What is CDM

7/30/2019 What is CDM

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Climate change refers to a statistically significant variation in eitherthe mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for anextended period (typically decades or longer). Climate change may

be due to natural internal processes or external forcings, or topersistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of theatmosphere or in land use.

The Earth is the only planet in our solar system that supports life. The complex process ofevolution occurred on Earth only because of some unique environmental conditions that werepresent: water, an oxygen-rich atmosphere, and a suitable surface temperature.

Mercury and Venus, the two planets that lie between Earth and the sun, do not support life. Thisis because Mercury has no atmosphere and therefore becomes very hot during the day, while

temperatures at night may reach -140C. Venus, has a thick atmosphere which traps more heatthan it allows to escape, making it too hot (between 150 and 450 C) to sustain life.

Only the Earth has an atmosphere of the proper depth and chemical composition. About 30% ofincoming energy from the sun is reflected back to space while the rest reaches the earth,warming the air, oceans, and land, and maintaining an average surface temperature of about 15C.

The chemical composition of the atmosphere is also responsible for nurturing life on our planet.Most of it is nitrogen (78%); about 21% is oxygen, which all animals need to survive; and only asmall percentage (0.036%) is made up of carbon dioxide which plants require for photosynthesis.

The atmosphere carries out the critical function of maintaining life-sustaining conditions on Earth,

in the following way: each day, energy from the sun (largely in the visible part of the spectrum, butalso some in the ultraviolet, and infra red portions) is absorbed by the land, seas, mountains, etc.If all this energy were to be absorbed completely, the earth would gradually become hotter andhotter. But actually, the earth both absorbs and, simultaneously releases it in the form of infra redwaves (which cannot be seen by our eyes but can be felt as heat, for example the heat that youcan feel with your hands over a heated car engine). All this rising heat is not lost to space, but ispartly absorbed by some gases present in very small (or trace) quantities in the atmosphere,called GHGs (greenhouse gases).

Greenhouse gases (for example, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapour, ozone),re-emit some of this heat to the earth's surface. If they did not perform this useful function, mostof the heat energy would escape, leaving the earth cold (about -18 C) and unfit to support life.

However, ever since the Industrial Revolution began about 150 years ago, man-made activitieshave added significant quantities of GHGs to the atmosphere. The atmospheric concentrations ofcarbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide have grown by about 31%, 151% and 17%,respectively, between 1750 and 2000 (IPCC 2001).


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Variations of the Earth's surface temperature for the past 140 yearsVariations of theEarth's surface temperature for the past 140 years.

The Earths surface temperature is shown year by year (red bars) and approximately decade bydecade (black line, a filtered annual curve suppressing fluctuations below near decadal time-scales). There are uncertainties in the annual data (thin black whisker bars represent the 95%confidence range) due to data gaps, random instrumental errors and uncertainties, uncertaintiesin bias corrections in the ocean surface temperature data and also in adjustments for urbanisationover the land. Over both the last 140 years and 100 years, the best estimate is that the globalaverage surface temperature has increased by 0.6 0.2 C.


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From year 1000 to year 1860 variations in average surface temperature of the NorthernHemisphere are shown (corresponding data from the Southern Hemisphere not available)reconstructed from proxy data (tree rings, corals, ice cores, and historical records). The lineshows the 50-year average, the grey region the 95% confidence limit in the annual data. Fromyears 1860 to 2000 are shown variations in observations of globally and annually averagedsurface temperature from the instrumental record; the line shows the decadal average. Fromyears 2000 to 2100 projections of globally averaged surface temperature are shown for the sixillustrative SRES scenarios and IS92a using a model with average climate sensitivity. The greyregion marked "several models all SRES envelope" shows the range of results from the full rangeof 35 SRES scenarios in addition to those from a range of models with different climatesensitivities. The temperature scale is departure from the 1990 value.

