiable aroac o cliae cane olicy is necessary o overcoe barriers currenlyblockin roress in inernaional neoiaions;

An eically based lobal consensus on cliae cane ay reven urer disariies beweenric and oor, and reduce oenial inernaional ension a will arise ro cliae-causedood and waer scarciies and erceived inequiable use o e lobal aoseric coonsas a carbon sink.

Te Buenos Aires Declaraion idenied a nuber o secic eical issues and associaed quesionsconcernin cliae cane abou wic exress eical refecion is an inernaional ieraive. Teseissues are:

1. Resonsibiliy or Daaes: Wo is eically resonsible or e consequences o cliaecane, a is, wo is liable or e burdens o:a. rearin or and en resondin o cliae cane (i.e., adaaion) orb. ayin or unavoided daaes?

2. Aoseric Tares: Wa eical rinciles sould uide e coice o secic cliae

cane olicy objecives, includin bu no liied o, axiu uan-induced warinand aoseric reenouse as ares?

3. Allocain GG Eissions Reducions: Wa eical rinciles sould be ollowed in allocainresonsibiliy aon eole, oranizaions, and overnens a all levels o reven eicallyinolerable iacs ro cliae cane?

4. Scienic Uncerainy: Wa is e eical sinicance o e need o ake cliae canedecisions in e ace o scienic uncerainy?

5. Cos o Naional Econoies: Is e coonly used jusicaion o naional cos or delayin or

iniizin cliae cane acion eically jusied?

6. Indeenden Resonsibiliy o Ac: Is e coonly used reason or delayin or iniizincliae cane acion a any naion need no ac unil oers aree on acion, eically

jusifable?

7. Poenial New Tecnoloies: Is e aruen a we sould iniize cliae cane acionunil new, less-cosly ecnoloies ay be invened in e uure, eically jusiable?

8. Procedural airness: Wa rinciles o rocedural jusice sould be ollowed o assure airreresenaion in decision akin?

Tese issues were idenied in resonse o acual issues in conenion in lobal cliae caneneoiaions. EDCC seeks o ocus on eical issues eier in conenion in cliae cane olicy-akin or a sould be aced o resolve issues in disue. In is way, EDCC seeks o avoid discussiono absrac eical issues a ave lile oenial o resolve cliae cane olicy disues.

Since inernaional cliae cane neoiaions bean in e lae 1980s, uc o e neoiainaenda as ocused on duies o develoed naions o reduce eissions. or is reason, os o eeical issues idenied by EDCC or analysis a is early sae concern obliaions o develoednaions o reduce eissions. In e years aead, as issues on e olicy akin aenda cane, EDCC


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will ideniy oer eical issues relevan o e new neoiain aenda includin, bu no liied o,issues abou duies o develoin naions. To do is EDCC will ariciae in and onior cliaecane olicy oraion in e years aead.

C. Initial Ethical Principles and Investigative Approach

Tis aer is wrien or olicy akers and environenal roessionals wo rouinely ariciae inolicy akin. More deailed analyses o e eical quesions idenied erein will be considered alaer saes o is Prora includin, bu no liied o, an inernaional conerence on e eicaldiensions o cliae cane. In is way, EDCC will work o deeen and exand e eical analyseso issues resened ere, or oer eical issues a arise in cliae cane olicy oraion in eyears aead. We will briefy ideniy soe overarcin eical rinciles and basic rules o oraliya inor our iniial aroac.

Given e severiy o iac o be execed and iven e likeliood a soe level o iorandisruions in livin condiions will occur or rea nubers o eole due o cliae cane evens,we conend a ere is sucien converence aon eical rinciles o ake a nuber o concreerecoendaions on ow overnens sould ac, or o ideniy eical robles wi osiions aken

by cerain overnens, oranizaions, or individuals

or issues abou wic we see subsanial disareeen aon eiciss, we will ideniy osecoein eical analyses.

acs abou cliae cane and undaenal uan ris rovide e sarin oin or our eicalanalysis. (Sacs, 2005)

A recen aricle in e reseced scienic journal Naure (Paz, 2005) concluded a e uan-induced warin a e world is now exeriencin is already causin 150,000 deas and 5 illionincidens o disease eac year ro addiional alaria and diarrea, osly in e oores naions.

Dea and disease incidens are likely o soar as warin increases. Irresecively o e recisenubers o suc arul evens, i as becoe clear a cliae cane is already coroisinris o lie, libery and ersonal securiy. ence, eical analysis o cliae cane olicy usexaine ow olicies ave an iac on ese basic ris.

Te ris o lie, libery, and ersonal securiy are basic uan ris a are e oundaion or derivinoer widely reconized ris ound in inernaional law and racice. Tese ris, or exale, avebeen e basis or suc racical rules as e no ar rincile and e recauionary rincile.Tese ris are reconized in a nuber o inernaional reaies and decisions in inernaional ribunals,and widely reconized as oundaional by any o e worlds reliions. Tese ris are also exresslyse ou in Aricle Tree o e Universal Declaraion o uan Ris3 a exressly rovides a:

Everyone as a ri o lie, libery, and ersonal securiy.

3 Universal Declaraion o uan Ris was adoed by e Unied Naions General Assebly (A/RES/217, Deceber 10,1948 a Palais de Caillo, Paris). I conains a lis o ose uan ris a e UN olds sould be uaraneed o all eole.I was conceived as objecives o be ollowed by overnens; owever i does no or ar o inernaional law, ou i iscusoary or overnens o abide by i. In 1968 Unied Naions Inernaional Conerence on uan Ris declared a iconsiued an obliaion or all ebers o e inernaional couniy o ollow i. I also served as e basis or wo leally-bindin UN uan ris Covenans, e Inernaional Covenan on Civil and Poliical Ris, and e Inernaional Covenanon Econoic, Social, and Culural Ris.


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Ethical Dimensions of Climate Change10

uans ave ris o lie, libery, and ersonal securiy a creae duies in oers o rerain roinererence wi ese basic ris. In is aer we seek o el clariy our duies o reven enelec or violaion o ose ris. course, cliae cane olicy akin raises addiional eicalissues includin quesions abou duies o roec uure eneraions o uans, lans, anials, andecosyses. Alou ese issues are considered in secions o is aer, deeer analyses o eseeical quesions will be e ocus o uure work o is Prora.

We noe a is early sae o our analysis, a cliae cane raises a nuber o aricularlycallenin eical issues abou ow o airly sare e benes and burdens o cliae cane olicyoions. Alou ese issues will be deal wi in laer secions o is aer and rora, we noee ere o fa eir iorance and o invie secial refecion on ese aers. We also noe eere because any o e olicy ools oen eloyed o solve environenal robles suc as cos-bene analysis usually do no adequaely deal wi ese issues because ey oen inore quesionso jus disribuion.

Tese callenes o disribuional airness arise ou o cerain acs abou cliae cane includin:a. Many o ose wo will be os ared by cliae cane ave conribued lile o causin

e roble;b. Many o ose wo ei e os GGs are leas reaened by adverse cliae cane

iacs;c. Tose a are os vulnerable o cliae cane ars are oen leas able o ay or adaaion

easures needed o roec e ro cliae cane iacs;d. Because ere is a need o se an areed uon lobal aoseric are, cliae cane olicy

akers will need o ace e quesion o wo sould bear e burdens o reducin eissionsso a an aoseric GG are can be acieved rou naional eissions liiaions;

e. In allocain naional eissions reducions ares, olicy akers will need o ake a osiionon wo as a ri o use e biosere as a lobal carbon sink and in wa aouns;

. Eissions levels ro uan aciviy vary realy around e world and ereore e ueeissions reducions a will be needed o reven danerous cliae cane will alldisroorionably on soe i equiy is no aken seriously;

. In resondin o e rea o cliae cane, curren eneraions will aec e ineress ouure eneraions.

II. Ethical Issue One: Responsibility or DamagesWho is ethicallyresponsible or the consequences o climate change, that is, who isliable or the burdens o:

a. preparing or and then responding to climate change(i.e. adaptation) or

b. paying or unavoided damages?

A. Factual Context

a. Relevant Climate Change Science

1. Cliae cane as been seriously discussed as a rea o uan eal and e environenor several decades wi scienic ineres rowin raidly since e lae 1970s weneasureens o aoseric GG levels were deerined o be risin in roorion o euse o ossil uel around e world.


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2. uan-induced cliae cane is now discernable and is already adversely aecin soeuans, lans, anials, and ecosyses around e world. owever, as soe ars o e worldare warin aser an oers, soe o e cliae cane daaes are ore discernable insoe ars o e world (IPCC, 2001).

3. I is believed a uan aciviies are resonsible or warin in e aoun slily less an1C alou soe ars o e world ave exerienced reaer warin an is lobal averae.Tis warin is aribuable o aoseric GG levels in reaer concenraions an occurrednaurally beore e beinnin o e indusrial revoluion. uan aciviies resonsible or iselevaed warin include osly GG eissions and land use canes (IPCC, 2001).

4. Te aoun o daaes caused o uans and ecoloical syses by uan-induced cliaecane deends on e aniude o e eeraure cane. Te aoun o eeraure increasea will be exerienced is deenden on e GG aoseric levels. Te concenraion oGGs in e aosere deends on e collecive acion o GG eiers around e worldas well as canes bein ade o naural syses a ave an aec on carbon sorae.

5. Abou al o GGs eied reain in e aosere wile e oer al are bein sored incarbon sinks, riarily in erresrial ecosyses and oceans (IPCC, 2001).

6. ars already bein exerienced by soe eole are o any yes includin, bu are noliied o, dea, disease, ecoloical ar, foods and drous, risin seas, ore inensesors, and increased ea waves. ars due o uan-induced cliae cane will row ine years aead even i i is ossible or e inernaional couniy o sabilize aosericGG concenraions near curren levels. Increased warin will coninue even i aosericGG levels are eld consan because o eral las in e lobal cliae syse includinlas in e oceans (IPCC, 2001).

