WHEN TO WAKE YOUR ORTHOPAEDIC PROVIDER...Open Fractures: Clinical Presentation Open fractures may be...
Transcript of WHEN TO WAKE YOUR ORTHOPAEDIC PROVIDER...Open Fractures: Clinical Presentation Open fractures may be...
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WHEN TO WAKE YOUR ORTHOPAEDIC
PROVIDERSarah Bolander, MMS, PA-C
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Objectives
1. Be able to identify musculoskeletal emergencies that require
immediate orthopaedic consultation
2. Differentiate from urgent and emergent conditions based on clinical
presentation and diagnostics
3. Determine emergent order for diagnostics and management
4. Understand first-line treatment options for common musculoskeletal
emergencies
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DISLOCATIONS
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Knee Dislocation
■ Surgical emergency with high incidence of neurovascular injury
■ MOI: typically high-energy trauma or may be low-energy trauma on sports-related activity or in obese patients
– Dashboard injury: posterior dislocations
– Hyper extension: anterior dislocations (more common)
– Medial or lateral: valgus or varus tibial forces
■ Associated injuries
– Peroneal > tibial nerve
– Popliteal artery (20-40%)
– Multiple ligament or tendon injury
– Fractures (60%)
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Knee Dislocation:Clinical Presentation
■ Obvious deformity or minimal signs of trauma
– 50% spontaneously reduce
■ Grossly unstable joint
■ Vascular exam
– Pulses present: Ankle-Brachial Index (ABI)
■ >0.9: continue to monitor serially
■ <0.9: arterial duplex ultrasound or CT angiography
– Pulses absent: confirm reduction
■ Immediate surgical exploration
■ Risk for amputation significantly increases >8 hours
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Knee Dislocation:Imaging
■ Radiographs: pre and post reduction AP/Lat
■ CT can better define fractures following reduction
■ MRI needed following reduction prior to hardware
placement to fully asses soft tissue involvement
6Case courtesy of Dr Craig Hacking, Radiopaedia.org, rID: 48246
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Knee Dislocation:Management
■ Emergent reduction with assessment of limb perfusion
– Often requires orthopaedic surgical fixation
– +/- Vascular surgery
■ Thoroughly evaluate for possible spontaneous reduction for
complete management
– Commonly missed or misdiagnosed
■ Serial vascular assessments
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Hip Dislocation
Survival of the femoral head requires reduction within 6-8 hours of
injury
MOI: High energy trauma such as a MVA or fall
MVA: dashboard injury
– 80% have other associated injuries
25% ipsilateral knee injury
90% of dislocations are posterior dislocations
Simple: dislocation only
Complex: dislocation with associated fracture
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Hip Dislocation:Clinical Presentation
Painful!
Posterior Dislocation
Fixed position: adduction and internally rotation
– Inability to weight bear
– Leg will appear shorter
Anterior Dislocation: Slight abduction and external rotation
Neurovascular function check
Focus on sciatic nerve distribution 10
OrthopaedicsOne
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Hip Dislocation:Imaging
Pre-reduction AP and lateral radiographs confirm dislocation and
help to rule-out fx
– CT scan needed if suspicious for fx that is not evident on xrays
AAOS11
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Hip Dislocation:Management
Emergent Reduction within 6 hours
Non weightbearing
Complications:
– Post-traumatic arthritis
– Femoral head osteonecrosis
– Sciatic nerve injury
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PROXIMAL FEMORAL
FRACTURE
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Proximal Femoral Fractures
Increases risk of death and major morbidity in elderly
Mortality 25-30 % within the first year
Femoral neck fractures are intracapsular
− Retrograde blood requires emergent fixation if pt stable
MOI:
- Falls: Elderly with osteoporosis
-High energy trauma
-Stress and pathologic fx
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Proximal Femoral Fractures :Clinical Presentation
Pain to groin and radiates to inner thigh
Difficulty with flexion and internal
rotation
Will hold the leg in external
rotation/abduction
Leg may appear shorter
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Proximal Femoral Fractures: Imaging
Plain Radiographs: AP/Lat and full femur
− Include knee joint
CT helpful to evaluate displacement
MRI if high suspicion and neg. x-rays
16Case courtesy of Dr Benoudina Samir, Radiopaedia.org, rID: 22392
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Proximal Femoral Fractures:Treatment
Adequate analgesia
Prophylaxis for DVT
Orthopaedic Consult
Complications:
– AVN
– Infection
– DVT/PE
– Nonunion17
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OPEN
FRACTURE
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Open Fractures
■ Soft tissue wound in proximity of a fracture should be considered open until proven otherwise!