An increase in the levels of GHGs could lead to greater warming, which, in turn, could have animpact on the world's climate, leading to the phenomenon known as climate change. Indeed,scientists have observed that over the 20th century, the mean global surface temperatureincreased by 0.6C (IPCC 2001). They also observed that since 1860 (the year temperaturebegan to be recorded systematically using a thermometer), the 1990's have been the warmestdecade.

However, variations in temperature have also occurred in the past - the best known is the LittleIce Age that struck Europe in the early Middle Ages, bringing about famines, etc. It is thereforedifficult to determine whether current observations of increasing temperature are due to naturalvariabilities or whether they have been forced by anthropogenic (man-made) activities.

Scientific studies and projections are further complicated by the fact that the changes intemperature that they have been observing do not occur uniformly over different layers of thelower atmosphere or even different parts of the earth.

The Earth's climate system constantly adjusts so as to maintain a balance between the energythat reaches it from the sun and the energy that goes from Earth back to space. This means thateven a small rise in temperature could mean accompanying changes in cloud cover and windpatterns. Some of these changes may enhance the warming (positive feedback), while others

may counteract it (negative feedback). Negative feedback (causing a cooling effect) may resultfrom an increase in the levels of aerosols (small particles of matter or liquid that can be producedby natural or man-made activities). Positive feedback may result from an increase in water vapour(because of greater evaporation with temp rise), which itself is a GHG and can further add to thewarming effect.

All the factors described above complicate the work of scientists who try to predict the fallout ofclimate change. Despite these uncertainties, the Third Assessment Report published by the IPCCstates, 'there is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50years is attributable to human activities' (IPCC 2001).

Clean Development Mechanism

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is an arrangement under the Kyoto Protocol allowingindustrialised countries with a greenhouse gas reduction commitment (so-called Annex 1countries) to invest in emission reducing projects in developing countries as an alternative to whatis generally considered more costly emission reductions in their own countries.In theory, the CDM allows for a drastic reduction of costs for the industrialised countries, whileachieving the same amount of emission reductions as without the CDM. Critics argue the


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emission reductions may be less with CDM than without it and may lead to unsustainablepractices. Those in favour of CDM say third-party checking of monitored emission reductionsameliorates this problem.The CDM is supervised by the CDM Executive Board (CDM EB) and is under the guidance of theConference of the Parties (COP/MOP) of the United Nations Framework Convention on ClimateChange (UNFCCC).

History and Purpose

The CDM arose out of the negotiations of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997. The United Statesgovernment desired that there be as much flexibility in achieving emission reductions as possibleand desired a possibility of international emissions trading to achieve cost-effective emissionreductions. During the time it was considered a controversial element and was opposedthroughout by environmental NGOs and initially by developing countries who felt thatindustrialised countries should put their own house in order first and feared the environmentalintegrity of the mechanism would be too hard to guarantee. Eventually, and largely on USinsistence, CDM and two other flexible mechanisms were written into the Kyoto Protocol.The purpose of the CDM was defined under Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol. Apart from helpingAnnex 1 countries comply with their emission reduction commitments, it must assist developingcountries in achieving sustainable development, while also contributing to stabilization ofgreenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere.To prevent industrialised countries from making unlimited use of CDM, Article 6.1 d) has aprovision that use of CDM be supplemental to domestic actions to reduce emissions.The CDM gained momentum in 2005 after the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol. Before theProtocol entered into force, investors considered this a key risk factor. The initial years ofoperation yielded fewer CDM credits than supporters had hoped for, as Parties did not providesufficient funding to the EB. This left it understaffed.

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), provided for under Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol,enables developing countries to participate in joint greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation projects.Under this Protocol,Annex I countries (developed countries and economies in transition) arerequired to reduce GHG emissions to below their 1990 levels.

The CDM enables these countries to meet their reduction commitments in a flexible and cost-effective manner. It allows public or private sector entities in Annex I countries to invest in GHGmitigation projects in developing countries. In return the investing parties receive credits orcertified emission reductions (CERs) which they can use to meet their targets under the KyotoProtocol.

