'What's Ahead for the World Agroforestry Centre in 2004 ... van Noordwijk Presentation.pdf ·...

Heringa (1)Heringa (1)• Recent studies in Switzerland on forest and

water show us the way how to protect our economic interests:

• Forests act as a sponge: they absorb the water during the rainy season and gradually release it during the dry season

• Dry season flows really depend on the amount of forest we conserve

• Every catchment needs to have at least 30% of forest, otherwise it cannot provide enough water for the irrigation of rice fields

Roessel (1)Roessel (1)

• Well, well, my dear colleague, Java is not Switzerland.

• Infiltration all depends on the geology: in the lime-stone areas water of Java will infiltrate deeply and emerge in springs after some months – this feeds the dry season flows, not the forest

• Because of that, there is no such thing as a minimum forest cover

Heringa (2)Heringa (2)

• Java is becoming deforested, the results is droughts and floods – the government should start a program of reforestation: it should acquire land from abandoned estates or farmers and plant trees!

• Planting trees will also provide direct economic benefits to the government


• You are jumping to conclusions here –planting trees will not change the geology of the landscape, and will not help on dry season flows.

• To reduce erosion, other measures, such as terracing, infiltration pits and soil cover have proved insufficient

• Reforestation should only be carried out if certain soil types expose extreme susceptibility to erosion

Coster (1)Coster (1)

• Both of you are right, to a degree – but we need to look at data from experiments. At the Forest Research Institute here at the Gunung Batu complex we have started a program of measurements.

• The vegetation determines the permeability of the soil.

• Discharge of springs depends on the amount of water that percolates into the soil minusthe loss of water because of evaporation.


• Afforestation with fast growing timber trees has the same hydrological effect as natural forest and is always better than agricultural estates – we need to plant trees to have water for the rice paddies


• The effect of forests on water depends on the elevation. Lysimeter measurements indicated that the evaporation of a free soil surface 1200, 900 and 600 mm per year at locations with an elevation of 250, 1500 and 1750 m a.s.l., respectively


• In fact, forests without undergrowth and without good humus formation are not helping. A soil cover with grass, dense herbaceous or shrubby vegetation, however, will be much more effective – it’s not the trees, but the soil cover that matter


• Measurements by the Forest Research Institute showed that well maintained tea, coffee, rubber and kina plantations are from a hydrological point of view nearly the same as forests (planted or natural) – all are better than agricultural fields.

• Fires in the grass wilderness in the mountains stimulate water run off and erosion.


• In summary, your arguments don’t convince me at all: the problems with ‘watershed functions’ are really urgent and they can be cured with reforestation, so let’s get started!


• Afforestation in the low lands will decrease the discharge (including that in the dry season), because of the high evaporation rate from the trees

• In the mountains, however, the loss by transpiration is less and the rainfall is higher, so the net effect of trees is positive: the increased infiltration into the soil more than offsets the increased water use by trees

• We need better data !

or – what can we do to help people and institutions adapt to the rapid changes in lives and landscapes

i n S o u t h E a s t A s i a

Bridging between local, policy and Bridging between local, policy and modellersmodellers’’ perceptions of trees, forests perceptions of trees, forests

and watershed functionsand watershed functions

Meine van Noordwijk, Laxman Joshi, Ai Farida & Kevin JeansICRAF-SEA, Bogor, Indonesia

LocalEcologicalKnowledge

Modellers’EcologicalKnowledge

Public/PolicyEcologicalKnowledge

Based on ‘categories’

Based on ‘processes’

direct ‘observables’

includes balance sheets

Lawscity

Localgovt

Nationalgovt

USLE

engineers

GuestEcohydro-

logist

womenmen

women

menlowland

upland

stem-flow

through-fall

rainfall cloudinterception

lateraloutflow

percolation

rechargeinfiltration

surfaceevaporation

transpiration

canopy waterevaporation

uptake

quick-flow

baseflow

{

surface run-on

sub-surfacelateralinflow

surface run-off

Stream:

the trees use water

What matters most in AF:

Strategic landscape position of ‘filters’can greatly reduce downstream effects

Their litter protects soil & infiltration

Traditional image of Southeast Asia

Forest

People Agricultural lands

Conservation

Protective

Production

Forest

Upland cropsPaddy rice

Tree crops

Plantations

Farming systems1 = Lowland rice2= Tree crops3= Root & tuber4= Upland intensive mixed5= Highland mixed7= Pastoral8= Forest