7. I is very unlikely a aoseric levels o C2

equivalen can be sabilized uc below 450 durin is cenury. (Sevens, 1997). Tis virually uaranees sinifcan addiional warin

and associaed ars o soe eole and laces around e world. (Baer and Aansiou, 2004).

8. Given oin 6 and 7, even i we ado e os robus adaaion sraeies ossible, soecurren and uure ars o ecosyses are unavoidable. er daaes could be iniizedor avoided i adaaion ses are aken.

9. Tere reains soe scienic uncerainy abou iin and aniude o uure cliae caneiacs; owever, is uncerainy as been described as a rane o lausible iacs awill be caused by dieren levels o aoseric concenraions o aoseric GGs by eInerovernenal Panel on Cliae Cane (IPCC, 2001).4

b. Distribution o Harms and Benefts

10. Te develoed naions are osly resonsible or e build u o GGs in e aosereo resen levels alou oal eissions and er caia eissions levels vary realy aonnaions (Arawal and Nairin 1991; Esrada-yeala, 1992; Mller, 2001; Munasine, 2002;Muylaer, 2002; Paavola, 2004; Pinuelli-Rosa and Munasine, 2002).

4 Te IPCC was creaed in 1988 by e World Meroloical Associaion and e Unied Naions Environen Prora o advisenaions abou e science o cliae cane. IPCC reors rowin levels o condence abou cliae cane iacs alouuncerainies reain.


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11. Tose wo are ared by uan-induced cliae cane are locaed in bo develoin anddeveloed naions and ose wo bene ro GG eissions are locaed in bo develoinand develoed naions (Arawal and Nairin 1991; Esrada-yeala, 1992; Mller, 2001;Munasine, 2002; Muylaer, 2002; Paavola, 2004; Pinuelli-Rosa and Munasine, 2002).

12. Te develoed counries are os resonsible or eeraure increases a e Ear asexerienced recenly, avin conribued e reaes ercenae o isorical increases inGG eissions. (Miuez, 2002).

13. owever, ose os vulnerable o cliae cane daaes are oen e leas resonsible orGG eissions. (IPCC, 2001; Esrada-yeala,1992)

14. Tose wo could os bene ro adaaion easures are also oen leas resonsible orGG eissions. Tis is rue bo a e naional level and a e individual level.

15. Tose os vulnerable o cliae cane are oen leas able o aord adaaion easuressuc as dikes, irriaion o coensae or drous, ovin away ro food or sor roneareas, insallin VAC syses and ileenin iroved ublic eal syses. In addiion,oor eole can aord insurance aains cliae-relaed daae.

16. Tere is soe uncerainy reardin e econoic iacs o underakin easures o reduceGG eissions. Models sow a rane o ossible coss, wi soe reducions bein acievablea no cos or cos savins and oers a considerable coss. Econoic esiaes ave nousually incororaed benes o be acieved ro innovaion. Many lare cororaions aveacieved considerable reducions in GG eissions wile realizin cos savins. Wi lonerlead ies, coss can be reduced. Cos esiaes in econoic odels rely deely on conesedassuions abou daae-uncion, rae o discoun, ecnoloical roress, and values o asaisical uan lie.

c. International Negotiations and Agreements

17. Inernaional neoiaions o se ares and ieables were called or by any scieniss ine 1980s. Durin is ie, soe overnens, oranizaions, and individuals ave resisedleas ro oenial vicis o cliae cane o ake recauionary acion o reduce GGeissions and ereby iiae cliae cane daaes. Te aruens or is resisancewere oen based on e conenions a ere was scienic uncerainy concernin cliaecane iacs and a ileenaion o easures o lii GG eissions would enailsinican coss o naional econoies (Brown, 2002).

18. Inernaional cliae cane neoiaions bean in e lae 1980s, wi soe naions andoranizaions callin or enorceable eissions ares wile oers resised akin coiensoen on e basis o scienic uncerainy and cos o naional econoies (Brown 2002).

19. Soe nors abou resonsibiliy or daaes ro uan-induced cliae cane arewell esablised in a variey o inernaional areeens includin e Rio Declaraion onEnvironen and Develoen, Unied Naions raework Convenion on Cliae Cane(UNCCC), e Kyoo Proocol o e UNCCC, and e Law o e Sea.

20. Te Rio Declaraion on Environen and Develoen wic saes in relevan ar:i. Saes ave, in accordance wi e Carer o e Unied Naions and e rinciles o

inernaional law, e soverein ri o exloi eir own resources ursuan o eir own


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environenal and develoenal olicies, and the responsibility to ensure that activitieswithin their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of otherStates or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction (UN, 1992b, Princile 2).

ii. Naional auoriies sould endeavor o rooe e inernalizaion o environenalcoss and e use o econoic insruens, taking into account the approach thatthe polluter should, in principle, bear the cost o pollution, wi due reard o eublic ineres and wiou disorin inernaional rade and invesen (UN, 1992b,Princile 16).

iii. Saes sall develo naional law reardin liabiliy and coensaion or e vicis oolluion and oer environenal daae. Saes sall also cooerae in an exediiousand ore deerined anner o develo urer inernaional law reardin liabiliyand coensaion or adverse eecs o environenal daae caused by aciviieswiin eir jurisdicion or conrol o areas beyond eir jurisdicion (UN, 1992b,Princile 13).

2. Addiional nors relevan o resonsibiliy or daaes caused by one naion o anoerare conained in e Unied Naions raework Convenion on Cliae Cane (UNCCC)

includin:i. Recalling also a Saes ave, in accordance wi e Carer o e Unied Naions

and e rinciles o inernaional law, e soverein ri o exloi eir own resourcesursuan o eir own environenal and develoenal olicies, and the responsibilityto ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage tothe environment o other States or o areas beyond the limits o national jurisdiction(UN, 1992a, Preace).

ii. Te Paries sould roec e cliae syse or e bene o resen and uureeneraions o uankind, on the basis o equity and in accordance with theircommon but dierentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities. Accordingly,

the developed country Parties should take the lead in combating climate change andthe adverse eects thereo. (UN, 1992a, Ar. 3).

iii. Te Paries sould take precautionary measures to anticipate, prevent or minimize thecauses o climate change and mitigate its adverse eects. Where there are threats oserious or irreversible damage, lack o ull scientifc certainty should not be used as areason or postponing such measures, akin ino accoun a olicies and easureso deal wi cliae cane sould be cos-eecive so as o ensure lobal benes ae lowes ossible cos (UN, 1992a, Ar. 3).

22. Tere are also nors creaed by oer inernaional accords a were no inended o addresse issue o cliae cane direcly, bu include issues a will be aeced by cliae cane

a could be relevan o resonsibiliy o daaes. Tese areeens, or insance, include eInernaional Law o e Sea, e Convenion on Bioloical Diversiy, and e Convenion onInernaional Trade on Endanered Secies o lora and auna.

B. Ethical Analysis o Issue One

1. Since eole around e world ave basic ris o be roeced ro e acions o oers areaen lie, eal, and securiy, and iven a e eecs o cliae cane will violae ese


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ris, nors us be areed uon by e inernaional couniy o esablis resonsibiliy orcliae cane iiaion, adaaion, and or rearaion o daaes due o cliae cane.

2. Te Rio Declaraion and e Unied Naions raework Convenion on Cliae Caneesablised e ollowin nors abou resonsibiliy or cliae cane:a. Naions ave e resonsibiliy o reduce GG eissions o aciviies wiin eir

jurisdicion;b. Polluers ave e resonsibiliy o bear e coss o olluion;c. Naions ave e resonsibiliy o reduce eir eissions based uon equiy o reven

danerous anrooenic inererence wi e cliae syse;d. Te develoed naions ave e resonsibiliy o ake e lead in reducin e rea o

cliae cane;e. Naions ay no use scienic uncerainy as an excuse or akin cos-eecive acion o

reduce e rea o cliae cane (UN, 1992a; UN, 1992b).

3. Wile e nors esablised by various inernaional law docuens are ioran and relevan,ey are no sucien in a rinciles o reribuive and disribuive jusice are relevan odeerinin resonsibiliy or ar ro uan-induced cliae cane. Tese rincilesake ose resonsible or ar in roorion o eir conribuion o e ar in e absence

o orally relevan rinciles a would allow or oer assinens o resonsibiliy.

4. Because ars ro cliae cane are relaed o as and curren eissions levels, e ollowinacs, aon oers, are relevan o any naions resonsibiliy or daaes o oers:a. Maniude o oal naional and er caia eissions durin eriod o concern.b. Te naions roorional sare o oal lobal eissions a ave led o cliae cane

a as or will cause ar.c. isorical conribuions o GG eissions.

5. Accordin o relevan rinciles o jusice, ose wo clai enileen o use e aosereor oer naural syses as a sink or eir GG eissions a levels roorionaely reaer an

oers ave e burden o deonsrain a eir clai or enileen o unequal levels oeissions is based uon orally relevan crieria.

6. Soe naions ave used cos o eir econoy as an excuse or eir unwillinness o akeacion o reduce eir eissions; owever, cos is no an eically acceable excuse or ailino ake acions o reduce arul levels o olluion below e eiin arys air sare olobal eissions, aricularly wen a olluion reaens basic uan ris o lie, eal,and securiy. (See discussion on cos below, Issue ive). Cos consideraions are aroriae ineors o nd cos-eecive sraeies o reduce arul levels o eissions

7. Tose enaed in inequiable and danerous beavior concernin GG eissions cannouse e excuse o lack o cerainy abou e ar o jusiy risky beavior. (See discussion on

uncerainy below, Issue our.)