While investors profit from CDM projects by obtaining reductions at costs lower than in their owncountries, the gains to the developing country host parties are in the form of finance, technology,and sustainable development benefits.

The basic rules for the functioning of the CDM were agreed on at the seventh Conference ofParties (COP-7) to the UNFCCC held in Marrakesh, Morocco in October-November 2001.Projects starting in the year 2000 are eligible to earn CERs if they lead to "real, measurable, andlong-term" GHG reductions, which are additional to any that would occur in the absence of theCDM project. This includes afforestation and reforestation projects, which lead to thesequestration of carbon dioxide.


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At COP-7, it was decided that the following types of projects would qualify for fast-track approvalprocedures:

Renewable energy projects with output capacity up to 15 MWEnergy efficiency improvement projects which reduce energy consumption on the supply and/or

demand side by up to 15 GWh annuallyOther project activities that both reduce emissions by sources and directly emit less than 15 kt

CO2

equivalent annually.

The CDM will be supervised by an executive board, and a share of the proceeds from projectactivities will be used to assist developing countries in meeting the costs of adaptation to climatechange.

CDM project processCDM project process

Outline of the project processAn industrialised country that wishes to get credits from a CDM project must obtain the consent ofthe developing country hosting the project that it will contribute to sustainable development. Then,using methodologies approved by the CDM Executive Board (EB), the applicant (the

industrialised country in our case) must make the case that the project would not have happenedanyway (establishing additionality), and must establish a baseline estimating the future emissionsin absence of the registered project. The case is then validated by a third party agency, a so-called Designated Operational Entity to ensure the project results in real, measurable, and long-term emission reductions. The EB then decides whether or not to register (approve) the project. Ifa project is registered and implemented, the EB issues credits (so-called Certified EmissionReductions; CERs) to project participants based on the monitored difference between thebaseline and the actual emissions, verified by a DOE.

Outline of the project processAn industrialised country that wishes to get credits from a CDM project must obtain the consent ofthe developing country hosting the project that it will contribute to sustainable development. Then,using methodologies approved by the CDM Executive Board (EB), the applicant (theindustrialised country in our case) must make the case that the project would not have happenedanyway (establishing additionality), and must establish a baseline estimating the future emissionsin absence of the registered project. The case is then validated by a third party agency, a so-called Designated Operational Entity to ensure the project results in real, measurable, and long-term emission reductions. The EB then decides whether or not to register (approve) the project. Ifa project is registered and implemented, the EB issues credits (so-called Certified EmissionReductions; CERs) to project participants based on the monitored difference between thebaseline and the actual emissions, verified by a DOE.

Establishing additionality

To avoid giving credits to projects that would have happened anyway, rules have been specifiedto ensure additionality of the project, i.e. to ensure that the project reduces emissions more than

would have occurred in the absence of the registered CDM project activity. There are currentlytwo important rivalling interpretations of the additionality criterion:

1. What is often labelled environmental additionality has that a project is additional if theemissions from the project are lower than the baseline. It generally looks at what wouldhave happened without the project.

2. In the other interpretation, sometimes termed project additionality, the project must nothave happened without the CDM.


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Many investors argue that the first interpretation would make CDM simpler. Environmental NGOshave argued that this interpretation would open for free-riders and yield fewer credible emissionsreductions.It is never possible to establish with certainty what would have happened without the CDM or inabsence of a particular project, which is one of the common objections to CDM. Nevertheless, aneducated guess can be made using the guidelines set by the CDM Executive Board for assessingadditionality.

Establishing a baselineThe amount of emission reduction, obviously, depends on the emissions that would haveoccurred without the project. The construction of such a hypothetical scenario is known as thebaseline of the project. The baseline may be estimated through reference to emissions fromsimilar activities and technologies in the same country or other countries, or to actual emissionsprior to project implementation. The partners involved in the project could have an interest inestablishing a baseline with high emissions, which would yield a risk of awarding spurious credits.Independent third party verification is meant to ameliorate this potential problem.

