What is an Essay?

The word essay derives from the French infinitive essayer, "to try" or "to attempt". In English essay first meant "a trial" or "an attempt", and this is still an alternative meaning. The Frenchman Mi’chel de Montaigne (1533–1592) was the first author to describe his work as essays; he used the term to characterize these as "attempts" to put his thoughts adequately into writing, and his essays grew out of his commonplace observations.

Argumentation:an intellectual enterprise

in its very nature a form of creative criticism that shares certain similarities with argumentation—a position taking, and reason-giving intellectual enterprise in its own right.

Generally speaking, arguments take place in three spheres: personal, public, and professional. However, a migration often occurs from one sphere to another since issues can be very complicated and unsettling.

For instance, is abortion a private or public issue?

Criteria for a strong argument

In the Western argumentative essay writing tradition, clarity, logic (related to the Greek concept of Logos), objectivity, and grace are highly valued.

In constructing an argument, at each step, the writer needs to evaluate everything (claim/evidence/warrant/counterargument) from start to finish;

Contextual/Intratextual/intertextual

Argumentative EssayFormal in tone, tight in structure

Be away from “I think,” “in my opinion”

(Unlike speculative essays, which are loose in structure and informal in tone,) argumentative essays usually make their claims directly and explicitly. Though argumentative essays assume various patterns of organization, they share a basic concern: to establish a point by providing evidence to support it. The support may take the form of examples, analogies, facts, statistics, anecdote, and evidence. In addition, argumentative essayists may present counterviews and counterarguments either to dismiss or demolish them.

Protagoras (ca. 490– 420 BC) father of debate

Studies of argumentation and rhetoric trace their origins to classical Greece. The immediate impetus was political. After Thrasybulus of ‘Syracuse had been overthrown, citizens needed to know how to argue in court to recover property that had been seized by the regime. To meet this need, itinerant teachers began to lecture in Athens and the surrounding area. They were known as Sophists. One of the earliest Sophists was Protagoras, known as the “father of debate” because he taught that there were two sides to every question.

“father of debate” There were two sides to

every question; No one is absolutely

self-sufficient; "Man is the measure of

all things: of things which are, that they are, and of things which are not, that they are not".

Thrasybulusc. 440s BC – 388 BC

Thrasybulus receiving an olive crown for his successful campaign against the Thirty Tyrants. From Andrea Alciato's Emblemata.

Best starts with a focal point of a controversy;

a problem solving process

Because an argumentative essay attempts to change the way people think, it must focus on a debatable topic. More important, something worth debating, something culturally significant or philosophically intriguing;

Factual statements—those about which people do not disagree—are therefore not suitable for argument.

Stephen Toulmin(25 March 1922 - 4 December 2009)

a British philosopher, Toulmin devoted his works to the analysis of moral reasoning.

The Uses of Argument, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1969

Four major Elementsin an argument

Claim Data (Evidence or ground) Warrant Counterpoint

Claims

Claim: the statement of fact, definition, value, or policy that an arguer asks the audience to accept, believe, and act on. Academic articles may indeed have primary claims, but it is very likely that there are quite a few sub-claims, chained to the primary claim.

As Conflict being the soul for the drama, so is the controversy for an argument

A claim, explicit or implicit, is made on the assumption that it is controversial. The first thing to do is to identify a focal point of disagreement over some issue. A claim should be specific and contestable, and consequential like throwing a rock into a pond. We expect to see some ripples.

Therefore, a claim is a consequential statement that raises someone’s eyebrows, change people’s mind, and to change the world for the better, hopefully. You need to raise the level of your claims—like asserting something. In your essay, you need to foreground your claims in the very beginning.

Sample ClaimThe economy is entering a recession.

Example 1: Claim--The economy is entering a recession. Evidence should be specific, representative.

According to some polls, and surveys conducted by Washington Post, CNN, CNBC—implying something authoritative,

--The stock market is declining. --The unemployment rate is increasing. --The consumer confidence is dropping.

Data Data—sometimes called grounds or evidence

—are those facts that establish the validity of the claim, that on which the claim is based. What counts as a fact may differ from discipline to discipline.

Data usually answers the question “how do you know?” Like the claim, data will be explicit, though the reasons for using particular evidence may not be explicit.

(Evidence should be accurate, sufficient, representative, and relevant.)

Warrants

Warrants are assumptions made on general rules, and principles.

--Warrant 1: These things are signs of an impending recession.