8. Accordin o relevan rinciles o jusice, wen ulile aries ave conribued o causear o oers, aries arin oers will be resonsible in roorion o a roorion oar a ey ave inficed wen i is ossible o deerine e relaive conribuion o earin aries. To deerine e resonsibiliy o naions or cliae cane ere are woquesions a need o be answered.


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a. Te rs is relaively easy o ascerain. Ta is, ow uc did a naion conribue rouis eissions or land use canes o e build u o GG in e aosere beyond wawould ave occurred naurally.

b. Te second quesion will be ore dicul o answer in soe cases because daaes rocliae are soeies caused by evens a ay ave occurred naurally in ar, sucas sor daaes. Ta is, or insance, wi or wiou uan-induced cliae cane,foods would occur naurally. Ye as uan-induced warin increases, foodin inensiyand requency are likely o increase. or is reason, i will be necessary o deerine econribuion ro uan-aciviies o cliae evens suc as foods a cause daaes inorder o assess resonsibiliy or uan-induced daaes.

Issues to be Developed

1. In addiion o e rovisions o e UNCCC, wa nors exis in ard and so inernaional lawsuc as e Law o e Sea, e Convenion on bioloical Diversiy, e Convenion on InernaionalTrade o Endanered Secies, e Trail Seler Case, ec., a i be relevan o resonsibiliyor cliae cane daaes.

2. I naion saes ave resonsibiliy o reduce GG eissions, wa can be said abou e eicalresonsibiliy o oer unis o overnen, oranizaions, and individuals or oer non-sae saeacors wiin ose saes?

3. ow do or rules inor inernaional resonsibiliy o naions?

4. Wa eical rinciles sould be ollowed in deerinin or liabiliy or cliae cane daaes?or insance, in deerinin or liabiliy ow sould consideraions o uiliy be aken ino accounin relaion o ris? Sould liabiliy rules consider suc aers as sreadin e coss aonaries? Wa oer ublic olicy concerns sould inor e creaion o or liabiliy rules orcliae cane?

5. Wa eical rinciles sould be ollowed or deerinin liabiliy wiin naions iven disariiesaon ose wo ave beneed ro as GG eissions and dierences in isorical eissionslevels aon overnen subdivisions, oranizaions, and individuals?

III. Ethical Issue Two: Atmospheric Targets What ethical principlesshould guide the choice o specifc climate change policy objectives,including but not limited to, maximum human-induced warming andatmospheric greenhouse gas targets?

A. Factual Context

See acual araras above:

1. In 1992, under e Unied Naions raework Convenion on Cliae Cane (UN 1992a,Ar 2), overnens areed o sabilize GG concenraions in the atmosphere at a levelthat would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Suc alevel sould be acieved wiin a ie-rae sucien o allow ecosyses o ada naurally


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o cliae cane, o ensure a ood roducion is no reaened and o enable econoicdeveloen o roceed in a susainable anner. owever, no aoseric GG are asbeen areed o a ives scienic recision o is coien .

2. Dieren levels o aoseric GG concenraions will enerae dieren levels and kinds odaaes o uan eal and e environen wi soe o e oores eole around eworld suerin e reaes ar (Arawal, and Nairin 1991; Esrada-yeala, 1992; Mller,2001; Munasine, 2002; Muylaer, 2002; Paavola, 2004; Pinuelli-Rosa and Munasine,2002).

3. Any increases in aoseric concenraions o GGs will resul in addiional warin andconsequen ar o soe eole, lans, anials, and ecosyses. Te reaer e aosericlevel o GGs, e reaer e robabiliy a cliae cane will cause serious and caasroiccliae cane daaes o uans and e environen. I is believed by any scieniss aaddiional warin ro uan-induced cliae cane sould be ke below 2C o avoidraid non-linear iacs ro cliae cane; owever, caasroic ar could be rieredby addiional warin o less or ore an 2C because is level is uncerain (Aanasiou andBaer, 2002).

4. Given curren world deand or ossil uels, e size o lobal auoobile and ransoraionfees, and e unavailabiliy o aordable non-olluin ecnoloies, onies already invesedin exisin ecnoloies, and lead ie necessary o relace exisin ecnoloies, i is likelyo be racically iossible o sabilize aoseric GG levels below 450 o C

2

equivalen (Sevens, 1997).

5. In sein a sabilizaion are or GG concenraions, ajor scienic uncerainies need obe aced includin, bu no liied o, uncerainies abou:a. e aoun o warin caused by dieren levels o GGs in e aosere or cliae

sensiiviy;b. e acual aoun o GGs a will be eied iven unknowns abou uure ecnoloy,

oulaion, and econoic aciviy;c. e aniude, ye, and eoraic sread o adverse iacs a will be eneraed bydieren levels o warin;

d. e iin o eeraure cane and oer cliae cane iacs, includin e ossibiliyo raid non-linear canes;

e. resold levels a will cause cliae surrises and irreversible and oenially caasroiciacs i exceeded;

. e abiliy o eole o ake aniciaory roecive acion,. e resiliency o ecosyses, and;. e vulnerabiliy o eole o cerain cliae cane iacs (IPCC, 2001).

6. To deal wi e scienic uncerainy abou warin and is iacs, e IPCC as idenied

a rane o ossible aoseric GG concenraions and associaed eeraure increases.owever, e idenicaion o is rane does no reclude e ossibiliy o raid non-linearcanes in e cliae syse a eeraures in e lower end o e rane (IPCC, 2001).

7. Tose wo will be aeced by cliae cane include no only eole currenly livin buuure eneraions and non-uans. Teir ineress are aricularly a risk ro unceckedcliae canes likely desrucion o lans and anials, and increases in sea levels, foods,drous, disease, and inensiy o sors.


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8. Sabilizaion o GGs in e aosere o a sae level will require e reducion o lobaleissions by 60 o 80 ercen ro curren levels and by uc larer aouns ro business-as-usual rojecions o lobal eissions (IPCC, 2001). To ake e necessary lobal reducions,decisions us be ade abou ow uc eac naion will be resonsible or acievin esereducions. (See discussion below on air allocaions, Issue Tree.)

9. Canin anoer naions cliae can seriously aec is ineress because e qualiy o anynaions cliae deerines, aon oer ins, (1) is oenial or rowin ood, (2) e yeo indienous lans and anials, (3) e need o use enery o roec ro exrees o eaand cold, (4) uan eal reas ro naural aoens, (5) ciizen vulnerabiliy o daaero exree weaer evens, (6) e nuber o ours a ciizens can work or recreae in eoudoors in coor, (7) e aoun o res waer available or uan uses, (8) e rae o fowin rivers and sreas, (9) weaer liiaions on ravel, (10) e daae caused by foods, and(11) e abiliy o arac ouriss (Landes, 1998).

10. uan-induced cliae cane as already caused daaes. Moreover, any addiionalwarin above resen levels will cause daaes o soe eole and soe laces wiccould be caasroic o e. (See discussion on resonsibiliy above, Issue ne.)

11. Many o e oores eole are ily vulnerable o cliae cane because: (1) e ecoloicalsyses o any o e oores naions are os a risk ro cliae cane, (2) any o eworlds oores eole are e os vulnerable o sors, foodin, and sea level rise, (3) eeal o e oores eole is a reaes risk ro lobal warin, aricularly ro vecorborne disease; (4) e ood sulies o e oores eole are oen a rea risk ro increasesin drous and ea; and (5) e oores naions and eole ave e weakes caaciy oada o cliae cane (IPCC, 2001).

12. Mos naions wo ave develoed naional cliae cane sraeies ave no consuled oernaions or eir ciizens wo will be os ared by cliae cane.

13. Ecosyses around e world are a rea risk ro cliae cane includin ecosysesa rovide lie suor services o uans, lans, and anials. Aon ecosyses aare vulnerable o cliae cane are arine ecosyses includin coral rees, and erresrialecosyses suc as oress and rasslands. Since cliae cane could cause raid canesin ese ecosyses, cliae cane urer reaens uans, lans, and anials by causinassive canes in ese ecosyses on wic lie deends. Moreover, soe ecosyses arealready sressed by oer uan aciviies a could be u a even reaer risk by cliaecane. or insance, lobal series around e world are already vulnerable o overexloiaiono series, soe roical oress are in raid decline ro overexloiaion, and ecosysesaround e world are vulnerable o increases in niroen ro uan aciviies. or is reason,cliae cane reaens any ecosyses around e world already under rea sress.

B. Ethical Analysis o Issue Two

1. Te issue o a GG aoseric sabilizaion are raises roound eical quesions becausee levels o GGs in e aosere will deerine wa lans, anials, and eole surviveand wa daaes will be caused o uans and e environen.

2. Te ris a eole ave o be roeced aains reas ro oers o lie, eal, andsecuriy, as well as e UNCCC coien ade by naions o reduce eissions o levels


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a would reven danerous anroocenric inererence wi e cliae syse, arebasic eical rinciles a us be considered in sein aoseric GG ares.

3. Te GG aoseric are raises roound quesions o disribuive jusice because cliaecane iacs will no be disribued equally, because naions and eoles ave dierenresonsibiliies or curren levels o GGs in e aosere, and because naions and eolesare dierenially vulnerable o cliae cane iacs. or is reason, naions wo are willino olerae soe cliae cane daaes o eir naion canno inore daaes a will beiosed uon oers wiou eir consen.

4. Te GG aoseric are raises ioran quesions o rocedural jusice because nocounry or erson as e ri o u oer naions or ersons a rave risk wiou eirconsen. Procedural jusice deands e ariciaion o vicis in decision akin abouwa risks canno be acceed, wa risks are acceable, and under wa condiions risks willbe acceed. (See discussion below on air ariciaion, Issue Ei.)