India has undertaken numerous response measures that are contributing to the objectives of theUnited Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). India's developmentplans balance economic development and environmental concerns. The planning process isguided by the principles of sustainable development. Reforms in the energy and power sectorhave accelerated economic growth and enhance the efficiency of energy use. These have beencomplemented by notable initiatives taken by the private sector.

In the last few years several measures relating to environmental issues have been introduced.They have targeted increasing significantly, the capacity of renewable energy installations;improving the air quality in major cities (the world's largest fleet of vehicles fuelled by compressed

natural gas has been introduced in New Delhi); and enhancing afforestation. Other similarmeasures have been implemented by committing additional resources and realigning newinvestments, thus putting economic development on a climate-friendly path.

India has undertaken numerous response measures that are contributing to the objectives of theUnited Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). India's developmentplans balance economic development and environmental concerns. The planning process isguided by the principles of sustainable development. Reforms in the energy and power sectorhave accelerated economic growth and enhance the efficiency of energy use. These have beencomplemented by notable initiatives taken by the private sector.

In the last few years several measures relating to environmental issues have been introduced.They have targeted increasing significantly, the capacity of renewable energy installations;

improving the air quality in major cities (the world's largest fleet of vehicles fuelled by compressednatural gas has been introduced in New Delhi); and enhancing afforestation. Other similarmeasures have been implemented by committing additional resources and realigning newinvestments, thus putting economic development on a climate-friendly path.


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CDM India

The Kyoto Protocol provides for quantified emission limitations and reduction commitments forthe developed countries and mechanisms to facilitate compliance with these targets, reportingand review and it lists six greenhouse gases - Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), NitrousOxide (N2O), Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and Sulphur hexafluoride

(SF6).

India acceded to the Kyoto Protocol in August 2002 and one of the objectives of acceding was tofulfill prerequisites for implementation of Clean Development Mechanism (hereinafter referred toas CDM) projects, in accordance with national sustainable priorities, where-under, a developedcountry would take up greenhouse gas reduction project activities in developing countries wherethe costs of greenhouse gas reduction project activities are usually much lower with the purposeto assist developing country parties in achieving Sustainable Development and in contributing tothe ultimate objective of the Convention and to assist developed country Parties in achievingcompliance with their quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments.India is a Party to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) andthe objective of the Convention is to achieve stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in theatmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate

system.

To strengthen the developed country commitments under the Convention, the Parties adoptedKyoto Protocol in 1997, which commits developed country Parties to return their emissions ofgreenhouse gases to an average of approximately 5.2% below 1990 levels over the period 2008-12.The Kyoto Protocol provides for quantified emission limitations and reduction commitments forthe developed countries and mechanisms to facilitate compliance with these targets, reportingand review and it lists six greenhouse gases - Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), NitrousOxide (N2O), Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and Sulphur hexafluoride(SF6).

India acceded to the Kyoto Protocol in August 2002 and one of the objectives of acceding was to

fulfill prerequisites for implementation of Clean Development Mechanism (hereinafter referred toas CDM) projects, in accordance with national sustainable priorities, where-under, a developedcountry would take up greenhouse gas reduction project activities in developing countries wherethe costs of greenhouse gas reduction project activities are usually much lower with the purposeto assist developing country parties in achieving Sustainable Development and in contributing tothe ultimate objective of the Convention and to assist developed country Parties in achievingcompliance with their quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments. The KyotoProtocol provides for quantified emission limitations and reduction commitments for thedeveloped countries and mechanisms to facilitate compliance with these targets, reporting andreview and it lists six greenhouse gases - Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous Oxide(N2O), Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).

India acceded to the Kyoto Protocol in August 2002 and one of the objectives of acceding was to

fulfill prerequisites for implementation of Clean Development Mechanism (hereinafter referred toas CDM) projects, in accordance with national sustainable priorities, where-under, a developedcountry would take up greenhouse gas reduction project activities in developing countries wherethe costs of greenhouse gas reduction project activities are usually much lower with the purposeto assist developing country parties in achieving Sustainable Development and in contributing tothe ultimate objective of the Convention and to assist developed country Parties in achievingcompliance with their quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments.