■ Osteomyelitis occurs in the setting of up to 25% of open fractures dependent on the following:
1. Severity of fracture and soft tissue involvement
2. Amount of bacterial contamination
3. Vascular supply
4. Quality of surgical debridement
5. “Prophylactic” antibiotics
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Open Fractures:Clinical Presentation
■ Open fractures may be obvious or a subtle puncture
wound
– Entire limb must be closely inspected (smaller
wounds can be missed)
■ Isolated fracture or associated with multiple injuries
– Treat as a trauma patient
– Tibia is the most commonly involved
■ Document neurovascular exam and maintain regular
checks
– Pulses, sensation, passive stretching
20AO Foundation
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Open Fractures: Grading
■ Gustilo-Anderson Grading
– Type I: Wound < 1 cm with minimal contamination and adequate soft tissue
– Type II: Wound 1-10 cm cm with moderate soft tissue injury and simple underlying fx
– Type III: Wound > 10 cm with extensive soft tissue damage and multifragmental fx or crush injury
■ Subgrades A, B, C
21AO Foundation
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Open Fractures: Treatment
■ Initiate antibiotics emergently
– Infection rate increases if delayed by even 2-3 hours
■ Tetanus prophylaxis: Provide in ED intramuscular
■ Musculoskeletal treatment initiated after initial trauma survey
– Control bleeding with direct pressure
– Remove gross debris and place sterile saline-soaked dressing
– Stabilize
– OR for aggressive irrigation and debridement
22AO Foundation
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Open FractureComplications
■ Compartment Syndrome
– Open fracture does
not decrease risk
for compartment
syndrome
■ Neurovascular
compromise
■ Limb salvage
■ Osteomyelitis
24AO Foundation
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ACUTE
COMPARTMENT
SYNDROME
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Acute Compartment Syndrome
■ Limb and life threatening emergency!
■ Causes: Capillary beds collapse due to high compartment pressures
preventing venous drainage and ultimately occluding arterial blood flow
■ Increasing compartment pressure causes ischemia in muscle and nerve
tissue leading to necrosis and permeant function loss
– M>W, Most common in the lower leg (anterior compartment)
– May also occur in forearm, thigh, foot, or hand
■ MOI: high-energy trauma or crush injuries are at high risk
– May also occur with minor trauma, +/- fracture
– Full thickness burns: contractures
– Tight bandages, splints, or early casting also contribute to
compartment syndrome 26
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Acute Compartment Syndrome:Clinical Presentation
■ High index of suspicion is critical to prevent complications!
