What is discourse What is discourse analysis?analysis?

B. Paltridge 2006. B. Paltridge 2006. Discourse Discourse AnalysisAnalysis. Continuum.. Continuum.

Discourse AnalysisDiscourse Analysis

focuses on knowledge focuses on knowledge beyond the word, beyond the word, clauses, phrase and sentenceclauses, phrase and sentence that is that is needed for successful communication.needed for successful communication.

looks at looks at patterns of language across patterns of language across textstexts and considers the and considers the relationshiprelationship between languagebetween language and the and the social and social and cultural context cultural context in which it is used.in which it is used.

Discourse AnalysisDiscourse Analysis

considers considers the ways the use of language the ways the use of language presents presents different views of the worlddifferent views of the world and different and different understandingsunderstandings..

examines how the use of language is examines how the use of language is influenced by the influenced by the relationships relationships between participantsbetween participants as well as the as well as the effects the use of language has upon effects the use of language has upon social identities and relationssocial identities and relations..

Discourse AnalysisDiscourse Analysis

considers considers how views of the world and how views of the world and identitiesidentities are are constructedconstructed through through the use of discoursethe use of discourse

examines both examines both spoken and written spoken and written textstexts..

• The term discourse analysis was The term discourse analysis was introduced by Zellig Harris in 1952.introduced by Zellig Harris in 1952.

Discourse Analysis and Discourse Analysis and Relevant ConceptsRelevant ConceptsContextContext

PragmaticsPragmatics

Cultural ways of speaking and Cultural ways of speaking and writingwriting

Communicative competenceCommunicative competence

• Why? Why?

• How do you relate these terms to the How do you relate these terms to the “concerns” of discourse analysis?“concerns” of discourse analysis?

Language-ContextLanguage-Context

• The runway is full at the momentThe runway is full at the moment

• 1. Air traffic controller says it to a 1. Air traffic controller says it to a pilot: pilot: instructioninstruction

• 2. A woman says it to her friend waiting 2. A woman says it to her friend waiting someone to pick up: someone to pick up: simple statementsimple statement

Discourse analysis is the lDiscourse analysis is the language in anguage in useuse. It considers the relation between. It considers the relation between language and contexts in which it is language and contexts in which it is used used and concerned with the description and concerned with the description and analysis of spoken and written and analysis of spoken and written interactions.interactions.

DiscourseDiscourse analysis-Pragmatics analysis-Pragmatics

Pragmatics is concerned with how Pragmatics is concerned with how the interpretation of language the interpretation of language depends on depends on knowledge of the real knowledge of the real worldworld..

It is interested in It is interested in what people what people mean by what they saymean by what they say..

Communicative competenceCommunicative competence

• 4 underlying components of communicative 4 underlying components of communicative competence:competence:

grammatical competencegrammatical competence : mastery of language : mastery of language codescodes

sociolinguistic competencesociolinguistic competence: knowledge of : knowledge of appropriate language useappropriate language use

discourse competencediscourse competence:knowledge of connection :knowledge of connection utterances in a cohesive and coherent textutterances in a cohesive and coherent text

strategic competencestrategic competence: mastery of strategies : mastery of strategies that speakers use to compensate for that speakers use to compensate for breakdowns in communication and the breakdowns in communication and the strategies to enhance the effectiveness of strategies to enhance the effectiveness of the communication.the communication.

Discursive competenceDiscursive competence

• It includes not onlyIt includes not only language-related and language-related and text-level knowledge but also complex text-level knowledge but also complex factors outside of the text factors outside of the text which need to be which need to be taken account for effective communication.taken account for effective communication.

• Textual competenceTextual competence: ability to produce and : ability to produce and interpret contextually appropriate texts. interpret contextually appropriate texts. To do this we draw on our To do this we draw on our linguistic, linguistic, textual, contextual textual, contextual and and pragmatic knowledgepragmatic knowledge of what of what typically occurs typically occurs in a particular in a particular texttext, , how it is typically organized and how how it is typically organized and how it is typically interpretedit is typically interpreted..

• Eg. Eg. Internet communication (MSN Messenger), Internet communication (MSN Messenger), term paper, seminarterm paper, seminar, etc., etc.