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Sectoral initiatives

Coal

Coal is and will remain the mainstay of commercial energy production.To ensure more efficient use of coal the following measures have been taken:

- Rationalization of coal use

- Participation of private sector encouraged

- Reforms in pricing- Technology upgradation involving:

coal-washing, improvements in combustion

technology and the recovery of coal-bedmethane.

OilTo promote fuel efficiency and conservation, the following measures have been undertaken.

Reduction of gas-flaringInstallation of waste heat-recovery systems

Energy auditsEquipment upgradation

Substitution of diesel with natural gas

Establishment ofPCRA (Petroleum Conservation Research Association) to increase awarenessand develop fuel-efficient equipment.

GasThis source of energy is the preferred substitute for coal and oil.In the residential sector, gas has replaced coal and kerosene

CNG is being introduced as an alternative to petrol and diesel in the

transport sectorMajor investments have been made in developing infrastructure for long distance and local

distribution

Import options are under consideration

The share of gas in the power sector has increased from 2-8%

Hydropower

The government's policy objective is to exploit the huge potential in India's

northeast. At present, about 25% of the total installed capacity is accountedfor by hydro.

Renewables

India has a very active programme to promote the use of renewable energy. Some salient features of

the current renewables situation are given source-wise.


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SolarPhotovoltaic systems based on solar energy have been put to a variety of uses in

rural electrification, railway signalling, microwave repeaters, power to border

outposts and TV transmission and reception.

Grid-connected PV power plants with an aggregate capacity of 1900 kWp have

been set up for demand-side management or tail-end voltage support.A 140 MW integrated solar combined cycle (ISCC) plant is being set up based

on solar thermal technology and liquified natural gas.

Solar lanterns, home- and street-lighting systems, stand-alone power plants, and pumping systemsare being promoted. So far, 9,20,000 SPV systems with an aggregate capacity of 82 MWp have been

installed in the country.

Wind energyIndia is among the five leading nations in wind power generation

The installed capacity is 1507 MW, and generators of capacity 250-600 kWare manufactured here.

95% of installed wind power capacity is in the private sector. State-of-the-art wind power systems are also being manufactured in the country. In fact,wind turbine equipment is also being exported to other developing and

developed countries.

Biogas

Biomass power generation plants of a total capacity of about 358 MW

have been installed and gasification systems of a total capacity of 42.8 MW

have been set up for decentralized energy application.In rural areas, over 3.2 million biogas plants and 33 million improved

stoves have been installed.

Small hydro

The total installed capacity of small hydropower projects is 1423 MW.

In addition to these, projects with an aggregate capacity of about 15 MW have been completed usingenergy recovered from urban, municipal and industrial waste.

Energy efficiency and conservation

India is alive to the importance of improving the efficiency of energy

usage and conservation measures.

A Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) has been set up to put intooperation, conservation measures such as energy standards, labelling of

equipment/appliances, building energy codes, and energy audits.

Transport

A major initiative has been the upgradation of vehicular emission norms. A norm called the 'Bharat

2000', similar to Euro I norms were implemented throughout the country on 1 April 2000 for all


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categories of vehicles manufactured in India.

Emission standards (Bharat Stage II) for motor cars and passenger

vehicles came into force in the national capital region (NCR) on 1.4.2000and has been extended to Mumbai, Chennnai and Kolkata. Apart from

reducing pollution locally, these norms result in increased energy

efficiency and therefore reduced GHG emissions.Awareness and training programmes have been undertaken to educate

drivers.

The commercial manufacture ofbattery-operated vehicles has begun in India. This will promotelow/no carbon emitting vehicles.

In Delhi, large-scale switching has taken place from petrol and diesel to compressed natural gas

(CNG) with over 50 000 vehicles having already been converted.