5. Tose wo are os vulnerable o cliae cane ave conribued lile o elevaed levels oGGs in e aosere. Tereore, ose vulnerable eole wo will be ared by cliaecane olicies or by eir absence ave ris o ariciae in e develoen o olicies

a esablis aoseric ares or GGs.

6. Given a all eole ave a ri be roeced ro reas o eir lie, saey, and securiycaused by oers, and a exisin levels o GG eissions reaen ese ris, e UNCCCcoien o reduce GG eissions o levels a will avoid danerous anroocenricinererence wi e cliae syse sould be inerreed o require sabilizaion levels a elowes ossible levels.

7. So lon as aoseric GG levels reaen basic uan ris, e Collaboraive Prora one Eical Diensions o Cliae Cane canno nd any reseced eical syse a would

jusiy allowin aoseric levels o GGs o rise ereby addiionally jeoardizin uan

ris. In oer words, various eical syses convere in e conclusion a aosericlevels o GGs sould be sabilized a e lowes ossible levels above exisin aosericGG concenraions ( e. al. 2004).

8. Naions ileenin aoseric ares or GGs are eically obliaed o consider eineress o non-reresened uure eneraions and non-uans.

9. Te issues o scienic uncerainy in sein a GG aoseric are raise ioran eicalissues a include bo subsanive quesions abou wo sould bear e burden o roowi reard o uncerainies and wa levels o risk are acceable, as well as quesions orocedural jusice suc as weer vicis a ay be u a risk ave exercised ree inoredconsen o ariciae in decisions a will iose risk on e, or weer even suc consen

would leiiize acions by oers a reaen eir lie, eal, and securiy. (See discussionbelow on scienic uncerainy, Issue our.)


1. Te coice o lower or ier GG aoseric ares as rea eical sinicance aricularlyin li o dierenial iacs on e os vulnerable eole. As alernaive GG aosericares are roosed, eiciss need o ideniy e eical sinicance o eac alernaive.


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IV. Ethical Issue Three: Allocating Global Emissions among Nations Whatethical principles should govern the allocation of responsibility amongpeople, organizations, and governments at all levels to prevent ethicallyintolerable impacts from climate change?

A. Factual Context

See acual araras above.

1. To reduce eically inolerable iacs ro cliae cane i will be necessary o lii oallobal GG eissions. (See Issue Two.)

2. To sabilize aoseric GGs a acceable levels, e world needs o reduce exisineissions sinicanly. To acieve an aoseric are, naions will need o reduce eirGG eissions in suc a way a oal eissions ro all naions do no cause aosericeissions o exceed acceable levels.

3. Te laer e inernaional couniy arees on acceable GGs aoseric ares, e

ore dicul i will be o acieve lower aoseric GG concenraions.

4. Naions ave ade widely dieren conribuions o lobal GG aoseric concenraionsin ers o oal ons o eissions, er caia eissions levels, and wen GG were eied(Arawal and Nairin 1991; Esrada-yeala, 1992; Mller, 2001; Munasine, 2002; Muylaer,2002; Paavola, 2004; Pinuelli-Rosa and Munasine, 2002; Mller 2002).

5. Because GGs in e aosere are well ixed ro all sources, i akes lile dierence oaoseric GG concenraions were eissions are released.

6. Soe GGs eied ino e aosere are sored in oceans, oress, soils, and lans. en

ese carbon sinks are no in e jurisdicion o naions wo are resonsible or GG eissions,nor ave e naions in wic suc sinks are locaed iven erission o eiin naions ouse eir naural resources as carbon sinks.

7. In e absence o undin or new ecnoloies, any oorer naions will need o ei oreGGs an eir curren level in order o ee basic uan needs or ood, seler, and securiy(Sue, 1994, 1999). er naions curren level o eissions ar exceeds ose needed o eebasic uan needs.

8. Te UNCCC conains soe noraive uidance on ow eissions allocaions sould beade aon naions. Te UNCCC rovides a: Te Paries sould roec e cliae syseor e bene o resen and uure eneraions o uankind, on e basis o equiy and inaccordance wi eir coon bu diereniaed resonsibiliies and resecive caabiliies.Accordinly, e develoed counry Paries sould ake e lead in cobain cliae caneand e adverse eecs ereo (UN 1992a, Ar. 3).

9. Tere are lare dierences in isorical and curren consuion aerns wiin bo develoedand develoin naions as well as beween sub-naional overnens, oranizaions, andindividuals.


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10. Desie a ailure o e lobal couniy o reduce GG eissions o levels a will revencliae-cane caused daaes o uan eal, e environen, lans, anials, andecosyses, soe naions, sub-naional levels o overnen, oranizaions, businesses,educaional insiuions, and individuals ave aken sinican ses o reduce GG eissions.Tese ses ave oen included volunary reducions no required by law or reulaion(Environenal inance, 2004).

11. Under e Kyoo Proocol, cerain develoed naions ave areed o GG reducion ares oreduce eissions levels ro e baseline year o 1990. Ye, resonsibiliy or uan-causedcliae cane a as been exerienced us ar sould also include aenion o isoricallevels o GG eissions earlier an 1990 (Miuez 2002; Muylaer and Pinuelli Rosa, 2002).

12. Under e UNCCC several naions ave ade secic roosals on crieria o dene warinciles consiue equiable reducions. Te IPCC as roued e as:a. Adhoc proposals, includin (1) roosals a divide oal lobal eissions ino equal

sares beween develoed and develoin naions, and; (2) roosals a roorionGG allocaion o a naions GDP.

b. Equalpercapitaproposals suesed by any develoin naions ave i a naionalallocaions sould be based uon e idea a all uan beins sould be eniled o an

equal sare o e aoseric coons.c. Statusquoproposals orwarded by several develoed naions sues a curren eissions

sould be reconized as enileens. or exale, e Unied Saes as only been willino neoiae eissions reducions ro curren levels. Te jusicaion resened or eosiion is a ose wo ave rs used naural resources ave a ri o coninue o usei a levels a are based uon as use.

d. Mixedproposals ave suesed allocaion rules cobinin equal er caia consideraions,equal ercenae cus, saus quo, and isorical resonsibiliy (Brown 2002; Rose, 1998;Mller 2001; Mller 2002).

13. In addiion o ese roosals or equiable allocaions, oers ave idenied a nuber o

oer rinciles aruably needed o ake equiable allocaions o GG eissions aonnaions. Tese include:a. PolluterPaysandProportionalityPrinciples. Tese rinciles would base allocaions uon

eac naions isorical conribuion o daaes caused by cliae cane.b. SatisactionoBasicNeeds. Tis rincile ures a e oores naions sould be rs

in line o receive allocaions needed o ee e basic needs o eir ciizens, so a i isossible or e o ully ariciae in e world.

c. ComparableBurdensPrinciple.Tis Princile would sues allocaions were eac naionsare e eor o reducin eissions o sae levels equally, or exale, by allocain anequal ercenae o is GDP o GG reducion.

d. AbilitytoPayPrinciple.Tis rincile would ake e ricer naions ore resonsiblean e oorer naions because o eir reaer abiliy o ay o reduce eissions .

e. RawlsianPrincipleofJustice. Tis rincile suess a allocaions sould be deerinedsuc a ollow e resuion on jus allocaions conained in e eories o JonRawls a in no case sould e oores naions be ade worse o by any allocaionscee. urerore, soe arue a i arues a jus allocaion scees sould iveaxiu ris o use e aosere o e oores, leas advanaed eole. (Brown,2002: Rose, 1998).


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B. Ethical Analysis o Issue Three

1. No all roosals by naions o dene equiy under UNCCC, Tile 3 are eniled o equalresec as a aer o eics and jusice.

2. Tose wo advocae a GG eissions allocaions sould be based uon saus quo eissionslevels sues a soe naions sould be iven a ri in e coninued use o e aosereas a sink on e basis o eir rior use. owever, ere are serious eical robles wi isview, includin e ollowin:a. Unlike soe naural resources suc as waer, e lobal aosere as never been

reconized as a subjec o rivae roery ris. Raer, i as been viewed as a lobalcoons available or use by all eole,

b. Tose wo ay be ared by levels o GGs in e aosere ave never consened oe aroriaion o e aosere as GG sink, and

c. Te idea o reconizin roery ris in naural resources a ave ained ier valuerou labor is no alicable o e aosere because is line o inkin is based onassuions a:

i. ere will be sucien quaniies o e naural resource le over or oers or eiruse, wic is no rue o e aoseric GG sinks,

ii. e ersons claiin roery ris o naural resources ave increased is valuerou eir labor, owever in e case o aoseric sinks ey ave raerdiinised e value o e aosere,

iii. inernaional law roibis e use o resources in one counry in suc a way a iwill ar eole in oer counries, and

iv. e naions o e world ave already areed a ey us reduce e use oaoseric sinks on e basis o equiy.

3. To adequaely address issues o equiy in allocain GG ares aon naions involves issueso disribuive jusice. Tradiional disribuive jusice deands a benes and burdens oublic olicy be disribued accordin o conces o equaliy, odied only by orally relevan

consideraions o, or exale, need or eri.

4. Disribuive jusice us e burden on ose wo wan o be reaed dierenly ro oers osow a e basis or bein reaed dierenly is based on orally relevan crieria. or isreason, as a aer o disribuive jusice, ose wo roose a orula or denin equiy a isno based uon ivin all eole equal ris o use e aosere ave e burden o rovina dierences in reaen a ey deand are based on eri, deservedness, or oer orallyrelevan crieria.

5. ne disincion a disribuive jusice would acknowlede as a relevan basis or reain naionsdierenly in GG eissions allocaions is dierences in resonsibiliy or causin e exisinroble. Tereore, e olluer-ays rincile is consisen wi rinciles o disribuive

jusice because olluers deserve o ave reaer resonsibiliies or e robles ey cause.

