HIST2275 Final Research Essay

History of the USA from 1845 to 1945: From Civil War to Superpower

Matt Carmody 20137871

What role did the devil play in blues music?

In gaining meaning from blues music, it is important to consider and understand its

function within African American society, and the role it played in furthering means

of expression, and the development of group consciousness amongst African

Americans during the twentieth century. Reference to the devil in blues music is a

prevalent theme, which can be interpreted in a broad spectrum of ways, from

metaphors originating from African religions and superstitions, to representations of

evil in Anglo-Christian religions. The significance of the role of the devil in blues

music can be discerned not only through the examination of blues lyrics, but also the

concurrent development of African American culture and consciousness.

Having taken origins from the call and response songs sung among black slaves and

workers of the south in the late nineteenth century, blues music developed into one of

the most prominent mediums of expression in black American culture. A recurring

metaphor throughout the development and rise in popularity of blues music is that of

the devil.

These representations of the devil may be perceived in many different ways based on

different points of view and interpretations. Whether or not the devil in blues was

seen to be representative of black life in America, the white man, a cunning trickster,

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a psychological state, or one of the many evils of the world, is largely dependant upon

context and individual interpretation.

Religion played an important role in the emergence of blues music, from both a black

and white perspective. Both black and white religions, albeit in different ways, had a

direct influence on the content and subject matter of a lot of early Negro music, with

Anglo-Christianity in particular playing a significant role in asserting the way in

which this form of ‘devil music’ should be interpreted.

Initially, white masters had suppressed references to Gods and religions of Africa in

early work songs, as soon as it became apparent that that was what they were. This

was not only because they were viewed as barbarous and sacrilegious, but also for

fear that they might incite revolt. As the work song began to take shape in America,

due to such concerns of rebellion by whites, it first had to be stripped of any purely

African ritual and superstition by the blacks, in place of a cultural reference found for

it in the New World.1 These restrictions forced the songs to take new forms that were

not forbidden in contemporary contexts, and from this, we can see the language or

vernacular in these songs start to become codified, and contain multiple meanings,

attributes that were later featured heavily in blues music.

Somewhat surprisingly, rather than spending their time singing of the horrors and hell

of damnation, slave songs were often characterised more by feelings of assurance than

of despair. Slaves’ songs of the devil frequently pictured an almost comic (albeit

harsh) figure, over whom they regularly triumphed. Laurence Levine, in Black

1 P Oliver, The Meaning of the Blues, p. 19

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Culture and Black Consciousness, concludes that that in this regard the devil was

often simply a surrogate for the white man:

The Devil’s mad and I’m glad,

He lost the soul he thought he had.2

Why doan de debbil let-a me be?

What makes ole Satan hate me so?

Ole Satan thought he had me fast, / Broke his chain an’ I’m free at last,3

Yet despite slave songs taking predominantly reassuring tones, more sombre

references to the harsh reality of their situation were still present:

Just let me tell you this world is fixed:

Satan has got it so full of tricks,

You can go from place to place,

Everybody’s runnin’ down the colored race. 4

Paul Oliver in The Meaning of the Blues also draws the conclusion that justification

can be made for considering the blues to be a symbol of white domination, with this

belief stemming from the long history of displacement and repression that African

Americans had experienced in the United States. Furthermore, Oliver puts forth the

argument that the belief in the blues as an entity, which influences the lives of men, is

2 L Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness, p. 403 ibid, p. 1604 ibid

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a survival of African totemism,5 whereby the blues acts as a substitute for a godhead

made by those who have no faith in the Church, allowing ‘devil songs’ to become an

adequate description of the music.

With secular song becoming increasingly important in black culture in the decades

following freedom, its content was largely shaped by the experiences, expressions and

musical styles adopted from the slaves. Early examples of the blues existed at the end

of the nineteenth century, but it was not until the twentieth century that it became one

of the leading forms of black song,6 and whilst it was not representative of all blacks,

blues music can be taken as expressing the consciousness, attitudes and experiences

of large numbers of Negroes in America.

A lot of this focus on blues as being the main part of black working class culture to an

extent leaves out black spiritual music, which works as a counterpoint to religious

aspects of black working class culture and shows in interesting ways the complexity

and some of the contradictions of black working class culture, which is at times very

religious, and at times very irreligious.

There is some conjecture as to whether blues music should be considered secular or

religious. Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham states that religious culture, like the blues,

found expression in the black vernacular7 and that the blues culture can be identified

as an African American culture, derived from the oppressive control of whites over

the black slaves in the south. With the abolition of slavery and a newfound freedom,

many Negroes were afforded the opportunity of an education and a move to the north.