Symptoms:
■ Pain out of proportion to the injury is the first sign
– No improvement with position change and worsening with passive stretching
– Increasing need for analgesics
■ Paresthesia: nerve hypoxia
■ Presence of pulse does not rule-out compartment syndrome
– Pressures rarely exceed systolic level
■ Unconscious or obtunded patient are more difficult to diagnosis
– Tachycardia, tissue swelling (measure asymmetry) 27
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6 Ps
Paralysis: 8-24 hours
Poikilothermia: Late
Pulselessness: Late
Pallor: Less Common
Paresthesia
Pain
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Acute Compartment Syndrome:Diagnostics
■ Intra-compartmental pressure measurements
– If diagnosis is obvious then pressures are of
little benefit
– If diagnosis unclear then measurements are
confirmatory
■ ACS delta pressure = diastolic blood pressure –
measured compartment pressure
■ ACS delta pressure < 30 mm Hg is concerning and
warrants fasciotomy
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Acute Compartment Syndrome:Management
■ Surgical release
■ If diagnosed within 8 hours: emergent dermato-fasciotomy of compartments involved
■ If diagnosed late: With extensive tissue death treatment options to become controversial
– Fasciotomy has high risk of infection
– Amputation becomes more likely
■ Fracture fixation: Temporary external fixator vs terminal internal fixation
– Fasciotomy wounds remain open and eventually skin grafts needed
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Acute Compartment Syndrome:Complications
■ Infection
■ Amputation
■ Volkmann's Ischemic Contracture
■ Rhabdomyolysis
– CPK and urine myoglobin
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SEPTIC
ARTHRITIS
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Septic Arthritis
■ Irreversible cartilage destruction
– Destruction starts in as little as 8 hours with irreversible damage in 48 hours
■ Pathophysiology: hematogenous spread of infection (proteolytic enzymes)
– Primary: S. aureus including MRSA, Secondary: Streptococcus
– Others: Gram negative bacilli, anaerobic species, pseudomonas, polymicrobial, N. gonorrhoeae (young, sexually active)
■ Epidemiology:
– Typically monoarticular but may be polyarticular
– Knee (>50%), hip> shoulder, elbow, ankle, and sternoclavicular (IV drug users)
■ Risk Factors: IV drug users, diabetics, RA, recent joint surgery, joint prosthesis
– Neonates, elderly (>80 yo)33
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Septic Arthritis:Clinical Presentation
■ Clinical Presentation: red, hot, painful, and swollen joint
– Febrile (60%)
– May appear toxic
■ History:
– Recent trauma or illness
– Skin infection
– Travel with exposures
– Personal FHx of RA
■ Physical Exam:
– Erythema
– Effusion
– Warmth
– Tender
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Septic Arthritis:Pediatric Considerations
■ Knee and hip most commonly affected, polyarticular 10%
■ Additional considerations for etiology: < 2 yo S pneumo, <3 months
Group B strep
■ Children and adolescents: Typically appear ill
– Sx: Fever, constitutional symptoms, joint paint, NWB
– Neonate: irritability and poor feeding, limited ROM, fever
■ Physical exam: hip pain may refer to knee
– Limited passive ROM of the hip
– FABER position
■ Risk: femoral venipuncture, JRA
35Loren Yamamoto, MD, MPH
University of Hawaii John A. Burns School of Medicine
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Pediatric DDX: Transient Synovitis of the Hip
Most common cause of pediatric hip pain
■ Appears well, typically afebrile
■ Pain worse in am and improves during day
■ Recent URI
■ Etiology unclear, 3-8 years-old, M>F
Management: NSAIDs
– Improves in 24-48 hours with resolution within 1 week
– Must rule out septic arthritis, hospitalize if suspicious
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Septic Hip Vs Transient Synovitis
■ Kocher Criteria1. WBC > 12,000
2. ESR > 40
3. Fever > 101.3
4. Non-weight bearing on the affected side
– 2/4 criteria warrants joint aspiration
■ CRP independent risk factor
– CRP >2.0
Probability based on # of Kocher Criteria Met:
■ None: 0.2%
■ 1/4: 3%
■ 2/4: 40%
■ 3/4: 93%
■ 4/4: 99.6%
J. Bone Joint Surg. Am. 1999;81:1662-70
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Septic Arthritis:Diagnostics
■ Prompt arthrocentesis: Gold standard
– Watery and cloudy
– WBC > 50,000, >90% leukocytes
– Gram stain only identifies organism 1/3 of the time and not definitive
– Microbial culture and sensitivity testing (50-60% positive)
■ Labs: WBC with diff, ESR, CRP, blood culture
■ Other considerations:
– Gonococcal arthritis: culture
