What is Memory?

The Processes of encoding, storage & retrieval

What is Memory?

• The encoding, storage and later retrieval of a response that was previously acquired.

• The Learning Process is made up of Two Stages: Acquisition & Retention

Acquisition• Acquisition – The initial learning of information.

• Affected by…

• 1.     Attention Process

• 2.     Degree of Motivation

• 3.     Preparedness of the Learner

• 4.     Type of Practice Followed

• 5.     Kind of Material to be Learned

• 6.     Transfer of Training (Application)

Situational Factors that Influence Acquisition

Attention• Sensory Gating – process by which the brain sends

messages to some of the sensory systems to decrease the amount of information they must deal with.– Example: Feeling of clothes, “white” noise

• Parallel vs. Sequential Attention (parallel sensory processing)– Parallel – Useful only when receiving new info. Brain processes

several different stimuli simultaneously.– Sequential Attention – Higher Level, treat each piece of info

separately in order.

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Factors Influencing Attention• Feature Extraction (Decoding) – Sensory System

selects which incoming stimuli to process then establishes meaning for these stimuli.– Example: “r” is different from “f”

• Characteristics of the Learner:– Individual Differences: development, motivation, expression

of emotions

• Preparedness – Time & Place. Example: Chimps can’t speak but are prepared for signing.

• The Learning Curve: Performance is not always an accurate indicator of learning.

Methods of Acquisition• 1.     Overlearning – any repetition over the point of acquisition

– Follows the law of diminishing returns – more is not always better.• 2.     Knowledge of Results: Feedback – any info about the effect of a

response.– Leads to faster acquisition of new material– Immediate feedback is more beneficial than delayed

• 3.     Distribution of Practice – Study - Rest - Study – Rest. (Take Breaks)

• 4.     Whole-Part Distribution – Deciding whether to learn the entire amount of material as a whole or divide it into parts to learn. Depends on the task.

• 5.     Active vs. Passive Approach – The more involved (active) you are in your learning the better you will remember it.

• 6. Content – We are better able to remember info that we can make associations to and infer meaning from.

The Information-Processing Model

Information Processing Model

• Encoding - getting information into the memory system

• Storage - the retaining of encoded information over time

• Retrieval - getting encoded information out of memory storage

How is Our Memory Like a Computer?

• Both encode, store, and retrieve data

• We can activate information from our long term memory (hard drives)

• Information on the screen disappears if not used right away – short term memory

Encoding:Serial Position Effect

Serial Position Effect

• The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list

• Primacy effect – the ability to recall information near the beginning of a list

• Recency effect – the ability to recall information near the end of a list

Primacy/Recency Effector

Serial Position Effect(From Craik & Watkins, 1973)

Encoding:Spacing Effect

Spacing Effect = Distributed Practice

• Spreading rehearsal out in several sessions separated by period of time

• Yields better retention than is achieved through massed practice (cramming)

Massed Practice = Cramming

• Putting all rehearsal together in one long session (cramming)

• Not as effective as distributed practice

Encoding:Encoding Meaning

Semantic Encoding

• The encoding of meaning

• What does this mean?

• What are examples of this?

• How can I apply this to my life?

• Encoding information that is meaningful enhances recall

How does this apply to me?

Self-Reference Effect• Type of semantic encoding

• Making information meaningful to a person by making it relevant to one’s life

• See how the “mental athletes” at the annual Memoriad do it – ABC News Report (4 min)

Semantic Encoding(From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

Acoustic Encoding

• Encoding information based on the sounds of the information

Acoustic Encoding (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

Visual Encoding

• Encoding information based on the images of the information

Visual Encoding (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

Encoding:Organizing Information

Chunking• Organizing information into

meaningful units

• More information can be encoded if organized into meaningful chunks.

Encoding:Mnemonic Devices

Mnemonic Device

• A memory trick or technique for remembering specific facts

• “Every good boy does fine” to remember the notes on the lines of the scale

Method of Loci

• A mnemonic device in which the person associates items to be remembered with imaginary places

Peg-Word System

• A mnemonic device in which the person associates items to remember with a list of peg words already memorized

• Goal is to visualize the items to remember with the items on the pegs

Peg Word System

Categorical Clustering

• Grouping items you want to remember by categories

• A type of chunking

• Example: Grocery list organized by aisles or food category.

Acronyms

• Formed by the initial letters of INDIVIDUAL words.

• Example: HOMES = Names of the Great Lakes

Acrostics

• Acrostics are formed by the first letters of components LONGER THAN one word

• Example: Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally (Math)

• Example: Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge (Music)

Interactive Images

• Link a set of isolated words by creating visual representations for the words and then picturing interactions among the items.

• Example: If you had to remember a list of random things like an aardvark, pencil, table and book picture the aardvark sitting on a table holding pencil in its claws and writing in a book.

Keyword System

• Learning isolated words by linking sounds and meanings together.

