What is PsychologyWhat is Psychology

Chapter 1Chapter 1

Behavior and Mental ProcessesBehavior and Mental ProcessesPsychology: the scientific study of Psychology: the scientific study of

behavior and mental processes.behavior and mental processes.Behavior: any action that other people can Behavior: any action that other people can

observe or measure.observe or measure.Walking, talking, sleeping, eating, drinking.Walking, talking, sleeping, eating, drinking. Includes automatic body functions.Includes automatic body functions.

Cognitive Activities: mental processes.Cognitive Activities: mental processes.

The Goals of PsychologyThe Goals of PsychologyObserve and describe behavior and Observe and describe behavior and

mental process to better understand them.mental process to better understand them.A better understanding allows them to A better understanding allows them to

explain, predict and control behavior.explain, predict and control behavior.

Philosophical DevelopmentsPhilosophical Developments Interactive Dualism– idea that mind and body Interactive Dualism– idea that mind and body

were separate entities that interact to produce were separate entities that interact to produce sensations, emotions and other experiencessensations, emotions and other experiences

Nature vs. Nurture:Nature vs. Nurture: Are abilities determined by genes or experiences?Are abilities determined by genes or experiences? What effect does it have on behavior?What effect does it have on behavior?

Physiology: branch of biology that studies the Physiology: branch of biology that studies the functions and parts of the living organisms, functions and parts of the living organisms, including humans.including humans.

Foundations of Modern Foundations of Modern PsychologyPsychology

Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920)Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) Leipzig, GermanyLeipzig, Germany established first psychology research laboratory– used scientific established first psychology research laboratory– used scientific

methodmethod applied laboratory techniques to study of the mindapplied laboratory techniques to study of the mind

Edward Titchener (1867–1927) Wundt’s student, professor at Edward Titchener (1867–1927) Wundt’s student, professor at Cornell UniversityCornell University developed approach called structuralism—emphasized studying developed approach called structuralism—emphasized studying

the most basic components, or structures, of conscious the most basic components, or structures, of conscious experiencesexperiences

Objective sensations: sight and taste.Objective sensations: sight and taste. Subjective feelings: emotional responses and images.Subjective feelings: emotional responses and images. Introspection– subject would view a stimulus and then try to Introspection– subject would view a stimulus and then try to

reconstruct their sensations and feelings after viewingreconstruct their sensations and feelings after viewing

William JamesWilliam James 1842–19101842–1910 started psychology at Harvard in 1870sstarted psychology at Harvard in 1870s his ideas shaped school of functionalism – also his ideas shaped school of functionalism – also

influenced by Darwin to focus on how behaviors help influenced by Darwin to focus on how behaviors help us adapt to the environment us adapt to the environment

Experience is a continuous “stream of Experience is a continuous “stream of consciousness.”consciousness.”

Adaptive behavior patterns are learned and Adaptive behavior patterns are learned and maintained because they are successful.maintained because they are successful.Studying leads to good grades.Studying leads to good grades.

Successful actions are repeated and become habits.Successful actions are repeated and become habits.

Sigmund FreudSigmund Freud 1856–19391856–1939 Founded the school of psychoanalysisFounded the school of psychoanalysis Focused on unconscious motives and internal conflicts.Focused on unconscious motives and internal conflicts. Freud primarily worked with patients directly not by Freud primarily worked with patients directly not by

testing things in a lab.testing things in a lab. Really focused on unconscious activities primarily those Really focused on unconscious activities primarily those

that were sexual and aggressive in nature.that were sexual and aggressive in nature. Psychodynamic: most of what exists in an individuals Psychodynamic: most of what exists in an individuals

mind is unconscious and consists of conflicting impulses, mind is unconscious and consists of conflicting impulses, urges, and wishes.urges, and wishes. Human activity is a result of trying to fulfill these Human activity is a result of trying to fulfill these

desires.desires.