Industry

This sector has made significant advances in the conservation of energy. Government policies,

campaigns by associations of industry and strategic decisions by firms have all contributed to

sizeable improvements in the intensity of energy use in industries.Energy conservation in energy-intensive industries

Average consumptionSector Unit

1990-91 1994-95

Cement kWh/tonne 132 120.5

Paper MWh/tonne 1.255 1.003

Caustic soda kWh/tonne 3351 3130

Aluminium kWh/tonne 16,763 16,606

Urea kWh/tonne 425.6 390

Steel (SAIL) Gcal/tonne 11.27 8.93

The major energy-consuming sectors are: steel, cement, caustic soda,

brick, aluminium and electric power generation

Measures to improve energy-efficiency include- Promotion of fuel-efficient practices and

equipment

- Replacement of old and inefficient boilers and otheroil-operated equipment

- Fuel switching and technology upgradation

In the cement industry, specific energy intensities declined from 900 kcal/kg thermal energy to 800

kcal/kg and 120 kWh/tonne electrical energy to 90 kWh/tonne with a shift from low capacity energyinefficient wet plants to a high capacity energy efficient dry process during the 1980s. New Indian

plants are among those with the lowest power consumption internationally.

In the fertilizer industry, the overall specific energy consumption and capacity utilization ofammonia plants has improved from 14.8 Gcal/mt and 63% respectively, for the year 1979/80 to 10.9

Gcal/mt and 90%, during 1996/97.


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AgricultureSome efforts to mitigate climate change in the agricultural sector have also been undertaken. Theyare:

Standardization of fuel-efficient pump sets, rectification of existing pump

sets.

Rationalization of power tariffs.Better cultivar practices which will help in reducing N2O emissions.

Residential

Fuel-efficient equipment/appliances such as kerosene and LPG stoves,

compact fluorescent lamps, pumps for lifting water in high-rise buildingsare beingpromoted in the residential sector.

Power sector

India has a diverse mix of power generation technologies with coal dominating the mix and asignificant contribution by large hydro. The graph below shows that the share of gas and renewable

energy has increased in the mix of power generation capacity. The share of gas in the power capacityhas increased from 2% in 1990 to 6% in 2000.

Power generation capacity (Giga Watt)Reforms in the power sector and targeted technology improvements have

helped to enhance the combustion efficiency of conventional coal technology

leading to conservation of coal and savings in emissions.

Power sector reforms include regulatory restructuring, corporatization,privatization and unbundling of state-owned utilities. The 1998 Regulatory

Commissions Act empowers commissions to rationalize electricity tariffs and

promote environmentally-benign policies.Corporatization is altering state electricity boards from state ownership and

administration to business-like corporations as defined by the Indian Company

Act, 1956.The Indian Electricity Act of 1910 and the Electricity Act of 1948 have been

amended to permit private participation in the generation and distribution of power.

Privatization in transmission has been encouraged by the recognition of exclusive transmissioncompanies.

Afforestation and land restoration


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The basic components of India's forest conservation efforts include

protecting existing forests, putting a check on the diversion of forest land for

non-forestry purposes, encouraging farm forestry/private area plantations,expanding the protected area network and controlling forest fires.

Forests cover 19.4% of the country's landmass. Forests with a crown cover

of more than 40% have been increasing.The National Forestry Action Programme has been formulated for sustainable forest development

and to bring one-third of the country's geographical area under forest/ tree cover as mandated in the

National Forest Policy, 1988. A major programme of afforestation is being implemented with thepeople's participation under the Joint Forest Management.

TheNational Forest Policy envisages the participation of people in the development of degraded

forests to meet their requirements of fuel wood, fodder and timber.

Until 1 September 2000, 10.25 million hectares of forestland had been brought under JFM and 36165 Village Forest Protection Committees were to be constituted.

The protected area network comprises 88 national parks, 490 wildlife sanctuaries and is spread over

15.3 million hectares.