– Group A strep: throat culture, ASO titer
– Serology for coccidioidomycosis
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Septic Arthritis:Diagnostics
■ Radiographs: AP/Lat may show
increased joint space (effusion) or
narrowing (destruction)
■ Ultrasound: detect effusion and guide
aspiration
■ MRI : detects effusion, bone
involvement, or associated concerns
– Pediatric patients require sedation
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Septic Arthritis:Treatment
1. Prophylactic antibiotics
– Prophylactic coverage for gram-positive including MRSA and gram-negative■ Gram-positive: Vancomycin
■ Gram-negative: 3rd generation cephalosporin
■ Tailor coverage based on culture
2. Arthrocentesis/surgical irritation and drainage
3. NSAIDs are beneficial
Goal: prevent complications in a timely manner
Bone destruction, deformity, LLD
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CAUDA EQUINA
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Cauda Equina Syndrome
Spinal root compression below the conus
– Disc herniation is most common cause
– Spinal stenosis, tumors, trauma, infection,
epidural hematoma
Surgical decompression less than 24 hours has
best outcomes
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Cauda Equina Syndrome:Clinical Presentation
Back pain with unilateral or bilateral radicular leg
pain
Saddle anesthesia
Bladder, bowel, and/or sexual dysfunction
– Urinary retention followed by overflow
incontinence
Physical Exam: Bilateral LE weakness and sensor
dysfunction
− Diminished or absent LE DTRs
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CAUDA EQUINA SYNDROME:
DIAGNOSTICS
Immediate MRI: compression of cauda
equina
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Cauda Equina Syndrome:Diagnosis and Management
Clinical Diagnosis
− Imaging is not diagnostic but supports the underlying cause
Orthopaedic consult for emergent surgical decompression
− Surgery and steroids
− Prevent paralysis, permanent bladder/bowel dysfunction,
loss of sexual dysfunction
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PEDIATRIC
ORTHOPAEDIC
EMERGENCIES
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SLIPPED CAPITAL
FEMORAL
EPIPHYSIS (SCFE)
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SCFE
Also referred to as slipped upper femoral epiphysis (SUFE)
■ Slipping along the femoral physis
– “Ice cream slipping off the cone”
■ Peak incidence is 10-16 years old, M>F
■ Bilateral in 20-40% of patients
■ Obesity is significant risk factor
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SCFE: Clinical Presentation
■ Typical presentation: obese adolescent
with dull, achy hip pain and difficulty
with ambulation
– May be associated with history of minor
trauma
– Isolated knee or thigh pain in 15% of
cases
Reproduced from Weber MD, Naujoks R, Smith BG: Slipped capital femoral epiphysis.
Orthopaedic Knowledge Online Journal 2008; 6(2).
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SCFE: Physical Exam
■ Decreased hip ROM
– Limited internal rotation, abduction, and flexion
– Pain may be present
■ Positive Trendelenburg may be seen in chronic presentation
Stability:
– Stable slip: patient able to walk or weight bear
– Unstable slip: unable to bear weight even with crutches due to
pain and displacement, pain severe 50
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SCFE: Imaging
Radiographs are typically sufficient for diagnosis
■ AP and lateral views of both hips
– Line of Klein: line drawn along lateral edge of femoral neck on AP
view should intersect the epiphysis
51Case courtesy of A.Prof Frank Gaillard, Radiopaedia.org, rID: 8004
MRI is better to
detect pre-slips
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SCFE: Imaging
52Case courtesy of Dr Hani Salam, Radiopaedia.org, rID: 9297
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Classification
Patterns Symptoms Imaging
Pre-slip Pain present Physeal widening
(-) Displacement
Acute Sx < 3 weeks
Severe pain
Limited ROM
(+) Joint effusion
(-) Metaphyseal remodeling
Acute-on-chronic Sx > 3 weeks
Acute increase in pain
Decreased ROM
(+) Joint effusion
(+) Metaphyseal remodeling
Chronic Sx > 3 weeks
Vague, intermittent pain
(-) Joint effusion
(+) Metaphyseal remodeling
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SCFE: Management
Non-weight bearing
Admit to hospital on bed rest
Emergent operative stabilization
– Goal: prevent further slippage and avoid potential complications
(Left) Courtesy of John Killian, MD, Birmingham, AL. (Right) Reproduced from
Weber MD, Naujoks R, Smith BG: Slipped capital femoral epiphysis. Orthopaedic
Knowledge Online Journal 2008; 6(2).