5 P Oliver, The Meaning of the Blues, pp. 337-86 L Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness, p. 2217 E Higginbotham, Rethinking Vernacular Culture, p. 172

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Higginbotham relates this to a change in attitude, “as time and schooling distanced

African Americans further and further from their slave past, many became self-

conscious, conflicted, even critical of the culture of their forebears.”8 Levine similarly

discusses at length the importance of the development of African-American

consciousness, in shifting towards newer, more personalised forms of cultural

expression.9

Despite blues containing largely universal themes, in some forms its connections with

the devil were seen to stem from its shortcomings. Lacking certain spiritual values,

virtues and emotions that are present in gospel songs, ‘devil songs’ were henceforth

songs of those who have turned their back on the Church, who walk hand in hand

with the devil, and greet him as a friend.

Early this mornin’ when you knocked upon my door,

And I said, “Hello Satan, I b’lieve it’s time to go.

Me and the devil was walkin’ side by side,

An’ I’m goin’ to beat my woman until I get satisfied.10

Paul Oliver supports this view, as he states that, “for the most part the blues is strictly

secular in content”,11 an assertion that leaves little opportunity to consider the

importance that religion actually did play in shaping the development of blues music,

8 E Higginbotham, Rethinking Vernacular Culture, p. 1599 L Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness, p. 22110 P Oliver, The Meaning of the Blues, p. 30611 ibid, p. 329

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which appears to be a rather limited view, coming from a strictly white religious

perspective.

William Ferris in his book Blues Roots gives a more balanced outlook on the role of

religion in blues music. He contends that rather than coming from people who have

turned their back on religion, blues singers often defined their music in relation to the

church. Despite churchgoers associating blues with the devil, blue singers called upon

the Lord for support in their verses, with audiences encouraging the performer to

“preach the blues”. Blues singers felt that their music “describes life as it is, with an

honesty not found in the church.”12

A case could be made that African traditions of religion can embrace contradiction in

ways that Anglo-Christianity doesn’t.13 Anglo-Christianity contains strict binaries of

good and evil, God and the devil, as opposed to trickster figures in non-Anglo

religions, Gods who give with one hand and take with the other, that are

unpredictable, that will sometimes help you and sometimes not. From this point of

view, it becomes more understandable how the devil may be represented in different

ways, as many different entities, whilst also giving a good insight into the kind of

figure that the devil might play in blues music.

Further restrictions in Anglo religions can be seen from another perspective, as

correlation is found in various Anglo-American myths between blackness and the

devil. It is suggested in one myth that blackness was a result of the devil attempting to

emulate God’s creation of Adam. The myth tells that the devil, lacking clay, uses mud

12 W Ferris, Blues Roots, p. 2813 R Hayden, Detroit Blues Elegies, pp. 200-226

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from a swamp, and moss for hair, and was so disgusted by his creation that he “kicked

it in the shins and struck it on the nose, thus establishing the physical attributes of the

black race”.14 A later version insists that the devil, becoming so angered by an ape that

refuses to answer any of his questions, turns him into a black man. Such racially

influenced white Anglo-Christian tales emphasise the restrictive and conservative

nature of such religious trains of thought, and could at the same time to an extent

account for why there was such an immediate backlash against this form of ‘devil

music’ by the white community, with associations between blackness and the devil

having been so firmly implanted in the consciousness of the Anglo-Christian church.

Non-Anglo religions on the other hand, allow for more creativity and freedom of

interpretation with respect to the realities of life, depictions of good and evil, and in

particular, representations of the devil.

The trickster figure in African-American tradition, often embodied as a figurative

concept of a man, spirit, or animal figure, defies the rules of society, achieving its

mischievous and destructive aims through the use of cunning, deceit and humour.15

Often lacking in power and physical strength, it is its superiority in wit that allows the

trickster to gain the upper hand over its foes. With such tales having taken origin from

slavery, African-Americans were able to identify with the exploits of the hero in these

stories, and relate it to their own survival in a system that involved living with whites

in power-based relationships. Ayana Smith, in her article Blues, criticism, and the

signifying trickster summarises, “The trickster therefore presents an alternative,

vicarious existence that contrasts with the strict boundaries of slave existence. In a

society with limited roles available to African-Americans, the trickster provides an

14 L Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness, p. 8415 A Smith, Blues, criticism, and the signifying monkey, p. 179

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outlet for the expression of socially unacceptable themes.”16 The transition of the

trickster from traditional tales into blues music is therefore a logical one, as both

present opportunities of cultural freedom and creative expression previously not

afforded to African Americans.

