What is Personality?Personality includes

the important differences in the way people behave

Personality includes the consistent way in which people behave.

Personality is defined as distinctive, unique, and relatively enduring ways of thinking, feeling, and acting

Personality

Personality is an interaction between biology and environment

Personality refers to a person’s unique and relatively stable pattern of thoughts, feelings, and actions

* Genetic studies suggest inheritability of personality characteristics

* Other studies suggest learned components of personality

PHRENOLOGY – The study of personality based on the distinctive shapes of a skull. Phrenology is one of the earliest attempts to explain personality.

Some people believe in the value of phrenology today however other theories of personality are now more accepted.

Four Theories of Personality1. Trait

2. Psychoanalytic

3. Humanistic

4. Behaviorism and Socio-Cognitive

TRAIT THEORIESTrait Theorists describe personality

according to the traits (characteristics) that people display on a consistent basis.

All Trait Theorists have two fundamental beliefs:

1. All people possess all traits

2. All traits can be quantified

The First Trait TheoryUNSTABLE

STABLE

cholericmelancholic

phlegmatic sanguineINTROVERTED EXTRAVERTED

MoodyAnxious

RigidSober

PessimisticReservedUnsociable

Quiet

SociableOutgoing

TalkativeResponsiveEasygoingLively

CarefreeLeadership

PassiveCarefulThoughtful

Peaceful

ControlledReliableEven-tempered

Calm

TouchyRestlessAggressive

ExcitableChangeable

ImpulsiveOptimistic

Active

Hans Eysenck (1916-

1997) theorized that introverted people share certain traits, while extraverted people share the opposite traits. His Dimensions of Personality theory includes: Stability vs. Instability, Extraversion vs. Introversion, and Psychoticism.

(Cool and calm)

(Easily Irritable)

(Somber and Sad)

(Cheerful and Confident)

Personality TraitsGordon Allport (1897-1997)identified

about4500 traits that all people possess and divided them into two groups:

Common Traits – those that apply to everyone

Individual Traits – those that apply to a specific person. The individual traits are:

1. Cardinal Trait – a trait that is so strong it almost identifies the person.

2. Central Trait – a trait that makes us predictable.

3. Secondary Trait – our preferences, such as for food or music. Because secondary traits change from time to time they are the least important to our personality.

Personality TraitsRaymond Cattell identified personality according to

a mathematical technique called factor analysis.

It describes the extent to which different personality variables are related.

Using factor analysis Cattell theorized that there are 16 source traits – traits that are at the core of personality. By measuring these traits, psychologists could predict people’s behavior in certain situations.

Cattell’s Sixteen Source Traits

Raymond Cattell(1905-1998)

All trait theorists have devised a number of ways to measure personality. Each involves a different number of traits or factors. However all trait psychologists have shown that five traits appear repeatedly in their studies. Those five traits are called “The Big 5”.

Evaluating Trait Theory “The Big 5” Trait Theory model is able to describe personality:

* Based on cross-cultural human studies that find good agreement for the Big 5 model in many cultures

* Since there appears to be highly correlated behaviors not only in adulthood, but also in childhood and even late preschoolers

Criticisms of trait theory include:

2. Lack of explanation as to WHY traits develop

1. The difficulty of explaining transient versus long-lasting traits

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORYSigmund Freud (1856-1939) developed

Psychoanalytic theory, to explain personality on the basis of unconscious forces affecting behavior.

Freud argued that as we have impulses that cause us anxiety; our personality develops Defense Mechanisms to protect against anxiety

Freud argued that Personality is made up of many parts, some of which are unconscious (below our level of awareness)

He stated that we are unaware of some aspects of our mental states because we have different Levels of Consciousness

The Construct of the Mind 1. Id – the part of the unconscious personality that contains our needs, drives, instincts, and repressed material. It operates on the “pleasure principle”.

3. Ego – the part of personality that is in touch with reality and strives to meet the demands of the id and the superego in socially acceptable ways. It operates on the “reality principle”.

2. Superego – the part of personality that is the source of conscience and counteracts the socially undersirable impulses of the id. It contains values and ideals.

Freudian Theory Freud proposed that there are

three Levels of Consciousness

3. UnconsciousWishes, feelings, impulses that lies beyond awarenessIt is the location of the Id and some aspects of the

Superego

2. PreconsciousMemories etc. that can be recalled

1. ConsciousWhat we’re aware ofIt is the location of the Ego and some aspects of the

Superego

Freudian TheoryAnxiety occurs when there is a conflict

between the Id and the Superego and as a result the Ego feels threatened.