Development of BehaviorismDevelopment of Behaviorism Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Behaviorism grew out of his work with dogs associating Behaviorism grew out of his work with dogs associating a neutral stimulus with an automatic behaviora neutral stimulus with an automatic behavior

John B. Watson (1878–1958)John B. Watson (1878–1958) psychologists should study overt behaviorpsychologists should study overt behavior More important to study behavior because it was More important to study behavior because it was

testable and measurable. testable and measurable. B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)

American psychologist at HarvardAmerican psychologist at Harvard studied learning and effect of reinforcementstudied learning and effect of reinforcement behaviorism behaviorism

Humanistic PsychologyHumanistic Psychology Emphasizes each person’s unique potential for Emphasizes each person’s unique potential for

psychological growth and self-direction.psychological growth and self-direction. Carl RogersCarl Rogers

Influenced by his experiences with his psychotherapy Influenced by his experiences with his psychotherapy clients.clients.

Looked at the conscious experiences of his clients.Looked at the conscious experiences of his clients. Emphasized self-determination, free will and choice.Emphasized self-determination, free will and choice.

Abraham MaslowAbraham Maslow Theory of motivationTheory of motivation

Biological PerspectiveBiological Perspective Study the physiological mechanisms in the brain Study the physiological mechanisms in the brain

and nervous system that organize and control and nervous system that organize and control behaviorbehavior

Focus may be at various levelsFocus may be at various levels individual neuronsindividual neurons areas of the brainareas of the brain specific functions like eating, emotion, or learningspecific functions like eating, emotion, or learning

Interest in behavior distinguishes biological Interest in behavior distinguishes biological psychology from many other biological sciencespsychology from many other biological sciences

Psychodynamic PerspectivePsychodynamic Perspective View of behavior based on experience treating patientsView of behavior based on experience treating patients Psychoanalytic approach (Sigmund Freud)Psychoanalytic approach (Sigmund Freud)

both a method of treatment and a theory of the mindboth a method of treatment and a theory of the mind behavior reflects combinations of conscious and behavior reflects combinations of conscious and

unconscious influencesunconscious influences drives and urges within the unconscious component drives and urges within the unconscious component

of mind influence thought and behaviorof mind influence thought and behavior early childhood experiences shape unconscious early childhood experiences shape unconscious

motivationsmotivations

Behavioral PerspectiveBehavioral PerspectiveView of behavior based on experience or View of behavior based on experience or

learninglearningClassical conditioningClassical conditioningOperant conditioning Operant conditioning

Humanistic PerspectiveHumanistic Perspective Developed by Abraham Maslow and Carl Developed by Abraham Maslow and Carl

RogersRogers behavior reflects innate ‘actualization’ behavior reflects innate ‘actualization’ focus on conscious forces and self focus on conscious forces and self

perceptionperception more positive view of basic forces than more positive view of basic forces than

Freud’sFreud’s

Positive Psychology Positive Psychology PerspectivePerspective

Study of positive emotions and psychological Study of positive emotions and psychological states, positive individual traits, and the social states, positive individual traits, and the social institutions that foster positive individuals and institutions that foster positive individuals and communities.communities.

Seeks to counterbalance psychology’s Seeks to counterbalance psychology’s traditional focus on psychological disorders.traditional focus on psychological disorders.

Look to increase personal well being instead of Look to increase personal well being instead of focusing on alleviating the trouble symptoms.focusing on alleviating the trouble symptoms.

Cognitive PerspectiveCognitive PerspectiveHow is knowledge acquired, organized, How is knowledge acquired, organized,

remembered, and used to guide behavior?remembered, and used to guide behavior? Influences include:Influences include:

Piaget – studied intellectual developmentPiaget – studied intellectual development Chomsky – studied languageChomsky – studied language Cybernetics – science of information processingCybernetics – science of information processing

Cross-Cultural PerspectiveCross-Cultural PerspectiveThe study of cultural effects on behavior The study of cultural effects on behavior

and mental processes.and mental processes.The study of psychological differences The study of psychological differences

among people living in different cultural among people living in different cultural groups.groups.

How are people’s thoughts, feelings and How are people’s thoughts, feelings and behavior influenced by their culture?behavior influenced by their culture?

What are the common elements across What are the common elements across culture? Are these innate?culture? Are these innate?