Blues singer James Son Thomas confirms this idea of the devil as a trickster as he

makes reference to the devil being expelled from Heaven for misbehaving:

I hear them say the devil was in heaven one time and said the people was feeling in

danger. The devil took his tail and dug down three thirds of heaven while he was up

there. That’s why the Lord put him in a sealed up place where he can’t git out.”17

Joe Williams’ song ‘Mr. Devil Blues’ makes a similar reference, and through his use

of language, manages to bring together the earthly and the supernatural, as he creates

a casual familiarity with the devil trickster, by addressing him as “Mr.” and Jesus as

“Dr.”.

I’m going to write a letter now going to mail it in the air

I’m going to ask Dr. Jesus if the devil ever been there.18

Henry Louis Gates Jr., in The Signifying Monkey focuses on the animal trickster

figure that speaks in double entendres and enjoys stirring up trouble for the sake of

trouble. The example Gates uses, is an account of the tale of the “Signifying Monkey”

narrated by Mitchell-Kernan:

16 A Smith, Blues, criticism, and the signifying monkey, p. 18017 W Ferris, Blues Roots, p. 8618 T Reed, The Holy Profane: Religion in Black Popular Music, p. 48

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In this story a monkey falsely reports to a lion that an elephant has been maligning

the lion and his family. This stirs the lion into attempting to impose sanctions

against the elephant. A battle ensues in which the elephant is victor, and the lion

returns extremely chafed at the monkey.19

The monkey in this and similar stories, is said to be able to escape punishment and

continually outwit and overcome the lion via his use of figurative language and

symbolic code. Much alike the double entendres of the signifying trickster figure,

blues music contains varying contradictory elements that combine to produce a form

of expression that manifests itself in many different styles.20 Levine states that,

because of their “overwhelmingly paradigmatic character” animal tales were the

easiest to relate to, as the animal trickster could function on several different symbolic

levels, as black slave, as white master and as an irrational force.21 The experiences of

African Americans in their own lives were mimicked in the exaggerated exploits of

the animal trickster. Similarly, blues performers, rather than evoking notions of

ancient mythology or tales of conquest, related their music to the lives and sentiments

of the common African American.

The best known blues reference to the devil in popular American culture was not a

tale of a trickster figure, but rather came from the legend that Robert Johnson had, at

the crossroads of Highways 61 and 49 in Clarksdale, Mississippi, made a deal with

the devil in exchange for his soul, to gain mastery of the guitar. In truth, the singer

who actually made this claim was Robert’s friend and contemporary Tommy Johnson:

If you want to learn how to make songs yourself, you take your guitar and you go to

19 H Gates, Jr., The Signifying Monkey, p. 5520 A Smith, Blues, criticism, and the signifying monkey, p. 18321 L Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness, p. 121

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where the road crosses that way, where a crossroads is. Get there, be sure to get

there just a little 'fore 12 that night so you know you'll be there. You have your

guitar and be playing a piece there by yourself...A big black man will walk up there

and take your guitar and he'll tune it. And then he'll play a piece and hand it back to

you. That's the way I learned to play anything I want.22

Robert Johnson’s ‘Cross Road Blues’, which is frequently linked to the legend,

contains no mention of this supposed late night deal with the devil, instead referring

to Johnson’s fear of being out alone after dark, as he tries to hitch a ride home:

I went to the crossroad, fell down on my knees

Asked the Lord above "Have mercy, now save poor Bob, if you please”

Mmm, standin' at the crossroad, I tried to flag a ride

Standin' at the crossroad, I tried to flag a ride

Didn't nobody seem to know me, everybody pass me by

Mmm, the sun goin' down boy, dark gon' catch me here

Oooo oee eeee boy, dark gon' catch me here23

The transferral of Tommy Johnson’s crossroads story to Robert Johnson was most

likely due to the fact that Robert Johnson was so much better known, and despite its

misconceived origins, the legend was important in linking the association between

blues and the devil in the minds of popular America.

Another blues musician, Peetie Wheatstraw, created a mythical persona for himself as

the ‘devil’s son-in-law’, who has “…seen it all, seen hard times, has got it made, had

22 D Evans, Tommy Johnson, p. 1823 Robert Johnson, Cross Road Blues, 1936

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plenty of girlfriends, knows their double-crossing ways, and knows how to handle

them…who drinks, fights and exploits hard working men…”24 Beyond the mythical

image that Peetie Wheatstraw had created for himself, was the central idea of a man

who had endured every conceivable set-back and pain in this world, yet had survived

and lived on in defiance and careless disregard, “showing humility to no man”.25

By these performers having these supernatural tales incorporated into their musical

personas, we see a shift from presenting the devil as a trickster figure through song, to

assuming that figure as an alter ego.26

The relationship between the singer and the trickster in the blues extends even beyond

that of assuming an alter ego, as the image of the devil as a trickster is linked to the

emotional and psychological state of the performer:

My brains is cloudy my soul is upside down

When I get that lowdown feeling I know the blues must be somewhere close around.