--Warrant 2: Overtime these things usually have preceded a recession.

Warrant is an assumption

Warrants—an authorization or license to make the inference from evidence to claim. It is a kind like assumption based on the general rules.

If a claim can’t be warranted at a more general level, it is too narrow and it will lose appeal to your audience.

What makes a masterpiece a masterpiece?

Claim vs. Opinion

Claims Well supported with

evidence and other means;

Opinions Simply air what you

think

Counter-Argument

When you counter-argue, you consider a possible argument against your thesis or some aspect of your reasoning.

This is a good way to test your ideas when drafting, while you still have time to revise them.

Take a step back

Reservations/Rebuttals/Counter Arguments are exceptions to the rules. You need to take those things into consideration so that your arguments are more balanced and objective.

Make a Concession

Unless there are other explanations such as… --The stock market is declining probably

because stocks have been overpriced on speculations. Now the bubbles are busted.

--The unemployment rate is increasing probably because there is a seasonal change in labor market.

--The consumer confidence is down because people may have other concerns at the moment.

Allowing Counter-argumentation

Not every objection is worth entertaining, of course, and you shouldn't include one just to include one. But some imagining of other views, or of resistance to one's own, occurs in most good essays.

Most ideally, you should know who has said what on the issue;

Useful PhrasesTake a step back!

You introduce this turn against with a phrase like One might object here that... or It might seem that... or It's true that... or Admittedly,...or Of course,... or with an anticipated challenging question: But how...? or But why...? or But isn't this just...? or But if this is so, what about...?

The Turn Back

Your return to your own argument—which you announce with a but, yet, however, nevertheless or still—must likewise involve careful reasoning, not a flippant (or nervous) dismissal.

Where to Insert a Counter Argument

as a quick move within a paragraph, where you imagine a counter-argument not to your main idea but to the sub-idea that the paragraph is arguing or is about to argue;

as a section or paragraph just before the conclusion of your essay, in which you imagine what someone might object to what you have argued.

Consistency in Your Argument

But watch that you don't overdo it. A turn into counter-argument here and there will sharpen and energize your essay, but too many such turns will have the reversed effect by obscuring your main idea or suggesting that you're ambivalent.

Your conclusion should not contradict your claim

Racap your claim to close your argument: based on the above, I would argue that the economy is in a very bad shape.

Ideally, you should offer some solutions in the form of a proposal,

The aim is to move people to action;

Example 2

Claim--Watch out when you argue with Jack, he’ll be a good arguer.Evidence--(Because) Jack is a philosophy major.Warrant--Generally, philosophy majors are good arguers. Concession--Unless Jack is a failing student, philosophy majors usually study argument and become adept through writing and thinking critically. Recap your claims: Don’t mess with Jack.

The Syllogism 617

Major premise (warrant/general rule): All humans are mortal. (A = B) (type/category)

Minor premise:(Since) Socrates was a human (one of its kind, as individual/as a representative)

Make inference/drawing conclusion:Claim--Socrates was mortal.

Present your claim first

Claim--Socrates was mortal. You are claiming he was going to die. Evidence/ground—Socrates was human. Warrant/general rule: All humans are

mortal (and Socrates is no exception) Counterargument—unless he was dipped

into the River Styx at birth by his mother…

Evidence (Specific)Warrant (General level)

Types of Evidence 1. Anecdotal

Evidence2. Testimonial Evidence3. Statistical Evidence4. Analogical Evidence

Though in argumentation warrant is often unstated, it is important to check your claim at a more general level otherwise your argument will lose the appeal to a wider audience;

Taking StepsSix Sources on average

1. Use a double-column notebook and randomly list all the features under pros/cons;

2. Check the validity of your pros/cons at two levels: as specific evidence and as warrant;

3. Evaluate each point under pro/con and sequence your pros and cons in a logical manner: by the degree of importance, for instance.

4. Take exceptions/counterarguments into consideration (Some may argue that…)

Presenting your case

Make your claim: A is much better than B for the following reasons;

Support your claim by various kinds of evidence (keep your readers interested);

Warrant your claim by a more general law/principle;

Make a concession by integrating some counter argument

Recap your claim and be consistent;

Eveline’s Dilemma:Trapped or Trashed

Claim Evidence Warrant Counterpoint Recap Precision Textual evidence Drawing inference

Group debate Point by point Attack/defence Let’s roll up our

sleeves…