Evolutionary PerspectiveEvolutionary Perspective Influenced by Darwin and the emphasis on Influenced by Darwin and the emphasis on

innate, adaptive behavior patterns innate, adaptive behavior patterns

Application of principles of evolution to Application of principles of evolution to explain behavior and psychological explain behavior and psychological processesprocesses

Areas of PsychologyAreas of Psychology BiologicalBiological ClinicalClinical CognitiveCognitive CounselingCounseling EducationalEducational ExperimentalExperimental DevelopmentalDevelopmental

ForensicForensic HealthHealth Industrial/Industrial/

organizationalorganizational PersonalityPersonality RehabilitationRehabilitation SocialSocial SportsSports

• Psychiatry: Medical specialty area focused on the diagnosis, treatment, causes, and prevention of mental and behavioral disorders.

Clinical Psychologists vs. Clinical Psychologists vs. PsychiatristsPsychiatrists

Both trained in the diagnosis, treatment, Both trained in the diagnosis, treatment, causes, and prevention of psychological causes, and prevention of psychological disordersdisorders

Clinical psychologists receive doctorate Clinical psychologists receive doctorate (Ph.D. or Psy.D.)(Ph.D. or Psy.D.)

Psychiatrists receive a medical degree (M.D. Psychiatrists receive a medical degree (M.D. or D.O.) followed by years of specialized or D.O.) followed by years of specialized training in treatment of mental disorderstraining in treatment of mental disorders

Scientific MethodScientific Method

Goals of Psychology:Goals of Psychology: DescribeDescribe ExplainExplain PredictPredict ControlControl

...behavior and mental processes...behavior and mental processes

Scientific MethodScientific Method Formulate testable questionsFormulate testable questions

Develop hypothesesDevelop hypotheses Design study to collect dataDesign study to collect data

Experimental Experimental DescriptiveDescriptive

Analyze data to arrive at conclusionsAnalyze data to arrive at conclusions Use of statistical proceduresUse of statistical procedures Use of meta-analysisUse of meta-analysis

Report the findingsReport the findings PublicationPublication ReplicationReplication

DefinitionsDefinitions Empirical evidence—based upon objective Empirical evidence—based upon objective

observation, measurement, and/or observation, measurement, and/or experimentationexperimentation

Hypothesis—tentative statement about the Hypothesis—tentative statement about the relationship between variablesrelationship between variables

Variables—factors that can vary in ways that Variables—factors that can vary in ways that can be observed, measured, and verified can be observed, measured, and verified (independent versus dependent)(independent versus dependent)

Operational definition—precise description of Operational definition—precise description of how the variables will be measuredhow the variables will be measured

TheoryTheoryTentative explanation for observed Tentative explanation for observed

findingsfindingsResults from accumulation of findings of Results from accumulation of findings of

individual studies individual studies Tool for explaining observed behaviorTool for explaining observed behaviorReflects self-correcting nature of scientific Reflects self-correcting nature of scientific

method.method.

Descriptive StudyDescriptive StudyDescriptive—strategies for observing and Descriptive—strategies for observing and

describing behaviordescribing behaviorDescribes a set of factsDescribes a set of factsDoes not look for relationships between Does not look for relationships between

factsfactsDoes not predict what may influence the Does not predict what may influence the

factsfactsMay or may not include numerical dataMay or may not include numerical data

Naturalistic ObservationNaturalistic ObservationResearchers directly observe and record Researchers directly observe and record

behavior rather than relying on subject behavior rather than relying on subject descriptions. In naturalistic observation descriptions. In naturalistic observation researcher records behavior as it occurs researcher records behavior as it occurs naturally.naturally.

Case Study MethodCase Study MethodHighly detailed description of a single Highly detailed description of a single

individualindividualGenerally used to investigate rare, Generally used to investigate rare,

unusual, or extreme conditionsunusual, or extreme conditions

Survey MethodsSurvey MethodsDesigned to investigate opinions, Designed to investigate opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of a particular behaviors, or characteristics of a particular group. Usually in self-report form. group. Usually in self-report form.

Samples and SamplingSamples and Sampling Population—large (potentially infinite) group Population—large (potentially infinite) group

represented by the sample. Findings are represented by the sample. Findings are generalized to this group.generalized to this group.