The ego deals with the problem through: coping strategies by dealing with the problem directly or through the use of Defense Mechanisms

Impulses from the id threaten to get out of control andthe ego perceives danger from the environment

Defense MechanismsDefense mechanisms are unconscious mental processes that

protect the conscious part of a person’s personality (ego) from developing anxiety. Some examples are:

Repression: anxiety-evoking thoughts are pushed into the unconscious

Denial: person refuses to recognize reality

Projection: person attributes their own unacceptable impulses to others

Sublimation: person channels energy from unacceptable impulses to create socially acceptable accomplishments

Defense Mechanisms (cont.)Rationalization: Substituting socially acceptable reasons

Displacement: Substituting a less threatening object for the original object of impulse

Regression: Responding to a threatening situation in a way appropriate to an earlier age or level of development

Reaction formation: Refusing to acknowledge unacceptable urges, thoughts or feelings by exaggerating the opposite state

Intellectualization: Ignoring the emotional aspects of a painful experience by focusing on abstract thoughts, words, or ideas

Assessing the UnconsciousProjective Tests

used to assess personality (e.g., Rorschach or TAT tests)

How? provides ambiguous stimuli and subject projects his or her motives into the ambiguous stimuli

Assessing the Unconscious -- Rorschach

Rorschach Inkblot Test the most widely used

projective testa set of 10 inkblots

designed by Hermann Rorschach

Rorschach

Assessing the Unconscious--Rorschach

used to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

Assessing the Unconscious--TAT

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)• people express their inner motives through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

PSYCHOANALYTICS IN FREUD’S FOOTSTEPS

Alfred Adler (1870-1937) believed that the driving force in people’s lives is a desire to overcome their feelings of inferiority.

He believed that everyone struggles with inferiority. A person who continually tries to compensate for his weakness and avoid feelings of inadequacy has an inferiority complex.

PSYCHOANALYTICS IN FREUD’S FOOTSTEPS

Alfred Adler believed people are motivated by social interest and develop an agreeable lifestyle in order to feel superior.

Adler also believed that birth order greatly affects personality.

First Born - Privileged until Dethroned

Second Born - In shadow of 1st Born inferiority, restlessness

Youngest - Pampered, dependent

Only Child - Higher intellect, timid, passive, & withdrawn

PSYCHOANALYTICS IN FREUD’S FOOTSTEPS

Archetypes transcend cultures and can be found in cultural myths, religious beliefs, and symbols separated by time. Archetypes influence our thoughts and feelings and help us build the foundation of our personalities.

Carl Jung (1875-1961) worked with Freud but disagreed with Freud in some ways. He believed that all people have a:

Personal Unconscious: unique for each person (similar to Freud’s idea of the unconscious)

Collective Unconscious: a storehouse of instincts, urges, and memories for all humanity. These inherited, universal ideas are called archetypes.

HUMANISM THEORY

Humanism rejects the biological determinism and irrational unconscious forces of the Psychoanalytics

Humanistic personality theories emphasize personal growth and the achievement of maximum potential by each unique individual.

Humanism views each person as basically good and with freedom in making choices. People are striving for self-fulfillment.

Humanism argues that people carry a perception of themselves and of the world. The goal for a humanist is to develop/promote a positive self-concept.

Humanistic Perspectives

Carl Rogers (1902-1987) believes the goal of all people is to be “fully-functioning”.

To be fully-functioning we need to rid ourselves of the conflict between our own self-image and what we believe other people see in us.

Carl Rogers Humanistic Theories

Our goal is to receive unconditional positive regard – Having other people value you for who your are therefore you develop a positive self image and become fully-functioning.

Each person has a self – your own image that is acquired over the years by observing how other people react to you.

Each person strives for positive regard – seeing yourself in a positive light as a result of feedback received from interaction with others.

Sometimes a positive regard is only reached by having conditions of worth placed upon you. (Conditions you must meet in order to be regarded positively)

Abraham Maslow Humanistic Theories

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) emphasized the basic goodness of human nature. He also believed that people try to become the best that they can become – to fulfill their own unique potential (self-actualization).

Characteristics of Self-Actualized People

They are realistically oriented

They accept themselves, other people, and the natural world for what they are

They have a great deal of spontaneity

They are problem-centered rather than self-centered.

They have an air of detachment and a need for privacy

They are autonomous

Their appreciation of people and things is fresh, not stereotyped

Characteristics of Self-Actualized People (continued)Most have had profound mystical or spiritual experiences, although not necessarily religious in character

They identify with humanity

They have a few deep intimate relationships rather than many superficial relationships

They do not confuse means with ends

They are creative and resist conformity

Maslow believed that to become self-actualized all people must first satisfy different levels of needs that dominate our thoughts and behaviors. His Hierarchy of Needs demonstrates the different levels.

BEHAVIORISM THEORYBehaviorists believe that as individuals differ in their learning experiences, they acquire different behaviors and, hence, different personalities.

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) studied how Contingencies of Reinforcement (the occurrence of rewards or punishments following particular behaviors) shaped behavior and therefore personality.

SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIESSocial Cognitive theorists believe that personality is acquired by a combination of reinforcement and observational learning.

Albert Bandura (1925 - )believed that people direct their own behavior by their choice of models. (You are more likely to learn new behaviors from friends of your own choosing than from friends your parents choose for you.)

Bandura (continued)Bandura promoted Reciprocal Determinism – the interaction of

the observer, the behavior of the individual being observed, and the environment in which the behavior occurs.

The goal of our behavior is self-efficacy – our own view of our ability to succeed - concerning any decision we make. If our outcome expectations are met we will make similar decisions on future similar situations.

WHICH THEORY DO YOU BELIEVE IS CORRECT?

TRAIT THEORY – All people possess all traits and all traits can be measured

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY – Unconscious forces motivate our behavior and personality is determined by early childhood experiences

HUMANISM THEORY – People are driven toward self-actualization

BEHAVIORISM AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY - People learn through the consequences of their behavior and from role models