6. Anoer disincion a disribuive jusice would acknowlede as a relevan basis or reainnaions dierenly in GG eissions allocaions is dierences in needs and caaciies.Develoin counries were e ciizens canno ee eir basic needs deserve o ave sallerresonsibiliies an oer counries.

7. An equal er caia allocaion would be consisen wi rinciles o jusice because: (a) ireas all individuals as equals and ereore is consisen wi os eories o disribuive


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jusice, (b) i would ileen e eical axi a all eole sould ave equal ris ouse lobal coons, (c) i would ileen e widely acceed olluer-ays rincile,and (d) i would reconize e need o develoin counries o increase eir eissions o eee basic needs o eir ciizen.

8. Equiy and jusice deand a olicy akers exaine weer ose wo are ared byublic olicy decisions on allocaions o burdens and benes are bein reaed airly. oris reason, all eole wo would be aeced by GG allocaion scees ave a ri o airreresenaion in decision akin abou GG allocaions.

9. Te UNCCC as esablised e nor a naions sould reduce eir eissions on e basis oequiy. Tis sould be considered a iniu noraive requireen, o be inerreed in econex o oer eical and jusice consideraions relevan o disribuin benefs and burdens.

10. Allocain GG ares aon naions is a classic roble o disribuive jusice. Tradiionaldisribuive jusice deands a benes and burdens o ublic olicy be disribued accordino conces o equaliy, odied only by orally relevan consideraions o, or exale, needor eri.

11. Pilosoer Jon Rawls as suesed a e rinciles o jusice a sould be ollowed inallocain socieys burdens and benes are ose a would be areed uon by raional sel-ineresed ersons beind a veil o inorance abou eir osiions in e sociey. In is li,olicy akers would ado GG reducion allocaion scees a ive axiu ris o usee aosere o e oores, leas-advanaed eole (Rawls, 1999).

12. Ecien soluions ay no be jus soluions. Proosals or denin equiy on e basis oeciency alone are inconsisen wi rinciles o disribuive jusice. Tis is so because,aon oer reasons, equiy is inored in welare axiizaion orulae wic do no includecoensaion o losers. Allocaion scees based uon welare axiizaion crieria aloneor cos o naional econoies alone raise several addiional eical robles. (See discussion

o Issue ive below on cos.)

13. As e aoun o uan-caused eeraure increases a as been exerienced us ar islinked o e isorical levels o GG eissions earlier an 1990, e 1990 baseline level adoedin e Kyoo Proocol as a aer o equiy is no necessarily deerinaive o e oin in iea wic resonsibiliy or reducin GG eissions is riered. In ac, e level o isoricaleissions o GG ro counries is a relevan ac a could be considered in deerininresonsibiliy or GG eissions alon wi oer eically relevan consideraions.

14. Alou os develoin counries ave conribued coaraively sall aouns o elevaedlevels o GGs in e aosere aribuable o uan aciviies, any develoin naionwic exceeds is air sare o oal lobal GG eissions a inerere wi e ris o

oer eole o lie, eal, and securiy o oers needs o ake acion o ainain eissionslevels below is air sare o sae lobal eissions. In addiion, ere is an eical ieraivea eac develoin naion ake every eor o suor susainable develoen racices.Develoed naions ave a siilar ieraive o ove o susainable racices o ensure aey are saisyin basic needs and enancin e qualiy o lie wiin eir naions wioucoroisin e qualiy o lie o uure eneraions. I sould be noed, owever, isobliaion o develoin naions o reduce eissions sould no be consrued as a liiaionon any develoin naions ris o ake orally relevan aruens abou wa consiueseir naions air sare o lobal eissions.


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15. Since ere are lare dierences aon aries in bo develoin and develoed naionsin isorical and curren consuion aerns, ere ay be a need or naions o allocaeresonsibiliy or GG eissions aon sub-naional overnens, oranizaions, andindividuals based uon orally relevan rinciles o jusice and equiy.

16. Alou naions are resonsible or reducin GG eissions under e UNCCC, sub-naionalovernens, businesses, oranizaions, individuals are also resonsible or reducin GGeissions o levels a consiue eir air sare o jus naional eissions. Alou naionsay allocae eissions reducions burdens wiin eac naion based uon equiy o assure anaional eissions ares are no exceeded, iven a sub-naional overnens, businesses,oranizaions, and individuals can volunarily reduce GG eissions o levels below eir airsare and since suc reducions would reduce e reas coin ro lobal eissions, allsub-naional overnens, businesses, oranizaions, and individuals sould be encouraed oreduce GG eissions o e lowes levels racical nowisandin a ese eission levelswould be lower an eir air sare o oal naional eissions. In is reard, abiliy o akereducions is an eically relevan consideraion or deerinin reducion resonsibiliy.


1. Researc is needed on e eical issues a are enailed by e ac a e aosere isenerally considered o be lobal coons resources. Does, or insance, e use o ubliccoons resources enail equal access o all ciizens o e use o a resource, e use o eolluer-ays rincile, liiaions on roery ris, ec.? Does e ac a e aosere isa lobal coons lii rivae roery clais includin arke based radin in e coonsresources? Te noraive sinicance and oral ilicaions o lobal coons eri urerdiscussion.

2. Sould e ublic rus docrine be alied o e aosere? I so wa noraive sinicancein reard o allocaion o ris o use e aosere as a carbon sink are enailed by e ublic

rus docrine.

3. Wa, i any, use o efciency or welare axiizaion oals are aroriae consideraionsa could be ineraed in any allocaion scee aer basic ris consideraions are ulflled?

4. ow could a air and equiable lobal syse o eission radin evolve over ie?

V. Ethical Issue Four: The Use o Scientifc Uncertainty in Policy Making What is the ethical signifcance o the need to make climate changedecisions in the ace o scientifc uncertainty?

A. Factual Context

1. Governens, cororaions, and individuals ave oen used scienic uncerainy aboucliae cane iacs as jusicaion or lack o acion on cliae cane. In akin esearuens, soe roonens seek o avoid cosly resonses a ay no be necessary i cliaecane redicions urn ou o be erroneous.


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2. In 1988, wi suor ro naions around e world, e World eal ranizaion and eUnied Naions Environen Prora creaed e IPCC. Te IPCCs ission is o review e eer-reviewed science on cliae cane and ake recoendaions on cliae cane science oovernens. More secically, e IPCC is execed o assess or e inernaional couniye scienic, ecnical, and socio-econoic inoraion relevan or e undersandin oe risk o and soluions or uan-induced cliae cane. Te IPCC as issued ree ajorreors on cliae cane science in 1990, 1997, and 2002 (IPCC, 1990, 1995, 2001).

3. Beinnin wi is rs reor in 1990, IPCC as ured counries are o ake iediae acions oreduce e risks o cliae cane desie scienic uncerainies abou iin and aniudeo cliae cane iacs (IPCC, 1990).

4. In 1990, a e world Conerence o Cliae Cane in Geneva, over 700 scieniss roaround e world reviewed e rs IPCC reor. ollowin is review, ese scieniss issueda ScientistsDeclaration in wic ey said: A clear scienic consensus as eered undere leadersi o IPCC on esiaes o e rane o warin a can be execed in e 21sCenury (IPCC, 1990).

5. Te IPCCs Second Assessen Reor was issued in 1995. In is reor, e IPCC, as i ad

beore, exausively suarized e sae o e scienic knowlede on uan-inducedcliae cane, ade secic redicions abou e risk o cliae cane, and discussediiaion oions (IPCC, 1995).

6. ne o e any conclusions conained in e IPCCs second assessen reor was a abalance o e evidence sowed a discernable uan infuence on cliae. In oer words,no only ad IPCC ound a cliae cane was a subsanial and real rea, a conclusionIPCC reaced in is rs reor in 1990, by 1995 i ad concluded a e balance o eevidence aribued soe acual cliae cane o uan aciviies desie rea nauralvariabiliy in e cliae syse. Ta is, uan caused canes o e cliae syse werealready observable by 1995 by e balance o e evidence (IPCC, 1995).

7. In ebruary o 2001, e IPCCs ird assessen reor was released. Tis ird assessenreor, like oers released in 1990 and 1995, ade secic redicions abou ow uanacions would cane e lobal cliae and ow cliae cane would aec uan ealand e environen. Te ird assessen conred and exanded uon revious IPCCreors and concluded a ere was addiional evidence a uan-induced cliae canead already becoe noiceable around e world (IPCC, 2001).

8. In eac o is reors, e IPCC idenied increasin levels o scienic condence in econnecion beween uan aciviies and observable cliae cane wile akin redicionswi increasin levels o cerainy on e aniude and iin o cliae cane iacs.Nevereless, soe scienic uncerainy abou e iin and aniude o cliae cane

iacs reained.

9. In recen years, ajor scienifc insiuions, wose ebers exerise bears direcly oncliae cane science, ave issued saeens in suor o e IPCC. or exale, eNaional Acadey o Sciences reor,ClimateChange Science:AnAnalysisof SomeKeyQuestions, concluded a e IPCC assessens are a air and accurae suary o scienifcinkin. er scienifc oranizaions wi exerise on cliae issues also suor e IPCCconclusions. or insance, Te Aerican Meeoroloical Sociey, e Aerican GeoysicalUnion, and e Aerican Associaion or e Advanceen o Science all ave issued


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saeens a are consisen wi IPCC conclusions a uans are odiyin e cliaesyse (reskes, 2005).

10. In addiion, observaions a ave been ade bo direcly and rou a rane o reliableecniques or indirec easureens clearly esablis a e ears eeraure is caninin ways a are consisen wi e IPCC redicions.

11. or ese reasons, e inernaional scienic couniy as develoed a consensus osiiona uan-induced warin is already causin soe daae o soe laces and eolearound e world. owever, uncerainies reain abou aniude and iin o uurewarin and associaed iacs.