Twelve biosphere reserves have been set up to protect representative ecosystems. Managementplans are being implemented for 20 wetlands with coral reefs and mangroves being given a priority.

The National Wasteland Development Board is responsible for regenerating private, non-forest anddegraded land.

TheNational Afforestation and Eco-development Board is responsible for regenerating degraded

forest land, land adjoining forests and ecologically fragile areas.

As public concern about changes in the world's climate mounted in the 1980s, the WMO (WorldMeteorological Organisation) and the UNEP (United Nations Environmental Programme)established the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) in 1988 to assess theseriousness of the problem. The First Assessment Report of the IPCC, completed in 1990,

highlighted the global threat of climate change.

In December 1990, the UN General Assembly decided to launch negotiations on what was tobecome the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change). Thenegotiations commenced in February 1991 and were concluded in 15 months. The Conventionwas adopted in May 1992, and opened for signature in Rio at the UN Conference on Environmentand Development. It came into force in March, 1994 after being ratified by 50 countries.

UNFCCC's objective

The ultimate objective of this Convention and any related legalinstruments that the Conference of the Parties may adopt is to

achieve, in accordance with the relevant provisions of theConvention, stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in theatmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenicinterference with the climate system. Such a level should beachieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems toadapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production isnot threatened and to enable economic development to proceed ina sustainable manner.


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In 1997, the Parties to the UNFCCC adopted the Kyoto Protocol, which requires Annex Icountries (developed countries and economies in transition) to reduce their overall GHGemissions by 5.2% below their 1990 levels.

Climate change timelineOver two decades of international deliberations on climate change

Year Milestone

1979 1st World Climate Conference- Climate as a vital natural resource- Live in harmony with nature- Governments should foresee and prevent potential man-made changes inclimate that might be adverse to the well-being of humanity

1987 Brundtland Commission Report- Need to adopt a sustainable development path that would help meet presentneeds while leaving enough resources to meet future needs.Precedent set by successful negotiation ofMontreal Protocol

1988 WMO and UNEP establish IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)

1989 UN General Assembly Resolution calls forglobal summit on environment anddevelopment issues

1990 First Assessment Report of IPCC publised

UN General Assembly resolution establishes INC (IntergovernmentalNegotiating Committee) to draft a framework convention

February 1991 to May1992

Representatives of 160 nations negotiate key issues- Commitments to emission targets- Provisions for technology transfer and financial resources to developingcountries

May 1992 INC adopts UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on ClimateChange)

June 1992 UNFCCC opened for signature at United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development (Rio Earth Summit)

21 March 1994 UNFCCC comes into force on 21 March 1994(ratified by 186 countries as of July 2002)- No legally binding targets (Annex I countries to return to 1990 levels by theend of the decade)- Submit National Communications

April 1995 First Conference of Parties (COP-1) in Berlin adopts the Berlin Mandate. Newround of negotiations launched on a 'protocol or other legal instrument'- No new commitments for non-Annex I countries- Introduction of Activities Implemented Jointly (AIJ) - voluntary cooperative


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GHG-mitigation projects

December 1995 IPCC approves its Second Assessment Report. Its findings underline theneed for strong policy action.- The balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on globalclimate

- Significant 'no regrets' opportunities available- Potential risk of damage sufficient to justify action beyond 'no regrets'

July 1996 COP-2 in Geneva takes note of the Geneva Ministerial Declaration, whichacts as a further impetus to the on-going negotiations- Scientific research provides basis for urgently strengthening action- World faces significant, often adverse impacts from climate change- Legally-binding significant overall reductions in GHG emissions to benegotiated by the next COP

December 1997 COP-3 meeting in Kyoto adopts the Kyoto Protocol to the UN FrameworkConvention on Climate Change

March 1998 Kyoto Protocol opened for signature at UN headquarters in New York.Over a one-year period, it receives 84 signatures