Discursive competenceDiscursive competence

GenericGeneric competence competence describes how we are able describes how we are able to respond to both recurring and new to respond to both recurring and new communicative situations by communicative situations by constructingconstructing, , interpretinginterpreting, , usingusing and and exploitingexploiting conventionsconventions associated with the use of particular kinds of associated with the use of particular kinds of texts, or genres. Eg. e-mail to a lecturer or texts, or genres. Eg. e-mail to a lecturer or a text message to a friend.a text message to a friend.

Social competenceSocial competence describes describes how we use how we use language to take part in social and language to take part in social and institutional interactionsinstitutional interactions in a way that in a way that enables us to enables us to express our social identityexpress our social identity, , within the constraints of the particular within the constraints of the particular social situation and communicative social situation and communicative interaction.interaction.

Different Views of Discourse Different Views of Discourse AnalysisAnalysis

Cazden (1998): analysis of the stretches of Cazden (1998): analysis of the stretches of naturally occuring language; considering naturally occuring language; considering different ways of talking and understandingdifferent ways of talking and understanding

Fairclough (2003) : textually oriented Fairclough (2003) : textually oriented discourse analysis vs. social theoretical discourse analysis vs. social theoretical orientationorientation

Cameron and Klucik (2003): instances of Cameron and Klucik (2003): instances of language in use that are studied under a language in use that are studied under a textually oriented textually oriented view of discourse are view of discourse are still still socially situated socially situated and need to be and need to be interpreted in terms of their social interpreted in terms of their social meanings and functions.meanings and functions.

SummarySummary

DA is a view of language at the DA is a view of language at the level of textlevel of text..

DA is a view of DA is a view of language in uselanguage in use. . (communicative goals, acts, present (communicative goals, acts, present themselves)themselves)

DA considers how people DA considers how people manage interactions manage interactions with each other, other groups, societies and with each other, other groups, societies and culturescultures..

DA focuses on DA focuses on how people do things how people do things beyond beyond languagelanguage, and the , and the ideasideas and and beliefsbeliefs that that they communicate.they communicate.

Discourse as the Social Discourse as the Social Construction of RealityConstruction of Reality

Texts are embedded in social and Texts are embedded in social and cultural practices.cultural practices.

Discourse is both Discourse is both shaped by the shaped by the worldworld as well as as well as shaping the worldshaping the world..

Discourse is Discourse is shaped by languageshaped by language as as well as well as shaping the language that shaping the language that people usepeople use..

Discourse as the Social Discourse as the Social Construction of RealityConstruction of Reality

Discourse is shaped by the Discourse is shaped by the discourse that has preceded or discourse that has preceded or follow itfollow it..

Discourse is shaped byDiscourse is shaped by the medium the medium in which it occurs as well as it in which it occurs as well as it shapes the possibilties of that shapes the possibilties of that medium.medium.

Discourse shapes the range of Discourse shapes the range of possible purposes of textspossible purposes of texts..

Discourse as the Social Discourse as the Social Situated IdentitiesSituated Identities

When we speak or write we use more When we speak or write we use more than just language to display than just language to display who who we arewe are, and how we want people to , and how we want people to see us.see us.

Dressing, gestures, the ways we Dressing, gestures, the ways we think, the attitudes we display, think, the attitudes we display, and the things we value,feel and and the things we value,feel and believe.believe.

Discourse as the Social Discourse as the Social Situated IdentitiesSituated IdentitiesDiscourses invole the Discourses invole the socially situated socially situated identities identities that we enact and recognize in that we enact and recognize in different settings that we interact in: different settings that we interact in: culture culture specific ways of performingspecific ways of performing and and culture culture specific ways of recognizing identities and specific ways of recognizing identities and activitiesactivities..

Discourses involve Discourses involve different styles of different styles of language.language.

Discourses involve Discourses involve characteristic ways of characteristic ways of acting, interacting and feeling and showing acting, interacting and feeling and showing emotion, gesturingemotion, gesturing..

Discourses involve particular ways of Discourses involve particular ways of valuing, valuing, thinking, believing, knowing, speaking and thinking, believing, knowing, speaking and listening, reading and writing.listening, reading and writing.