12. Sinican scienic uncerainies exis in aein o redic uure lobal warin iacsa will be creaed by dieren levels o aoseric GG concenraions, an issue a usbe aced in deerinin aoseric GG sabilizaion ares (Leons, 1996).

13. To deal wi reainin uncerainies abou reainin cliae cane iacs, e IPCCas esablised likely ranes o eeraure canes and iacs. Even i e eerauresand iacs a are exerienced urn ou o be a e lower end o e rane o e IPCC

redicions, soe eole and soe ecosyses will be ared by cliae cane. Ye soeeole ay bene ro cliae cane due o loner rowin seasons, soe arid and seiarid zones becoin weer, and increased row in soe lans because o ier levels oC

2, or exale (IPCC, 2001).

14. IPCCs redicions abou cliae cane iacs are ade by IPCC in reliance on a nubero cliae odels. Tese odels assue a e cliae syse will reac in aeaicallydescribable aerns so a eeraures and associaed iacs resond in roorion oaoseric GG concenraions wic are slowly risin in resonse o increases in GGeissions. Ye, e IPCC acknowledes a ere are a nuber o lausible ore raid non-linear resonses o e cliae syse a are no ully reresened in e odels a could

lead o oenially caasroic iacs a leas or soe laces in e world. Tese lausiblenon-linear resonses o e cliae syse are enerally reerred o as cliae surrises. Isoe o ese cliae surrises occur, en cliae cane would be uc larer and oreraid an ose described in e IPCCs redicions. Cliae surrises o concern include:(a) abru canes in ocean circulaion aerns; (b) lare releases o eane ro elineraros, (c) lare sudden increases in sea level caused by e breaku o olar ice, and, (d)non-linear resonses o e ears carbon cycle.

15. Te loner e world wais o ake sinican acion o reduce GG eissions, e arderi will be o sabilize reenouse ases in e aosere a levels a reven danerousinererence wi e cliae syse.

16. I overnens wai unil all uncerainies abou cliae cane iacs are resolved and econsensus view o cliae cane science urns ou o be correc, i is likely o be oo lae oreven oenially caasroic daaes ro uan-induced cliae cane.

17. Even i i were ossible o sabilize GG aoseric concenraions a curren levels, becauseo eeraure las in e lobal cliae syse, e ear will coninue o ea u causinaddiional cliae cane daaes in e years and decades aead.


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18. I is unlikely a aoseric levels o carbon dioxide equivalen can be sabilized uc below450 durin is cenury and us sinican addiional warin is virually uaraneed inis cenury (Baer and Aanasiou, 2005).

19. Daaes already bein exerienced by soe eole are o any yes includin, bu are noliied o, dea, disease, and ecoloical ar ro foods and drous, vecor bone disease,risin seas, sors, and increased ea waves.

20. As saed reviously, soe o e oores eole around e world are os vulnerable ocliae cane iacs. (See discussion above on resonsibiliy, Issue ne.)

21. In reard o scienic uncerainy abou cliae cane, naions o e UNCCC areed oollow e recauionary rincile, a uide o acin in e ace o scienic uncerainy,wic as been adoed in oer reaies o deal wi uncerain bu risky beavior. (Brown,2003) As we ave seen, aricle 3 o e UNCCC saes in relevan ar:

Te Paries sould ake recauionary easures o aniciae, reven, oriniize e causes o cliae cane and iiae is adverse eecs. Wereere are reas o serious or irreversible daae, lack o ull scienic cerainy

sould no be used as a reason or osonin suc easures, akin ino accouna olicies and easures o deal wi cliae cane sould be cos-eeciveso as o ensure lobal benes a e lowes ossible cos (UN,1992a, Ar. 3).

B. Ethical Analysis o Issue Four

1. Decision akin in e ace o scienifc uncerainy abou cliae cane raises ioraneical quesions. Tis is so because even i science could accuraely describe levels o risk,eical quesions abou e acceabiliy o is risk arise. Ta is, ro a scienifc conclusiona a cliae cane creaes a aricular rea or risk, one canno deduce weer a

rea is acceable wiou frs decidin on cerain crieria or acceabiliy. Te crieria oacceabiliy us be undersood as an eical raer an a scienifc quesion. or insance,alou science ay conclude a cerain levels o GGs in e aosere creae a risk ae Wes Anarcic ice see ay el and increase sea levels by any eers, science cannosay weer is addiional risk is acceable. Science is desined o ideniy and describes acsand canno, by isel, enerae rescriive uidance. Te scienifc undersandin o e naureo e rea, o course, is no irrelevan o e eical quesion o weer e risk is eicallyacceable, bu science alone canno ell sociey wa i sould do abou various reas.

2. Decision akers canno avoid eical quesions wen aced wi uncerain iacs o uanaciviies includin wo should bear e burden o roo abou ar. To inore risks is odecide o exose uan eal and e environen o a leiiae rea, a is, a decision

no o ac on a serious environenal risk as consequences. urerore, science alone alsocanno deerine e quaniy o roo a sould rier revenaive acions. or is reason,cliae cane decisions in e ace o scienic uncerainy abou iacs us be undersoodo raise a ixure o eical and scienic quesions.

3. All eical syses concur a ose wo enae in risky beavior are no exoneraed silybecause ere was uncerainy involved in deerinin weer or no eir beavior wouldacually cause daae. Tere are any laws a ileen is well-esablised nor.or insance, or a deendan o be conviced o reckless drivin or reckless endaneren,


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a rosecuor sily as o rove a e deendan aced in a way a e or se souldave known o be risky. Many yes o risky beavior are criinal because socieies believedanerous beavior is irresonsible and sould no be condoned. urerore, e eicalduy o avoid risky beavior is roorional o e aniude o e oenial ar, aricularlyo ose wo ave no consened o bein laced a risk.

4. Tereore, as a aer o eics, a relevan quesion in e ace o scienic uncerainy abouarul consequences o uan beavior is weer ere is a reasonable basis or concludina serious ar o oers could resul ro e beavior. In e case o cliae cane,scieniss ave undersood e oenial o uan aciviies o cane e cliae or a leasiry years and ave known a ese canes could ar uans, lans, anials, andecosyses. In addiion, or e las weny years, e rea o uan induced cliae caneo uan eal and e environen as been widely discussed in e scienic lieraure. orore an a decade, e IPCC, aer evaluain e eer-reviewed science on cliae cane,as been ellin e world a rea ar ro lobal warin is likely. or is reason,cliae cane causin acions consiue risky beavior a is eically unsuorable.

5. or is reason, naions canno deny a eir release o GGs creaes a risk o uan eal ande environen around e world, even i one disarees wi e secifc redicions o e iin

and aniude o lobal warin iacs now bein ade by ainsrea science. Tereore,naions eiin sinifcan aouns o GGs ave been enaed in risky beavior and is riskybeavior as eical sinifcance even i ere is uncerainy abou acual consequences.

6. Because by e end o e 1980s ere was widesread undersandin in e scienic couniyo e rea osed by risin concenraions o aoseric GGs, ere was a leas by en aclear eical duy o ac unless oenial vicis o cliae cane or eir reresenaives averee inored consen o acce e risk.

7. All ajor eical syses would sronly conden beavior a oses serious risks o eins a uans old o be o os value, i.e., lie, eal, aily, e abiliy o ake a livin,

couniy, and e naural environen. Desie scienic uncerainy abou e iin andaniude o cliae cane reas, ere is eneral scienic consensus a uan causedcanes o e cliae syse are occurrin and a ey u eoles and environens aserious risk. Because o e i levels o oenial ar o eoles and environens, eduy o rerain ro aciviies a resul in cliae cane is exraordinarily sron. Tereore,usin scienic uncerainy as an excuse or coninuin increasin lobal aoseric levels oGGs is eically inolerable.

8. or e above reasons, ere is eical consensus a e aruen a a naion need noreduce is GG eissions because o scienic uncerainy abou consequences o iin andaniude does no wisand iniu eical scruiny because o:a. Te enorous adverse oenial iacs on uan lie, libery, and ersonal securiy, as

well as on and e environen ro uan induced cliae cane.b. Te disroorionae eecs on e oores eole o e world.c. Te real oenial or oenially caasroic cliae surrises uc reaer an iacs

oen rediced a rely on assuions o soo, linear resonses o cliae cane.d. Te ac a uc o e science o e cliae cane roble as never been or is no

now in disue even i one acknowledes uncerainy abou iin or aniude o cliaecane iacs.

e. Te ac a cliae cane daae is robably already bein exerienced by soeeole.


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. Te sron likeliood a serious and irreversible daae will be exerienced beore allscienic uncerainies can be eliinaed.

. Te ac a e loner naions wai o ake acion, e ore dicul i will be o sabilizeGGs a levels wic don creae serious daae o uans, lans, anials, andecosyses.

. Te ac a naions areed in e UNCCC no o use scienic uncerainy as an excuseor inacion on cliae cane wen ey areed o e recauionary rincile.

i. Te ac a ose os vulnerable o cliae cane iacs ave no consened o erisk iosed by cliae cane.

9. Because naions ave consened o be bound by e recauionary rincile in relaion ocliae cane science, e ailure o aly e recauionary rincile in develoin cliaecane olicies also violaes e eical nor a a naion sould kee is roises.

10. Naions ave a duy o consider all lausible adverse cliae cane iacs in sein olicyincludin low robabiliy i consequence iacs. In deerinin weer low robabiliy,i consequence iacs are acceable, naions need o rovide ooruniy or ose osvulnerable o cliae cane o ariciae in is decision (Brown, 2003).

11. As reainin scienifc uncerainies abou cliae cane are larely abou iin andaniude o cliae cane iacs raer an abou weer uan aciviies arecanin e cliae syse, ese scienifc uncerainies canno be eically jusifed o liiobliaions o reduce GG eissions a are already arin soe eole and laces andcreain addiional reas or illions o eole around e world wo ave no consened obe u a risk.