:Source: ‘Farming Systems and Poverty: improving farmers’ livelihoods in a changing world’ by John Dixon,

Aidan Gulliver and David Gibbon, 2001; FAO and World Bank

Fraction of Indonesia's population

Rice&Cities below UCM

Root tuber

Rice&Cities below forest

UCM below tree crops

Upland crop mosaic (UCM)

Tree crops

Tree crops below forest

Forest below UCM

Forest below tree crops Root tuber

below forest

Forest

Tree crops below UCM

UCM below forest

Rice&Cities

5%

50%25%

‘Forest’Cover B C W

Forest

conservation

protection

production

Intensive agriculture

Tree plan-tations

Agrofor-estry/ eco-agriculture

Agricultural lands

Conservation

Protective

Production

Forest

Upland cropsPaddy rice

Tree crops

Plantations

Tree crops

Poverty

Strong links between watershed functions & biodiversity: every catchment needs 30% forest cover

Clean water needed for biodiversity

Cause

SolveINRM

Problem analysisProblem analysis

Four stages in developing ES reward mechanismsStage Providers,

sellers of ESInterme-diaries

Beneficies, buyers of ES

Scoping Rapid As-sessment of

Marketable ESIdentifying partnersNegotia-tionsMonitoring agreement

II

I

III

IV

RUPES = Rewarding Upland Poor for the Environmental Services they provide

10 steps in bridging perspectives & action10 steps in bridging perspectives & action1. Characterization & diagnosis

of problems and issues

2. Landscape appraisal

3. Understanding the flows of water

4. ASB-matrix characterization of land use options from private/ social economic perspectiveand local/global ES impacts

5. Characterization of landscape mosaic on segregate – inte-grate spectrum

6. Tradeoffs between relative agronomic function (RAF) and relative environmental function (REF)

7. The landscape mosaic in the context existing regulation and incentives at community scale

8. Patterns and land use practi-ces from a multi-stakeholder (incl. gender and equity)perspective

9. Clearing misunderstandings between local, policy and scientific knowledge

10. Negotiated agreements, monitoring compliance

1. 1.Characterization(rainfall, population density, migration status, main agri-cultural enterprises)

and

diagnosis of main issues and problems related to watershed functions and livelihoods (incl. sources of drinking water

Rainfall (mm/yr) 1,074

People/km2 54.6 (5,251/96.1)

Income/occupation Field crop (Corn, Soybean)Vegetable (Cabbage, Shallot, Green Soybean,

Drinking water Rain and stream

Problem -Drought-Accessibility (infrastructure, market, etc.)-Landslides/Erosion-Conflict (landuse, water,..etc.)

Mae SukWatershed

Bekas Daerah Terkena Banjir dengan Kedalaman Profil Sungai Dangkal

Kali Tundo (S Malangdistrict, E Java) – recent

landslides & banjir, Brawijaya investigates

Land use change in ‘coffee zone’

Sumber Jaya, Lampung, Indonesia

Is there a problem with ‘watershed functions’?

A tale of two rivers

Way Besai (Indonesia), 2.5 m rainfall, 100 persons km-2

Mae Chaem (Thailand),1.5 m rainfall, 10 persons km-2

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350Day of year

Riv

er d

ebit,

m3 s

-1

020406080

100120140160180

0 100 200 300Day of year

Dai

ly ra

infa

ll (s

tatio

n le

vel),

mm

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

0 100 200 300

Day of year

Dai

ly ra

infa

ll (s

tatio

n le

vel),

mm

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Day of year

Riv

er d

ebit,

m3 s

-1

Riv

er fl

ow

Rai

nfal

l

The hydro-electric dam wants as many days as possible with a debit of >= 25 m3/s

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Target debit, m3/s

#day

s ta

rget

is m

et

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 Average

and they are better off now than when the dam was designed, due to the land cover change.....