Discourse and PerformaceDiscourse and Performace

Discourses are sociallyDiscourses are socially constructed constructed rathen than naturalrathen than natural. People “are who . People “are who thay are because of the way they talk” thay are because of the way they talk” not because of who they already are”not because of who they already are”

Social identities are Social identities are not per-givennot per-given, , but but are formed in the use of language are formed in the use of language and the various other ways we display and the various other ways we display who we are, what we think, value and who we are, what we think, value and feelfeel,etc.,etc.

Eg. the rap singerEg. the rap singer

Discourse and IntertextualityDiscourse and Intertextuality

Texts may more or less Texts may more or less implicity or implicity or explicitly cite other texts, they may explicitly cite other texts, they may refer to another texts, or they may refer to another texts, or they may allude to other past, or future textsallude to other past, or future texts..

All texts are All texts are intertextual relationship intertextual relationship with other texts.with other texts.

Eg. The movie “Casablanca” recalls film Eg. The movie “Casablanca” recalls film genres such as genres such as adventure movie, the adventure movie, the patriotic movie, gangester movies, patriotic movie, gangester movies, action movies, spy movies and romanceaction movies, spy movies and romance..

Difference between spoken and Difference between spoken and written languagewritten languageGrammatical intricacy and spoken discourseGrammatical intricacy and spoken discourse

Lexical density in spoken and written Lexical density in spoken and written discoursediscourse

Nominalization in written and spoken Nominalization in written and spoken discoursediscourse

Explicitness in spoken and written discourseExplicitness in spoken and written discourse

Contextualization in spoken and written Contextualization in spoken and written discoursediscourse

The spontaneous nature of spoken discourseThe spontaneous nature of spoken discourse

Repetition, hesitation and redundancy in Repetition, hesitation and redundancy in spoken discoursespoken discourse

• Grammatical intricacy and spoken discourse:Grammatical intricacy and spoken discourse: Written language is more structurally Written language is more structurally complex and elaborate than speech. Halliday complex and elaborate than speech. Halliday (1989) argues that spoken discourse has its (1989) argues that spoken discourse has its own complexity. Gramatical intricacy refers own complexity. Gramatical intricacy refers to to the relationship between clauses in the relationship between clauses in spoken discourse which can be much more spoken discourse which can be much more spread out and with more complex relations spread out and with more complex relations between them than in writing.between them than in writing.

• Lexical density in spoken and written Lexical density in spoken and written discourse:discourse:

• Written language tends to be more lexically Written language tends to be more lexically dense which refers to thedense which refers to the ratio of content ratio of content words to function wordswords to function words..

• Nominalization in written and spoken discourseNominalization in written and spoken discourse

• There is a high level of nominalization in written texts. There is a high level of nominalization in written texts. Actions and events are presented as nouns rather than as Actions and events are presented as nouns rather than as verb. They also include longer noun groupsverb. They also include longer noun groups

• Explicitness in spoken and written discourseExplicitness in spoken and written discourse

• Writing is more explicit than speech. This depends on the Writing is more explicit than speech. This depends on the purpose of text and again is not absolute.purpose of text and again is not absolute.

• Contextualization in spoken and written discourseContextualization in spoken and written discourse

• Writing is more decontextualized than speech. This view Writing is more decontextualized than speech. This view based on the percepin that speech depends on a shared based on the percepin that speech depends on a shared situation and backgroud for interpretation wheras writting situation and backgroud for interpretation wheras writting does not depend on such a shared context. Spoken genres does not depend on such a shared context. Spoken genres determins it.determins it.

• For convesations: YES for academic lectures:NOFor convesations: YES for academic lectures:NO

• The spontaneous nature of spoken discourseThe spontaneous nature of spoken discourse

• Spoken discourse contains more half Spoken discourse contains more half completed and reformulated utterances than completed and reformulated utterances than written discourse. This is because it is written discourse. This is because it is often produced spontaneously.often produced spontaneously.

• Repetition, hesitation and redundancy in Repetition, hesitation and redundancy in spoken discoursespoken discourse

• Spoken discourse involves repetition, Spoken discourse involves repetition, hesitation and redundancy than written hesitation and redundancy than written discourse. It is produced in real time.discourse. It is produced in real time.

• It also involves fillers leke “hhh,er, you It also involves fillers leke “hhh,er, you see”.see”.