What is Memory?

Holding on to what you’ve learned over time through encoding, storage & retrieval

Acquisition• Acquisition – The initial learning of information.

• Affected by…

• 1.     Attention Process

• 2.     Degree of Motivation

• 3.     Preparedness of the Learner

• 4.     Type of Practice Followed

• 5.     Kind of Material to be Learned

• 6.     Transfer of Training (Application)

The Information-Processing Model

(comparing our memory to a computer)

Information Processing Model

• Encoding - getting information into the memory system

• Storage - the retaining of encoded information over time

• Retrieval - getting encoded information out of memory storage

How is Our Memory Like a Computer?

• Both encode, store, and retrieve data

• We can activate information from our long term memory (hard drives)

• Information on the screen disappears if not used right away – short term memory

• You use certain pathways to find info in folders just like we use neural pathways to find info in the brain (Connectionism)

Encoding

• The processing of information into the memory system.

Typing info into a computer Getting a girl’s name at a party

Storage

• The retention of encoded material over time.

Typing the info in and hitting save to put in

on the HD.

Trying to remember her name when you leave the party.

Retrieval• The process of getting the information out

of memory storage.

Finding your document in its folder and opening it up.

Seeing her the next day and calling her the wrong name (retrieval failure).

Atkinson & Shiffrin 3-Stage Theory of Memory

• Three memory stages that differ in…– Capacity – How much info can be stored– Duration – How long the info can be stored– Function – what is done with the stored info capacity and duration.

• Information is transferred from one stage to another

Atkinson & Shiffrin 3-Stage Theory of Memory

• Three memory stages that differ in…– Capacity – How much info can be stored– Duration – How long the info can be stored– Function – what is done with the stored info capacity and duration.

• Information is transferred from one stage to another

Atkinson & Shiffrin 3-Stage Theory of Memory

• Three memory stages that differ in…– Capacity – How much info can be stored– Duration – How long the info can be stored– Function – what is done with the stored info capacity and duration.

• Information is transferred from one stage to another

Atkinson & Shiffrin 3-Stage Theory of Memory

• Three memory stages that differ in…– Capacity – How much info can be stored– Duration – How long the info can be stored– Function – what is done with the stored info capacity and duration.

• Information is transferred from one stage to another

Atkinson & Shiffrin 3-Stage Theory of Memory

• Three memory stages that differ in…– Capacity – How much info can be stored– Duration – How long the info can be stored– Function – what is done with the stored info capacity and duration.

• Information is transferred from one stage to another

Atkinson & Shiffrin 3-Stage Theory of Memory

• Three memory stages that differ in…– Capacity – How much info can be stored– Duration – How long the info can be stored– Function – what is done with the stored info capacity and duration.

• Information is transferred from one stage to another

Parallel Processing• Brain’s ability to do process different pieces

of information simultaneously.

• Example: How many different things must you do/process to drive a car?

Atkinson & Shiffrin 3-Stage Theory of Memory

• Three memory stages that differ in…– Capacity – How much info can be stored– Duration – How long the info can be stored– Function – what is done with the stored info capacity and duration.

• Information is transferred from one stage to another

Memory’s 1st Stage: Sensory Memory

• Iconic Memory or Visual sensory memory—brief memory (.3 second) of an image or icon.– George Sperling studied iconic memory – (try his experiment yourself with a link on

our website)

• Echoic Memory or Auditory sensory memory—brief memory of a sound or echo. Auditory sensory memories may last a bit longer than visual sensory memories (3 seconds)

Sperling’s Sensory Memory ExperimentHow much does it hold and for how long?

• Presented matrix of letters for 1/20 of a second

• Report as many letters as possible

• Subjects recall only half of the letters

• Was this because subjects didn’t have enough time to

view entire matrix? No• How did Sperling know this?

Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment

Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment

Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment

Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment

Sperling’s Experiment• Sperling showed people can see

and recall ALL the letters momentarily

• Sounded low, medium or high tone immediately after matrix disappeared– tone signaled 1 row to report

– recall was almost perfect

High

Medium

Low

Memory for image fades after 1-3 seconds or so, making report of entire display hard to do

• Function - conscious processing of information– where information is actively worked on

• Capacity - limited (holds 7 +/- 2 items) – Holds about 7 numbers, 6 letters or 5 words before forgetting occurs

• Duration - brief storage (about 30 seconds)

• Code - often based on sound or speech even with visual inputs

Working orShort-term

Memory

Sensory

Input

Sensory Memory

Attention

Short-Term Memory/Working Memory

Baddeley’s Working Memory ModelHow Short-Term Memory Works

• Visuospatial sketch pad - holds visual and spatial info• Phonological loop - holds verbal information• Central executive - coordinates all activities of working memory;

– Focuses attention on incoming info you want to get to your LTM– Grabs info from LTM needed to make sense of incoming info.

Information you select and pay attention to makes it to…

SHORT-TERM MEMORY• STM has a very limited capacity for short

amount of time.

• It can multi-task but better off giving one thing at a time your complete attention.– Multi-taskers are Jack of Trades but a Master of

None.

• Young Adults have the best working memory

Working Memory’s Storage Ability

• What happens if you need to keep information in working memory longer than 30 seconds?

• To demonstrate, memorize the following phone number (presented one digit at a time)...

8 361975

Working Memory Storage

• What is the number?857-9163The number lasted in your working memory longer than 30 secondsSo, how were you able to remember the number?