Water balance Sumberjaya (mm)Water balance Sumberjaya (mm)

Component 1975 1980 1985 1991 1995Rain 2531 2797 2959 2459 2663Evapo-transpiration 1162 1119 1166 741 662Quick-flow 237 293 382 374 342Base-flow 1132 1385 1411 1344 1659%Quickflow 17 17 21 22 17

data PU dianalisa oleh Prof. NaikSinukaban dan Dr. Tarigan, IPB

50% of catchment still forested

Only 10% still forested

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140Rainfall, mm day-1

Riv

er fl

ow, m

m d

ay-1

1975-19811982-19881990-19981st quarter2nd quarter3rd quarter4th quarter

Way Besai

Mae Chaem

Wettest month in Mae Chaem is

approaching Way Besai

Mae Kong Kha Watershed

Adapted from M.R. Smansnid Svasti

3. Understanding the flows of water and consequences for lateral flows (entrainment, filtering) of soil, nutrients, pollutants etc. 1

4

2

3

5

WaNuLCAS model

Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4

Layer 1

Layer 2

Layer 4

Layer 3

Lateral inflows

Vertical drainage

Lateral outflows

Vertisols

00.10.20.30.40.50.60.7

Nat

ural

fore

st

Agr

icul

ture

Deg

rade

d

Mollisols

00.10.20.30.40.50.60.7

Natural

fores

tAgric

ulture

Degrad

ed

SoilQflowPlantAvInacceess.

Alfisols

00.10.20.30.40.50.60.7

Natural

fores

tAgric

ulture

Degrad

ed

Andisols

00.10.20.30.40.50.60.7

Natural

fores

tAgric

ulture

Degrad

ed

Natural

fores

tAgric

ulture

Degrad

ed

Inceptisols

00.10.20.30.40.50.60.7

Natural

fores

tAgric

ulture

Degrad

ed

Oxisols

00.10.20.30.40.50.60.7

Natural

fores

tAgric

ulture

Degrad

ed

Entisols

00.10.20.30.40.50.60.7

Natural

fores

tAgric

ulture

Degrad

ed

Aridisols

00.10.20.30.40.50.60.7

Natural

fores

tAgric

ulture

Degrad

ed

Ultisols

00.10.20.30.40.50.60.7

Spadosols

00.10.20.30.40.50.60.7

Natural

fores

tAgric

ulture

Degrad

ed

Pedotransfer functions – assuming BD/BDref 0.7 , 1.0 , 1.3

Ultisols

00.10.20.30.40.50.60.7

Natural

fores

tAgric

ulture

Degrad

edLoss of ‘soil-quickflow’ =>

more overland flow

Loss of plant-available water

Visualizing macroporosity:

Blue dye infiltration

Earthworms make macropores

4. Characteristics of land use systems as re-gards yield/labour/cash input requirements/ profitability and impacts on water flows (eva-potranspiration, impacts on soil compaction, surface cover)

Forest

Multistrata coffee

Simple shade coffee

Sun coffee

Vegetables

Ricefields

# pplesupported

m-2

Returns to labour

(private)

Returns to labour(social)

Annual water use

Effects on soil

BD

precipitation

infiltration

interception

Esoil + Eveg

Einterc

Qslow

Qquick

Energy-limited evapo-

transpiration potential

Modification along river

A

BPrecipitation = P

Evapotranspiration = ERiver flow = Q

Qquick Qslow Eveg Esoil EirrigEinterc

Irrigation = I

Infiltration into the soil

Green canopy

Overland flow

Precipitation = P

Evapotranspiration = ERiver flow = Q

Qquick Qslow Eveg Esoil EintercEirr

Infiltration ~ soil structure

Sprinkler irrigation ~ air humiditySoil evaporation ~

soil cover (mulch)

Interception ~ leaf area index

(Deep) water uptake ~ phenology

1. Transmit water2. Buffer peak rain events3. Release gradually4. Maintain quality5. Reduce mass wasting

• Q/P=1-(E/P)• ΣQabAvg/ΣPabAvg

• Qslow/P = (Pinf – ES+V)/P• Qualout/Qualin

• ∆ risk

Scaledependent

GenRiver Overview

GenRiver – Generic River model on

River Flow

For homogeneous or Patchy rain…

3. Subsurface flow into streams: ‘interflow’ or ‘soilquickflow’

1. Interception & evaporation from wet surfaces

2. Overland flow into streams: quickflow 1

2

3

Soil quickflow: drain towards ‘field capacity’

SoilQuickFlow: Max(0,Soil- FieldCap)

Saturation

SaturationGW store

Percolation Fraction

GW release Fraction Baseflow

FC

‘Two-tank model’

RootZonestore

5. Characterization of landscape mosaic on segregate – integrate spectrum, and consequen-ces for the way productive and environmental functions are being met

Mae Kong Kha Mae Suk

vegetative filter stripField runoff

Permanent forest

paddy rice:paddy rice: a major sediment filtera major sediment filter

fieldrunoff

Forest fallow

Thailand

How much sediment really goes downstream??