1. Because ere is a need o aorion liabiliy or unavoidable cliae cane daaes (see Issue

ne above), iven a scienic condence abou adverse iacs ro cliae cane asincreased over ie, uure work on e eical diensions o cliae cane scienic uncerainysould exaine wen e science o cliae cane ad becoe cerain enou o creae duieso ac. Several oions or assinin resonsibiliy or cliae cane exis. Tey include oncecliae cane was rs reconized o be a rea by e scienic couniy in e 1930s,wen e scienic couniy bean o easure e rise o GGs in e aosere in e lae1950s, wen e rs odels sared o redic serious warin in e lae 1970s, wen anynaions bean o call or serious eissions reducions in e iddle 1980s, wen e rs IPCCreor concluded a cliae cane science was a real rea in 1990, ec. Alou i ay nobe ossible o draw clear lines around ese evens, aruens abou noraive resonsibiliy avarious ies could be develoed.

2. In e law, ere is a noion a willul inorance o a sae o aairs can no be used as jusicaionor coninuin arul beavior. Tere is a need o develo e eical basis or is osiion anddeerine ow i alies o cliae cane.

3. In soe cases in e ace o uncerainy, i is ruden o ac increenally. Are increenalaroaces o cliae cane eically jusied and i so wa eical robles and consideraionsabou increenal aroaces are ere?


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VI. Ethical Issue Five: Cost to National Economies Is the commonly usedjustifcation o cost to a national economy or delaying or minimizingactions to reduce the threat o climate change ethically justifed?

A. Factual context

1. Soe naions ave resised calls o reduce GG eissions usin wo aruens a involve

coss o e naion. Te frs is a coss o e naional econoy o reducin eissions rouroras a would acieve areed eissions reducions are excessive. Te second is acos-benef analysis (CBA) does no jusiy roras o reduce GG eissions (Brown, 2002).

.2. Soe naions ave jusied non-acion on cliae cane on e basis o cos o eir naional

econoies alone. In usin cos as an excuse in is way, naions ave inored oenial arso oer naions ro cliae cane.

3. Naions reusin o coi o GG reducions based uon cos usually ave no consideredeir duy o reduce eissions as aer o jusice.

4. Soe naions ave used CBAs as a rescriive ool or deerinin acceable aroaces onaional lobal warin olicy and on a basis liied coiens o reduce eissions(Brown, 2002).

5. Te use o CBA as a ool o evaluae cliae cane olicy oions can lead o inorinobliaions o reduce GG eissions i e resuls o e CBA are used rescriively o eexclusion o oer consideraions.

6. Te use o CBA as a ool o evaluae cliae cane olicy oions oen include calculaionsa areae coss and benes wile inorin ow coss and benes are disribued aonose wo will be aeced by cliae cane olicies.

7. CBA calculaions o deerine e value o environenal and social benes derived rocliae cane olicy oions oen assue a value o benes can be deerined one basis o willinness-o-ay easureens deerined in arke ransacions or oersadow-arke easureens a ae o esiae wa eole would ay or ins orwic ere is no adequae arke-rice evidence.

8. CBA o cliae cane olicy oions oen ae o consider e ie-value o oney in akinquaniaive assessen o benefs by alyin discoun raes o uure benefs. Proonens odiscounin in CBA ure a e value o uure environenal benefs be deerined in e saeway a a e arke alies value o uure evens, a is by undersandin e resen valueo uure benefs. Wen suc discounin occurs, benefs ro cliae cane olicy oions

a will accrue ar in e uure are iven lile resen value. Suc an aroac akes curreninvesors ineress, no uure eneraions welare, e ocus o concern (Banuri e al., 1996).

9. CBA calculaions abou cliae cane olicy oions usually us conron considerablescienic uncerainy abou suc issues as ow uc eeraure cane and associaediacs on uan eal and e environen will be caused by dieren levels o GGs ine aosere. en CBAs ave deal wi is uncerainy by assuin id-level redicionso likely iacs wile inorin lausible ier and lower levels o iacs. In addiion, CBAsreared or use in cliae cane olicy analyses soeies ave assued a cliae will


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resond o increased GGs in a soo, osly linear, asion. Ye any scieniss believe ae cliae ay resond raidly o GG orcin wi oenially caasroic consequences.

10. Because o dierences in eodoloical assuions, CBAs ade by dieren aries on esae olicy oions oen dier widely in eir conclusions abou e aniude o coss andbenes.

11. Meodoloical assuions ebedded in CBA calculaions o cliae cane olicy oionsare usually no discussed wi oenial vicis o cliae cane. Many assuions arevalue-laden and us be addressed by eical refecion.

12. In deerinin e cos o eission reducion sraeies, CBAs soeies rely on knownecniques or ecnoloies or reducin GG eissions wose coss and eeciveness arerelaively easy o esiae suc as secic eissions reducions ecnoloies, coss o carboncredis, or axaion aroaces a will creae incenives o reduce GG eissions. Aloureliance on ese ecniques or ecnoloies aciliae esiaion o coss because o e relaiveease o cos esiaion, e reliance o ese known ecnoloies and ecniques ay lead oinorin eissions reducions sraeies wose cos and ecacy ay be dicul o easurebu could rovide equivalen eissions reducions a sinicanly lower coss. or insance,

oen oied in CBA o cliae cane sraeies are enery deand side reducions sraeiesa ave oen roduced sinican eissions reducions wile savin oney.

13. CBAs usually require a all values o cliae cane olicy benefs be ranslaed ino dollarsso a ey ay be coared wi coss. Suc ecniques lead o deerinin value inoneary ers or all ins includin e value o uan lie and e loss o an islandcivilizaion or secies. Ye ose wo will be ared by uan-induced cliae cane arerarely consuled abou weer all values sould be reduced o values exressed in arkeransacions or e eods or deerinin e oneary value o ose ins a can beared by cliae cane.

14. CBA oriinally was develoed as a ecnique o coare alernaive buildin rojecs wosecoss and benes would be exerienced usually in a ie san o no ore an een o weny-ve years and wose benes were relaively easy o quaniy because only direc coss andbenes o e rojec were considered. owever, deerinin e benes o lobal warinroras is a uc rickier roble because o is ecnical colexiy, e ye o ins aay be daaed by lobal warin, and e ie in wic e daae ay occur. Deerinine value o cliae cane iacs is aricularly dicul because o e lare ie sans orwic cliae daaes ay be exerienced and e rea scienic uncerainies a us beaced in ideniyin e ars a will be caused by cliae cane.

15. Te ac a ere are dieren eole wo exerience e coss and benes o cliae cane

olicies is usually inored in discounin rocedures eloyed in CBAs.

B. Ethical Analysis o Issue Five

1. I naions jusiy eir reusal o ake acion o reduce GG eissions on e basis o cos oe alone, eir osiion is eically unsuorable because no erson or naion as a rieier o ar oers as a eans o acieve eir econoic eal or o endaner oers lie,eal, or securiy.


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2. Te use o cos as a basis or deerinin e liis o naional resonsibiliy o reduce GGeissions (o be disinuised ro e use o cos o deerine e leas cosly eods oacieve a secic oal) is eically robleaic because resonsibiliy or reducin eissionssould be derived ro ris eories, rinciles o disribuive jusice, no on cos o eolluer. Cos can be a useul ool o analysis o deerine e cos-eeciveness o olicyoions and abiliy-o-ay can be a relevan consideraion in deerinin equiable levelso resonsibiliy, bu cos canno be e sole basis or deerinin resonsibiliy or GGeissions as a aer o disribuive jusice. Alou coosin olicy oions on e basiso axiizin ne resen econoic welare as been widely used by soe overnens as

jusicaion or overnen olicy, suc an aroac is eically robleaic wen i leads oderivin oers o lie, libery, and securiy wiou eir consen.

3. A naions use o CBA as a rescriive jusicaion or is unwillinness o reduce GG eissiono levels consisen wi jus allocaions is eically robleaic. Tis is so because suc anaroac underines duies a naions ave o rerain ro causin ar o oers and eris a all eole ave o lie, libery, and securiy.

4. Since rinciles o jusice would ive all eole equal ris o use e aosere in absenceo orally relevan crieria a would enile eole o dieren levels o use, ose wo

advocae a use o cos as a basis or deerinin resonsibiliy or GG reducions bear eburden o ideniyin orally relevan crieria a jusiy e use o cos o reducions as a basisor deerinin resonsibiliy.

5. CBAs a areae coss and benes in analyses o cliae cane olicies ail o saisyrinciles o jusice a require a jus sarin o ars and benes aon eole wo willbe aeced by cliae cane olicy.

6. To use willinness-o-ay as e exclusive easure o value o e benes o cliae caneolicy in CBAs can resul in e ocus on one ye o value a e exense o oer aroaceso value. or insance, as soe value syses reconize ineren value in e lie o soe livin

beins, an aroac a only reconizes e arke value o beins ransors ineren valueino insruenal value, e very in roibied by soe value syses. Puin a arkerice on soein a sould be roeced because o eical duy can underine e duy.

7. Since eole ave ris o be roeced ro ar o eir lie, eal, and securiy, e useo willinness-o-ay as e easure o e value o lie, eal, and securiy o oers woave no consened o is valuaion underines duies o do no ar o oers wiou eirree, inored consen.