November 1998 COP-4 meeting in Buenos Aires adopts the Buenos Aires Plan of Actionsetting out a programme of work on the operational details of the KyotoProtocol and the implementation of the Convention. COP-6 set as deadline foradopting many important decisions

November 1999 COP-5 in Bonn sets an aggressive timetable to achieve measurable progressby COP-6 on the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol

November 2000 COP-6 meets in The Hague, but fails to agree on a package of decisions underthe Buenos Aires Plan of Action

July 2001 COP-6 part II (or COP-6b) resumes in Bonn. Parties adopt the BonnAgreements, registering political consensus on key issues under the Buenos

Aires Plan of Action. They also complete work on a series of detailed decisions,but some remain outstanding

October/November2001

COP-7 in Marrakesh finalizes and formally adopts COP-6b decisions as theMarrakesh Accords

October/November2002

COP-8 to be held in New Delhi

Did you know?

he Gangotri glacier is retreating at a speed of about 30 metres a year and warming is likelyo increase the rate of melting

The Gangotri glacier in the Himalayas is the source of water for the perennial river Ganga. This glaclike many others all over the world has also felt the impact of climate change. Studies carried out in past few years have shown that the glacier is retreating at a speed of about 30 metres every year. Iwarming continues, it will melt rapidly, releasing large volumes of water but once this source begins


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drying, there may be dry periods with very little water flowing in the river.

A 1-metre rise in sea level would displace about 7 million people in IndiaIf the earth's surface warms by about 2 C, sea levels are expected to rise because of two factors: fglaciers and polar ice sheets will melt and release water into the seas and oceans. Second, water w

expand due to heating and also contribute to a rise in sea level. By 2100, a rise of about 9 cm to 88 is expected which will have a physical impact on coastal areas by increasing flooding and the intrusof salt water. Low-lying areas of the world may be submerged leaving the people who live therehomeless and landless. In the developing countries and small island states, coastal areas are denspopulated and millions of people are likely to be affected - about 7 million people in our own countryprojected to suffer the effects of a 1-m sea-level rise.

ossil-fuel burning has contributed to most of the greenhouse gas emissions in the past 20 yearsAbout three-quarters of the anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere during thepast 20 years have been due to fossil-fuel burning. Activities consuming fossil fuels include powergeneration, industrial/manufacturing processes, transport. The rest of carbon dioxide emissions arepredominantly due to land-use change, especially deforestation.

he decade of the 1990s was the warmest, and 1998 was the warmest year on record, since 1861 Scientists began systematically recording temperatures at specific locations on the earth's surfacearound the 1860s. Since then, 1998 has been the hottest year and the decade of the 1990s was thewarmest. The increase in surface temperature over the 20th century for the Northern Hemisphere islikely to have been greater than for any other century in the last thousand years.

he population of ice-dependent penguin species in the Western Antarctic Peninsula has decreased by 20% over the 5 years

In the Western Antarctic Peninsula, there has been a 20% decrease in the number of Adelie pengu

since 1973 because sea ice is melting and reducing their habitat. Evidence from marine ecosystemhas shown changes in the abundance of species, diversity and spatial distribution associated with riin the air and ocean temperature. Decreases in the population of Adelie (Pygoscelis adeliae) penguand declines in rockhopper penguins in recent decades could have also been caused by differentialresponses to warming climate conditions that are altering bird habitats. Researchers think that highetemperatures may have melted ice shelves, which in turn, cooled the surrounding sea water unusuaThis could have affected the entire food chain, reducing the amount of food available to the penguin

Projections for the 21st century indicate that the earth's average temperature will rise by anything between 1.4 and 5.8The global-average surface temperature is projected to increase by 1.4 to 5.8C over the period 1992100. There is a range associated with these temperature projections because they are based ondifferent scenarios. These scenarios assume different social, technological, economic, anddemographic levels of development, so the projected concentrations of GHGs under each scenario vary. There are other uncertainties due to the effects of climate feedback and carbon sinks (removaprocesses).

What is CDM

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