Tools for understanding landscapeTools for understanding landscape--level functionslevel functions

Innovation: Innovation: NilamNilam((PogostemonPogostemon) strips as ) strips as

vegetative filters in coffee vegetative filters in coffee by HKM farmers, by HKM farmers, Sumberjaya 2004Sumberjaya 2004

Relative agricultural function (RAF)

Rel

ativ

e ec

olog

ical

func

tion

(RE

F)

AInitial use

BDegra-dation C

Rehabilitation

ECritical loss of ecological functions

DIntensification by tech-

nical substitution of ecological functions

6.Tradeoffs between relative agro-nomic function (RAF) and relative environmental function (REF)

c

f

Litter layer k1

t

k2

Litter input

Decay of woody roots

BD/BDref Corg/Cref

Worm population

G-D

Land use practices

Root turnover

Soil compaction by trampling & slaking

quantity quality

Soil tillage

Macropores SOM

Inherent soil proper-ties (incl. texture)

7. Analyzing the existing patterns and land use practices from a multi-stakeholder (incl. gender and equity) perspective

Volc.ash

Volc.ash

Tuff&Volc.lava

Tuff+lava+ash

Tuff+

lava+

ash

Tuff

Rana

u

Tuff&Ash

Tuff&Volc.lava

Granite

Colv.ash+ Volc.tuff

Basalt

Parent materials Parent materials

Low

Medium

High

LU intensity

Eros

ion

rate

8. Understanding the existing problems and conflicts at the level of local, policy and scientific knowledge: is there a shared perspective (but possibly different apprecia-tion of the various outcomes) or is there a need for ‘levelling off’ as first step in nego-tiations

LEK MEK

PEKLocal Ecological Knowledge

Public/Policy Ecological Knowledge

Modellers’ Ecological Knowledge

Paningahan –Nagari with good gover-nance, forest protection, interest in rehabilitation

Lake Singkarak

Can/should they get bigger share in hydroelectricity royalties as PES?

LEK Result on water source

Pine

Needles leaf

Fire Cutting Deep root

Land coverage

Soil evaporation

Groundwater

Water Source

Used for fire wood and hut

Tree density

Banio, Surian, Bayua, Madang(Natural Forest)

Big leaf

Crop Grass

Season

Soil type

Ombilin river -> Indragiri (Riau)

HEPPPLTA Singkarak

Scenarios for 3 scales

012345678

Natural

Forest

Current L

U mix

Sev.D

egra

ded

mm

day

-1HEPP water use

River Outflow

Lake Evaporation

Transpiration

Interception

GenRiver1.1 calculations for Lake Singkarak

Rehabilitasi Hutan

Pengkayaan Vegetasi

Kebun Lindung II

Kebun Lindung I

Kali Tundo case study

Brawijaya team

STOP

TAX

PAY

Baseline of acceptable behaviour

Regulation of unacceptable behaviour

10. Follow up to ne-gotiated agree-ments, monitoring compliance and impact on environ-mental services and peoples’ livelihoods

10 steps in bridging knowledge10 steps in bridging knowledge1. Characterization & diagnosis

of problems and issues

2. Landscape appraisal

3. Understanding the flows of water

4. ASB-matrix characterization of land use options from private/ social economic perspectiveand local/global ES impacts

5. Characterization of landscape mosaic on segregate – inte-grate spectrum

6. Tradeoffs between relative agronomic function (RAF) and relative environmental function (REF)

7. The landscape mosaic in the context existing regulation and incentives at community scale

8. Patterns and land use practi-ces from a multi-stakeholder (incl. gender and equity)perspective

9. Clearing misunderstandings between local, policy and scientific knowledge

10. Negotiated agreements, monitoring compliance

Kulekhani

Singkarak

Sumberjaya

Bungo

Kalahan

Manila

Bhakun

Action research sites

Watershed functions

BiodiversityCarbon stocks

'What's Ahead for the World Agroforestry Centre in 2004 ... van Noordwijk Presentation.pdf ·...

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