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UNSTABLE
ANKLE
FRACTURES
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Adolescent Ankle Fractures
■ Tillaux: SH-III of anterolateral tibia
– Avulsion of anterior inferior tibiofibular ligament
■ Triplane: SH-IV of distal tibia
– SH-III on AP views and SH-II on lateral views
■ Etiology: Occurs nears nearing skeletal maturity
– Triplanes are younger than Tillaux
– Both involve the articular surface
■ MOI: supination and external rotation
■ Clinical Presentation: Pain and inability to WB
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Emergent/Urgent
& highly missed
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Adolescent Ankle Fractures:Imaging
■ Radiographs:
– AP, Lateral, and Mortise View
– Amount of displacement should be measured
– Assess for associated lateral malleolus fx
■ CT scans better defines fracture pattern
■ Emergent/Urgent ortho referral for stabilization:
– Maintain non-weightbearing
– Stable (<2 mm displacement): reduction and casting
– Unstable: (>2mm post reduction): surgical fixation
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Tillaux Fracture
Case courtesy of Dr Charlie Chia-Tsong Hsu, Radiopaedia.org, rID: 30224
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Triplane Fracture
Case courtesy of Dr Yasser Asiri, Radiopaedia.org, rID: 64779 Hsu, Radiopaedia.org, rID: 30224
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QUESTIONS?Thank you!
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Resources
■ AAOS: http://www.aaos.org/
■ POSNA: https://posna.org/
■ Radiopaedia: http://radiopaedia.org/
■ Radiology Assistant: http://www.radiologyassistant.nl
■ OrthoBullets: https://www.orthobullets.com
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References
1. Kanwar R, Delasobera BE, Hudson K, Frohna W. Emergency department evaluation and treatment of cervical spine injuries. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2015;33(2):241-282.
2. Mandell JC, Marshall RA, Weaver MJ, Harris MB, Sodickson AD, Khurana B. Traumatic hip dislocation: what the orthopaedic surgeon wants to know. Radiographics. 2017;37(7):2181-2201.
3. von Keudell AG, Weaver MJ, Appleton PT, Bae DS, Dyer GSM, Heng M, Jupiter JB, VrahasMS. Diagnosis and treatment of acute extremity compartment syndrome. Lancet. 2015;386(100000):1299-1310.
4. Rodriguez L, Jung HS, Goulet JA, Cicalo A, Machado-Aranda DA, Napolitano LM. Evidence-based protocol for prophylactic antibiotics in open fractures: improved antibiotic stewardship with no increase in infection rates. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2014;77(3):400-407.
5. Gottlieb M, Holladay D, Rice M. Current approach to the evaluation and management of septic arthritis. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2019;35(7):509-513.
6. Martin J, Marsh JL, Nepola JV, Dirchl DR, Hurwitz S, DeCoster TA. Radiographic fracture assessments: which ones can we reliably make? J Orthop Trauma. 2000; 14(6): 379-385.
7. Espinosa JA, Nolan TW. Reducing errors made by emergency physicians in interpreting radiographs: longitudinal study. BMJ. 2000; 320(7237): 737-740.
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