Maintenance Rehearsal

Working orShort-term

Memory

Sensory

Input

Sensory Memory

Attention

• Mental or verbal repetition of information Allows information to remain in working memory longer than the usual 30 seconds

Maintenance rehearsal

Maintenance Rehearsal

• What happens if you can’t use maintenance rehearsal?• Memory decays quickly• To demonstrate, again memorize a phone number (presented one

digit at a time)– BUT, have to count backwards from 1,000 by sevens (i.e., 1014, 1007,

1000 … etc.)

6 490582

Working Memory StoreWhat is the number?

628-5094Without rehearsal, memory fades

Peterson’s STM Task

• Test of memory for 3-letter nonsense syllables

• Participants count backwards for a few seconds, then recall

• After 3 seconds recall drops by half

• Without rehearsal, memory fades

Ways to Improve STM: Chunking

• Organizing a variety of items into understandable smaller units– More information can be encoded if organized

into meaningful chunks

– Which is easier to remember?– 4 8 3 7 9 2 5 1 6– 483 792 516

Encoding:“Saving” info to

Long Term Memory (LTM)

Semantic Encoding

• Encoding information based on the meaning of the information

Semantic Encoding(From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

Acoustic Encoding

• Encoding information based on the sounds of the information

Acoustic Encoding (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

Visual Encoding

• Encoding information based on the images of the information

Visual Encoding (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

Automatic vs. Effortful Processing• Some information,

such as where you ate dinner yesterday, you process automatically.

• Other information, such as this chapter's concepts, requires effort to encode and remember.

Types of LTM

ImplicitExplicit/Declarative

General Knowledge(semantic memory)

Personal Events(episodic memory)

Skills andProcedures(procedural memory)

Conditioning(CC & OC)

Hippocampus Cerebellum

Explicit Memories are easy to explain facts or experiences. Implicit Memories are hard to put into words. They Involve skills and reactions we’ve learned.

Processing/Encoding leads to LTM

Two Types of Explicit Memory

1. Episodic information—information about events or “episodes”

2. Semantic information—information about facts, general knowledge, school work

Episodic Memory

• Memory tied to your own personal experiences

• Examples:– What month is your birthday?

– Do you like to eat caramel apples?

• Q: Why are these explicit memories?

• A: Because you can actively declare your answers to these questions

Semantic Memory• Memory not tied to personal events• General facts and definitions about

the world• Examples:

– How many tires on a car?– What is a cloud?– What color is a banana?

Automatic Processing = No Effort Encoding!

•Procedural Memories – How to swim, ride a bike or read•Required effort and practice at first but later it’s automatic!

•Classically Conditioned/Learned Responses – Learned Associations that result in Emotional or Nervous System reactions

We Automatically encode information about:•Space – Where things are you’ve encountered•Time – Sequence of events in your day•Frequency – How often something happened

•All of these are forms of explicit memories

Can lead to 2 types of implicit Memories:

Spring is theThe most beautifulTime of the year.

Read the next sentence out loud to yourself…

Sometime automatic processing can cause us to miss something

Effortful Processing Strategies:

Mnemonic Devices

Mnemonic Device

• A memory trick or technique for remembering specific facts

• “Every good boy does fine” to remember the notes on the lines of the scale

Peg-Word System

• A mnemonic device in which the person associates items to remember with a list of peg words already memorized

• Goal is to visualize the items to remember with the items on the pegs

Acronyms

• Formed by the initial letters of INDIVIDUAL words.

• Example: HOMES = Names of the Great Lakes

Method of Loci

• Associate items to be remembered with imaginary places you know well.

Acrostics• Create an entire sentence from the first letter of

each item you want to remember.– Serves as a memory prompt for actual items.

• Example: Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally (Math)

• Example: Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge (Music)

Interactive Images

• Link a set of isolated words by creating visual representations for the words & then picturing interactions among the items.

• Example: If you had to remember a list of random things like an aardvark, pencil, table and book… – Picture the aardvark sitting on a table holding pencil in

its claws and writing in a book.

Hierarchies:Categorical Clustering

• Organizing items you want to remember by categories

• A type of chunking

• Example: Grocery list organized by aisles or food category.

Keyword System

• Learning isolated words by linking sounds and meanings together.

• Example: Elvis shook his pelvis– Stalactite holds tight to the ceiling– Cation is pawsitive– Tibia is on top of the fibula

Do Mnemonics Work?

• Watch this 8 minute video on how the world’s best memory competitors use mnemonics.

• Andi Bell - World Memory Champion 2002 - BBC (5 min) - How the Method of Loci & Interactive Images mnemonics help a memory champion remember 520 cards in order in a short amount of time. See how the host of this BBC show does when he tries this method (6 min).

Encoding:How you study matters!

Spacing Effect = Distributed Practice = Success!

Massed Practice = Cramming

• Putting all rehearsal together in one long session (cramming)

• Not as effective as distributed practice

What level are you encoding the info?Shallow vs. Deep Processing

• Shallow is simple memorizing without thought.

• Deep is finding meaning to what you’re learning

Semantic Encoding is Deep Processing• “What does this mean?”

• What are examples of this?

• How can I apply this to my life?

• Actively question new information

• Think about its implications

• Try to generate your own examples based on your experiences

• Encoding information that is meaningful enhances recall

How does this apply to me?

Self-Reference Effect

• Type of semantic encoding/deep processing

• Making information meaningful to a person by making it relevant to one’s life

• See how the “mental athletes” at the annual Memoriad do it – ABC News Report (4 min)

Types of Effortful Processing

• Maintenance Rehearsal – go over something repeatedly till it is encoded in LTM

• Elaborative Rehearsal – relate the info to info you already know.– Self-reference effect – applies info to yourself.– Visual imagery – vivid images you can remember.

Remember…• Amount remembered depends on both the time

spent learning and your ability to give it meaning.

• How will you use what you’ve learned in this Module to improve your studying?