8. ailure o clearly ideniy all eodoloical assuions in CBAs in deerinin coss and

benes, in selecin wic reducion sraeies will be considered in cos calculaions, and indeerinin wic adverse cliae cane iacs will be considered in bene calculaions

iven scienic uncerainy abou iacs, violaes rinciles o ree inored consen a arerequired o assure air ariciaion in cliae cane decision akin. (See discussion belowon air decision akin, Issue Ei)

9. Te deerinaion o e value o benes ro cliae cane olicy oions by assuinonly id-level rane oenial iacs wen ore serious ars are lausible is eicallyrobleaic i i leads o acions a are no sucien o avoid rea ar o lie, eal, andsecuriy o oers a ave no consened o ailure o consider all oenial ars o e.


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10. Because discounin benefs in CBA assues only coneorary invesor-individuals ineress counin deerinin wor, discounin ecniques in CBA can violae ineress o uure eneraions oave a lobal cliae syse a as no been deraded by uan aciviies. Since naions areedin e adoin e UNCCC o roec e ineress o uure eneraions, discounin benefs andars in CBAs can violae e duy o naions o kee roises ade in reaies.

11. Cos and bene calculaions in CBAs a are used o jusiy olicy resonses o cliae canea ave no been consened o by vicis o cliae cane raises serious robles o rocedural

jusice.


1. Addiional eical analysis is needed o secic CBAs a are bein used as rescriive uidanceo cliae cane olicies.

2. Addiional eical analysis is needed o see i eciency or welare axiizaion objecivescan be ineraed ino naional olicies on GG eissions a also are based uon oer eically

jusiable crieria or deerinin olicies.

3. Eical analysis is needed o deerine wa exen is abiliy o ay or GG reducions a relevancrierion or esablisin resonsibiliy or GG eissions.

VII. Ethical Issue Six: Independent Responsibility to Act Is the commonlyused justifcation or delaying or minimizing climate change actionthat any government need not act until all others agree on actionethically justifed?

A. Factual Context

1. Soe ave arued a naions ave no resonsibiliy o reduce eir GG eissions uniloer naions aree o reduce eir eissions.

2. Soe develoin naions arue a ey ave no ade ajor conribuions o e cliaecane roble and sould no be execed o ake acion unil develoed counries avereduced eir eissions.

3. Soe counries likely o be eavily iaced by cliae cane say acion us be aken nowo lii GG eissions.

4. Soe iacs o cliae cane are already aenin, aricularly in e Arcic reion.

5. Cliae cane will bene soe oulaions and areas o e world and ar oers and islikely o cane e curren aerns o weal and well-bein in e world.

6. Acions aken o slow cliae cane will bene soe oulaions and areas o e world andar oers and are likely o cane e curren disribuion o weal and well-bein in eworld (IPCC, 2001).


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7. Naions dier in levels o GG eissions, weer easured by oal eissions, er caiaeissions, or eission er uni o GDP.

8. Develoed naions are resonsible or e ajoriy o as and curren reenouse eissions.

9. Develoin counries will soon surass develoed naions in oal GG eissions, bu ercaia eissions in develoed counries are likely o exceed er caia eissions in develoincounries or e oreseeable uure.

10. Under e UNCCC, e develoed naions areed a ey would reduce GG eissions on

e basis o equiy o reven danerous anrooenic inererence wi e cliae syse.Te develoed naions also areed a ey wouldake e lead in cobain cliae caneand e adverse eecs ereo (UN, 1992a, Ar. 3).

11. Under e UNCCC, Annex 1 Paries areed o ado naional olicies and ake corresondineasures on e iiaion o cliae cane, by liiin is anrooenic eissions oreenouse ases and roecin and enancin is reenouse as sinks and reservoirs (UN,1992a, Ar. 3(2) (a)). Te olicies and easures o be adoed are no secied (UN, 1992a,Ar. 3).

12. Te UNCCC does no rovide secic ie or aoun coiens or eissions reducions,bu does say a ey sould be done wi e ai o reurnin individually or joinly o eir1990 levels ese anrooenic eissions o carbon dioxide and oer reenouse ases noconrolled by e Monreal Proocol (UN 1992 a, Ar. 3(2)(b)).

13. Te UNCCC acknowledes a naions ave coon bu diereniaed resonsibiliies(UN, 1992a).

B. Ethical Analysis o Issue Six

1. Because ere is a level o lobal eissions below wic adverse cliae cane iacs willno exceed olerable levels, e duy o rerain ro eiin arul GGs is riered wenovernens exceed eir air sare o ese oal lobal eissions. Tose naions wo reuseo reduce GG eissions ave e burden o sowin a eir curren eissions are belowa naions jus sare o lobal eissions.

2. Alou soe develoin naions can ake a resenable aruen a ey could increaseGG eissions wiou exceedin eir jus sare o lobal eissions, soe o e develoednaions canno ake is aruen because ey ave already exceeded eir jus sare olobal eissions needed o sabilize aoseric concenraions a sae levels.

3. Te duy o cease aciviies a ar oers is no diinised i oers wo are conribuin oe ar ail o cease eir arul beavior. Tis is so because no naion or erson as a rio coninue desrucive beavior on e basis a oers wo are conribuin o e daaeave no ceased eir desrucive beavior.

4. Violain a rovision o an inernaional areeen suc as e UNCCC is considered awronul ac under inernaional law, and is ereore an uneical acion or all conseninnaions. Since Paries o e UNCCC areed a Annex I counries would ake e lead incobain cliae cane and odiyin uure rends, Annex I counries sould underake


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olicies and easures o lii eir eissions reardless o acions aken by non-Annex Icounry Paries.

5. Acions a ar anoer sae ay be rearded as wronul under inernaional law, even ine absence o a violaion o a secifc areeen suc as e UNCCC. Greenouse ases areaecin lobal cliae, and e adverse iacs o cliae cane are el by naions ar ro esources o e eissions. i eiin naions ave a leal and eical resonsibiliy o reduceeissions a ar oers. Tis duy alies reardless o eors underaken by oer naions.


1. As we saw in Issue Tree, ere is a need o look a e eical basis or allocaions o GGeissions, a is, wa is eac naions jus sare o oal lobal eissions.

2. Researc is needed abou exisin nors a can be deduced ro leal rinciles conained inard and so law beyond e UNCCC ro suc sources as e Trail Seler Arbiraion case(1941) and oer rinciles o inernaional law.

VIII. Ethical Issue Seven: Potential New Technologies Is the commonlyused justifcation or delaying or minimizing climate change actionuntil less costly technologies are invented ethically justifed?

A. Factual context

1. Soe aries asser eissions reducion aciviies sould be delayed unil new less coslyecnoloies are invened and becoe available in e uure.

2. Tis aruen as been ade by aries even ou eir curren eissions levels are aboveeir jus sare o oal lobal eissions.

3. Te jusicaion or waiin or less cosly ecnoloies aears o based uon e assuionsa: (a) exisin ecnoloies are oo cosly and eir adaaion will ar eir econoies(see discussion on coss in Issue ive); (b) new ecnoloies a can acieve needed reducionswill be available a lower coss in e uure; (c) waiin or ese new ecnoloies does nocreae serious ar; and (d) ere are no uninended risks and consequences relaed o enew ecnoloies. Moreover, i is alsely assued a arke incenives are sucien o riernew ecnoloies.

B. Ethical Analysis o Issue Seven

1. Te assuion a no serious ar will be caused by delayin eission reducions unil new,less cosly ecnoloies are available is robleaic. Pas and resen GG eissions are alreadycausin serious ar o eole, lans, anials, and ecosyses. Given is, aries ave a duyo ake e necessary ses o reduce daae caused by as and curren eissions, includineission reducions or ose aries wose eissions are above eir jus sare o lobal eissions.urerore, i aries delay akin reducions o levels o GG eissions a consiue eirjus sare o lobal eissions, ese aries sould be eld resonsible or ar caused by eir


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delay. (See discussion o Issue ne above.) I sould be noed a coss due o rearaions ordaae caused by suc delays could cos ore an e curren coss o reducin eissions.

2. Te assuion a curren eission reducion ecnoloies are unaordable is quesionable.A cobinaion o liesyle canes (ublic vs. individual ransoraion, local vs. ioredood consuion) and readily available and aordable renewable enery ecnoloies cansinicanly reduce GG eissions. Renewable enery ecnoloy as been used in dierenors or ousands o years and is readily available. Alernaive ransoraion syses andveicles are also available. uan seleen aerns and enery conservaion rocesses areduce GG eissions are also bein alied lobally. Proisin ossibiliies are eerinall over e world and sould no be underesiaed. Since uaniy as e knowlede,e nancial aciliies, and ecnoloy o reduce GG eissions, i is likely isleadin anduneical o ake a osiion a no or ardly any suc oions exis.

3. Even i ere were rue a no iediae ar ro exisin levels o GG eissions, i iseically robleaic o aeal o e ossibiliy a less cosly ecnoloies i be availablein e uure as a basis or reusin o reduce eissions now below ones air sare o lobaleissions as lon as curren eissions rajecories indicae a e world will soon exceedvery danerous GG aoseric concenraions. In akin e clai a new less cosly

ecnoloies will evenually exis o solve e roble o cliae cane, aries are seculaina ese ecnoloies will in ac be develoed in ie o avoid addiional daaes. Given aese less cosly ecnoloies ay no aear or be develoed in a iely enou asion oavoid addiional daae, and a eods or reducin GG eissions are now ecnoloicallyavailable, i is eically irresonsible roublesoe o ail o do wa one can o reduce e reao ar on e basis o seculaion. Tose wo wis o wai o ake ses o reven arulconsequences ro curren beavior ave e burden o roo in deonsrain e easibiliyo e reise a ese new ecnoloies will be available in ie o avoid serious daaes.

IX. Ethical Issue Eight: Procedural Fairness What Principles o Procedural

Justice Should be Followed to Assure Fair Representation in ClimateChange Decision Making

A. Factual Context

1. Procedural jusice requires a decisions are ade and ileened accordin o air rocesses.Procedural jusice requires a a iniu: a) a like cases are reaed alike

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