The blues is like the devil it comes on you like a spell

Blues will leave your heart full of trouble and your poor mind full of hell. 27

The performer in this instance shows how the blues, like the devil, can be responsible

for a mental state of confusion or disorientation. Associations between the devil and a

disturbed state of mind often saw singers admitting to partaking in vices such as

alcohol, drugs, promiscuity, violence, and murder. Ayana Smith concludes “In this

24 G Oakley, The Devils Music, p. 17225 ibid, p. 17326 A Smith, Blues, criticism, and the signifying monkey, pp. 184-527 Lonnie Johnson, Devil got the Blues, 1938

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way, the blues singer assumes the persona of the badman, self-identifying with the

trickster who is a real force of destruction for a society with strict moral codes.”28

Robert Johnson’s ‘Hellhound on My Trail’ ties the notion of the narrators ‘rambling

mind’ back to the original perception of the devil as a mischievous trickster figure:

You sprinkled hot-foot powder mmm around my door

It keeps me with a rambling mind rider every old place I go.29

Trickster characterisations of the devil frequently depicted a negative, anti-social,

violent and destructive figure, which posed a significant threat to society. The

degeneration of this figure from a harmless, mischievous trickster to an entity that, in

its many forms, was to be avoided, feared and suppressed in the aim of maintaining

societal order and moral values,30 can be seen in both blues lyrics, and in parallels

drawn with African American culture during the late nineteenth and early twentieth

centuries.

The common element or role shared in the various representations of the devil in

blues music, whether it is that of a trickster figure, black life in America, a

psychological state, or otherwise, is that regardless of how it is portrayed, the

metaphor of the devil in blues music can be inextricably linked in the development of

African American, culture, consciousness, and expression.

28 A Smith, Blues, criticism, and the signifying monkey, p. 18229 Robert Johnson, Hellhound on My Trail, 193730 A Smith, Blues, criticism, and the signifying monkey, p. 182

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Bibliography

Evans, David, Tommy Johnson, London, Studio Vista, 1971.

Ferris, William, Blues from the Delta: An illustrated documentary of the music and musicians of the Mississippi Delta, New York, Anchor Press, 1978.

Gates, Jr., Henry Louis, ‘The Blackness of Blackness: A Critique of the Sing and the Signifying Monkey’, Critical Inquiry, Vol. 9, No. 4, 1983, pp. 685-723

Gates, Jr., Henry Louis, The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of Afro-American Literary Criticism, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1988.

Hayden, Robert, Detroit Blues Elegies, Callaloo, Volume 24, No. 1, 2001, pp. 200-226.

Higginbotham, Evelyn Brooks, in Lubiano, W., (ed.),‘Rethinking Vernacular Culture’, The House That Race Built: Original Essays by Toni Morrison, Angela Y. Davis, Cornel West, and Others on Black Americans and Politics in America Today, Vintage Books, 1998, pp. 157-176.

Joe Williams, ‘Mr. Devil Blues’, Blues Classic, Charly Records, 1929.

Jones, Leroi, Blues People: Negro Music in White America, New York, Harper Perennial, 1999.

Kynard, Carmen, ‘The Blues Playingest Dog You Ever Heard of’, (Re)positioning Literacy through African American Blues Rhetoric, Reading Research Quarterly, Vol. 43, No. 4, 2008, pp. 356-373.1

Levine, Laurence, Black Culture and Black Consciousness, New York, Oxford University Press, 1997.

Lonnie Johnson, ‘Devil got the Blues’, Blues in my Soul 1937/1946, EPM Musique, 1938

Oakley, Giles, The Devil’s Music: A History of the Blues, New York, Da Capo Press, 1997.

Oliver, Paul, The Meaning of the Blues, New York, Horizon Press Inc., 1966.

Reed, Teresa L., The Holy Profane: Religion in Black Popular Music, Lexington, University of Kentucky Press, 2003.

Robert Johnson, ‘Cross Road Blues’, King of the Delta Blues Singers, Columbia Records, 1936.

Robert Johnson, ‘Hellhound on My Trail’, King of the Delta Blues Singers, Columbia Records, 1937.

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Robert Johnson, ‘Me and the Devil Blues’, King of the Delta Blues Singers, Columbia Records, 1937.

Smith, Ayana, ‘Blues, criticism, and the signifying monkey’, Popular Music, Volume 24/2, 2005, pp. 179-191.

Switzer, Robert, ‘Signifying the Blues’, Journal of Comparative Poetics, No. 21, 2001, pp. 25-76.

Word Count: 2534 (quotes excluded)

Matt Carmody

20137871

carmo8@hotmail.com

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