• Example: Elvis shook his pelvis– Stalactite holds tight to the ceiling– Fibula lies beneath the Tibia– Tibia is on top of the fibula

Do Mnemonics Work?

• Watch this 8 minute video on how the world’s best memory competitors use mnemonics.

• Andi Bell - World Memory Champion 2002 - BBC (5 min) - How the Method of Loci & Interactive Images mnemonics help a memory champion remember 520 cards in order in a short amount of time. See how the host of this BBC show does when he tries this method (6 min).

Storage:Stages of Memory

Three Storage Systems

• Three distinct storage systems :

– Sensory Memory

– Short-Term Memory (includes Working Memory)

– Long-Term Memory

Three Stages of Memory• Three memory stages that differ in…

– Capacity – How much info can be stored– Duration – How long the info can be stored– Function – what is done with the stored info capacity and duration.

• Information is transferred from one stage to another

Long-term memory

Working orShort-term

Memory

Sensory

Input

Sensory Memory

AttentionEncoding

Retrieval

Maintenance Rehearsal

Sensory Memory

Sensory

InputSensoryMemory

• Function—holds information long enough to be processed for basic physical characteristics

• Capacity—largecan hold many items at once

• Duration—very brief retention of images•.3 sec for visual info•2 sec for auditory info

Sensory Memory

Sensory

InputSensoryMemory

Divided into two types:1. Iconic Memory–

visual information, • ½ second

2. Echoic Memory– sound information, • 2-3 seconds*Information held just long enough to

make a decision on its importance

Sensory Memory

Sensory

InputSensoryMemory

• Sensory memory forms automatically, without attention or interpretation

• Attention is needed to transfer information to working memory

Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment

Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment

Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment

Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment

Want to try this experiment yourself? Click HERE

Sperling’s Experiment Recap• Presented matrix of letters for

1/20 of a second

• Report as many letters as possible

• Subjects recall only half of the letters

• Was this because subjects didn’t have enough time to

view entire matrix? No• How did Sperling know this?

Sperling’s Experiment Recap• Sperling showed people can see

and recall ALL the letters momentarily

• Sounded low, medium or high tone immediately after matrix disappeared– tone signaled 1 row to report

– recall was almost perfect

High

Medium

Low

Memory for image fades after 1-3 seconds or so, making report of entire display hard to do

Short-Term Memory

• Conscious, activated memory which holds information briefly before it is stored or forgotten

• Holds approximately seven, plus or minus two, chunks of information

• Can retain the information as long as it is rehearsed

• Also called “working memory”

Working Memory

• Function - conscious processing of information– where information is actively worked on

• Capacity - limited (holds 7 +/- 2 items)

• Duration - brief storage (about 30 seconds)

• Code - often based on sound or speech even with visual inputs

Working orShort-term

Memory

Sensory

Input

Sensory Memory

Attention

Maintenance Rehearsal

Working orShort-term

Memory

Sensory

Input

Sensory Memory

Attention

• Mental or verbal repetition of information Allows information to remain in working memory longer than the usual 30 seconds

Maintenance rehearsal

Ways to Improve STM: Chunking

• Grouping small bits of information into larger units of information– expands working memory load

• Which is easier to remember?– 4 8 3 7 9 2 5 1 6– 483 792 516

Sloth Meets Chunk

Storage:Long-Term Memory

Long-term memory

Working orShort-term

Memory

Sensory

Input

Sensory Memory

AttentionEncoding

Retrieval

Maintenance Rehearsal

Long-Term Memory

• The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

• Holds memories without conscious effort

Retrieval

Retrieval

• The process of getting information out of memory storage

• Two forms of retrieval

– Recall

– Recognition

Name the Seven Dwarves

Take out a piece of paper

Recall• A measure of memory in which the person

must retrieve information learned earlier

• Example: Essay, fill-in-the-blank, and short answer test questions test recall

• Recall Tests will do THIS to your head.

Recognition

• A measure of memory in which a person must identify items learned earlier

• Example: Multiple choice and matching test questions test recognition

Now pick out the seven dwarves.

Turn your paper over.

Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Shy Droopy Dopey Sniffy Wishful Puffy Dumpy Sneezy Pop Grumpy Bashful Cheerful Teach Snorty Nifty Happy Doc Wheezy Stubby Poopy

Seven Dwarves

Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful

Retrieval: Context

Context Effect

• The enhanced ability to retrieve information when you are in an environment similar to the one in which you encoded the information

Retrieval:State Dependency

State Dependent Memory

• The enhanced ability to retrieve information when the person is in the same physical and emotional state they were in when they encoded the information

• The retrieval state is congruent with the encoding state

Let’s Review

The Three Processes of Memory

Encoding

• The processing of information into the memory system.

Typing info into a computer Getting a girls name at a party

Storage

• The retention of encoded material over time.

Pressing Ctrl S and saving the info.

Trying to remember her name when you leave the party.

Retrieval• The process of getting the information out

of memory storage.

Finding your document and opening it up.

Seeing her the next day and calling her the wrong name (retrieval failure).