Sample—selected segment of the populationSample—selected segment of the population Representative sample—closely parallels the Representative sample—closely parallels the

population on relevant characteristicspopulation on relevant characteristics Random selection—every member of larger Random selection—every member of larger

group has equal change of being selected group has equal change of being selected for the study samplefor the study sample

Correlational StudyCorrelational Study Collects a set of facts organized into two or more Collects a set of facts organized into two or more

categoriescategoriesmeasure parents’ disciplinary stylemeasure parents’ disciplinary stylemeasure children’s behaviormeasure children’s behavior

Examine the relationship between categoriesExamine the relationship between categories Correlation reveals relationships among factsCorrelation reveals relationships among facts

e.g., more democratic parents have children e.g., more democratic parents have children who behave betterwho behave better

Correlational StudyCorrelational StudyCorrelation cannot prove causationCorrelation cannot prove causation

Do democratic parents produce better behaved Do democratic parents produce better behaved children?children?

Do better behaved children encourage parents to Do better behaved children encourage parents to be democratic?be democratic?

May be an unmeasured common factorMay be an unmeasured common factor e.g., good neighborhoods produce democratic e.g., good neighborhoods produce democratic

adults and well-behaved childrenadults and well-behaved children

Coefficient of CorrelationCoefficient of Correlation Numerical indication of magnitude and direction Numerical indication of magnitude and direction

of the relationship between two variables.of the relationship between two variables. Always falls between the range of -1.00 to +1.00.Always falls between the range of -1.00 to +1.00. The number indicates the strength of the relationship.The number indicates the strength of the relationship.

The closer the number is to 1.00 the stronger the correlation.The closer the number is to 1.00 the stronger the correlation. Sign indicates the direction of the relationship between the two Sign indicates the direction of the relationship between the two

variables.variables. Positive correlation—two variables vary systematically in the Positive correlation—two variables vary systematically in the

SAME directionSAME direction Negative correlation—two variables vary systematically in Negative correlation—two variables vary systematically in

OPPOSITE directionsOPPOSITE directions

ExperimentsExperiments Experimental—strategies for inferring cause and Experimental—strategies for inferring cause and

effect relationships among variableseffect relationships among variables Direct way to test a hypothesis about a cause-Direct way to test a hypothesis about a cause-

effect relationship between factorseffect relationship between factors Factors are called Factors are called variables variables One variable is controlled by the experimenterOne variable is controlled by the experimenter

e.g., democratic vs. authoritarian classroome.g., democratic vs. authoritarian classroom The other is observed and measuredThe other is observed and measured

e.g., cooperative behavior among studentse.g., cooperative behavior among students

Experimental VariablesExperimental VariablesIndependent variableIndependent variable (IV) (IV)

the controlled factor in an experiment (i.e. the the controlled factor in an experiment (i.e. the one you manipulate)one you manipulate)

hypothesized to cause an effect on another hypothesized to cause an effect on another variablevariable

Dependent variable (DV)Dependent variable (DV) the measured facts the measured facts hypothesized to be influenced by IVhypothesized to be influenced by IV

Independent VariableIndependent VariableMust have at least two levelsMust have at least two levels

categories – male vs. femalecategories – male vs. female numeric – ages 10, 12, 14numeric – ages 10, 12, 14

Simplest is experimental vs. control groupSimplest is experimental vs. control group experimental gets treatmentexperimental gets treatment control does notcontrol does not

Experimental DesignExperimental Design Random sample—every member of the Random sample—every member of the

population being studied should have an population being studied should have an equal chance of being selected for the studyequal chance of being selected for the study

Random assignment—every subject in the Random assignment—every subject in the study should have an equal chance of being study should have an equal chance of being placed in either the experimental or control placed in either the experimental or control group group

Limitations of Experimental Limitations of Experimental DesignsDesigns

Often criticized for having little to do with Often criticized for having little to do with actual behavior because of strict actual behavior because of strict laboratory conditions.laboratory conditions.

Ethical considerations in creating some Ethical considerations in creating some more “real life” situations.more “real life” situations.

Ethical GuidelinesEthical Guidelines Informed consent and voluntary Informed consent and voluntary

participationparticipationStudents as participantsStudents as participantsUse of deceptionUse of deceptionConfidentiality of informationConfidentiality of information Information about the study and debriefingInformation about the study and debriefing