Understanding and Managing Public

OrganizationsChapter 9

Understanding People in Public Organizations: Motivation and

Motivation Theory

Overview• This chapter and the next chapter are concerned

with the people in organizations. This chapter provides

• A discussion of motivation in the context of public organizations

• A review of the most prominent theories of work motivation

Motivation and Public Management

• Motivation is a fundamental topic in social science.

• The basic research and theory show no conclusive evidence of a “science of motivation.” Motivation is more of a craft; leaders draw on techniques, ideas, and insights.

• The constraining character of government and the political environment present challenges for motivating in the public sector.

• A trend focusing on human capital is evidence of a consensus of the topic’s importance.

The Context of Motivation in Public Organizations

• The relatively complex and constraining structures in many public organizations, including constraints on the administration of incentives (Rainey, Facer, and Bozeman, 1995; Thompson, 1989)

• Vague goals, both for individual jobs and for the organization; a weak sense of personal significance within the organization on the part of employees; unstable expectations; and noncohesive collegial and work groups—all the result of preceding factors (Buchanan, 1974, 1975; Perry and Porter, 1982)

• People at the lower and middle levels of public organizations often becoming lost in the elaborate bureaucratic and public policy system, as argued by many people

The Concept of Work Motivation

• In general, work motivation refers to a person’s desire to work hard and work well, and to the arousal, direction, and persistence of effort in work settings.

• Motivation techniques are commonly used in all sectors.

Items Used to Measure Motivation

Questionnaire Items Used to Measure Work Motivation1. Job Motivation Scale (Patchen, Pelz, and Allen, 1965)

This questionnaire, one of the few direct measures of job motivation, poses the following questions:

On most days on your job, how often does time seem to drag for you?Some people are completely involved in their job—they are absorbed

in it night and day. For other people, their job is simply one of several interests. How involved do you feel in your job?

How often do you do some extra work for your job that isn’t really required of you?

Would you say that you work harder, less hard, or about the same as other people doing your type of work at [name of organization]?

2. Work Motivation Scale (Wright, forthcoming)I put forth my best effort to get the job done regardless of the difficulties. I am willing to start work early or stay late to finish a job. It has been hard for me to get very involved in my current job. (Reversed)I do extra work for my job that isn’t really expected of me. Time seems to drag while I am on the job. (Reversed)

3. Intrinsic Motivation Scale (Lawler and Hall, 1970)Intrinsic motivation refers to the motivating effects of the work itself. Researchers have measured it with items such as these:

When I do my work well, it gives me a feeling of accomplishment. When I perform my job well, it contributes to my personal growth and

development. I feel a great sense of personal satisfaction when I do my job well. Doing my job well increases my self-esteem.

Questionnaire Items Used to Measure Work Motivation

4. Reward Expectancies (Rainey, 1983) Some surveys, such as the Federal Employee Attitude Survey, use questions

about reward expectations, such as the true-false statements that follow, to assess reward systems but also as indicators of motivation:

Producing a high quality of work increases my chances for higher pay. Producing a high quality of work increases my chances for a promotion.

5. Peer Evaluations of an Individual’s Work Motivation (Guion and Landy, 1972; Landy and Guion, 1970)

For this method of measuring motivation, fellow employees evaluate an individual’s work motivation on the following dimensions:

Team attitudeTask concentrationIndependence / self-starterOrganizational identificationJob curiosityPersistenceProfessional identification

Rival Influences on Performance• Motivation alone does not determine

performance.

• Other factors have an impact on performance.

– Ability– Training – Preparation– Perceptions about ability to perform

• Can you think of other factors that influence performance?

Motivation as an Umbrella Concept• Complexities in conceptualizing give rise to status

of umbrella concept—motivation as a general idea rather than a precisely defined research target.

• In the literature, motivation appears as an overarching theme of a variety of related topics.

– Organizational commitment– Job involvement– Organizational climate– Leadership practices

Theories of Work Motivation• One way to classify theories of work motivation is

to distinguish between content and process theories.• Content theories of motivation are concerned with

analyzing the particular needs, motives, and rewards that affect motivation.

• Process theories of motivation concentrate on psychological and behavioral processes behind motivation.

• Distinctions can overlap and need not be taken as confining.

• Classification is best thought of as a tool to organize characteristics of the theories.

Content Theories

• Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs

• McGregor: Theory X and Theory Y

• Herzberg: Two-Factor Theory

• McClelland: Needs-Based Model

Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs

• A theory in psychology proposed in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation.

• It is often depicted as a pyramid consisting of five levels. The first lower level is associated with the most basic needs, physiological needs.

• Higher needs only motivate behavior when the lower needs in the pyramid are met.

• Once an individual has moved upward to the next level, needs in the lower level will no longer be prioritized and no longer motivate behavior.

McGregor: Theory X and Theory Y

• Theory X is the traditional theory that assumes workers lack the capacity for self-motivation and direction and therefore the organization must control and direct them.

• Theory Y is based on Maslow’s higher-order needs and emphasizes considering those needs when designing organizations to make jobs more interesting and responsible.

Herzberg: Two-Factor Theory

• Two types of factors influence motivation:

– Motivators (intrinsic incentives such as interest in work, achievement, and other higher-order needs)

– Hygiene factors (extrinsic incentives such as organizational conditions and rewards)

• Hygiene factors can only prevent dissatisfaction, but motivators are essential to increasing motivation.

McClelland: Needs-Based Model

• McClelland describes three types of motivational needs in his 1988 book Human Motivation:

• Achievement motivation (n Ach)• Authority/power motivation (n Pow)• Affiliation motivation (n Affil)

• The main focus is on achievement motivation (n Ach) “A dynamic restlessness to achieve mastery over one’s environment through success at achieving goals by using one’s own cunning, ability, and effort.”

Needs-Based Model: Finding n Ach Characteristics

• A TAT card shows a picture of a boy reading. An n Ach person may describe a boy studying hard to do well on a test; others may see the boy as a daydreamer.

• McClelland conducted an experiment that involved asking students to choose a strategy for a ring toss game and contends that n Ach people choose to stand at an intermediate distance from the peg (to both minimize the risk of failure and also provide a high probability of accuracy through their own skill). Others chose a distance associated with a riskier or less rewarding outcome.

• McClelland analyzed stories in folk tales and concluded that cultures high in n Ach had higher levels of development.

Comparing Content Theories of Motivation

Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs

McGregor: Theories X and Y

Herzberg: Two-

Factor

McClelland:

n AchSelf-

actualization Theory Y Motivators N Ach Achieveme

ntSelf-esteem

Love

Theory X Hygiene Factors

Power (influencing

others)Affiliation (exchange of warm feelings)

SafetyPsychologica

l

Equity Theory Scale

Input and motivation are reduced when perception of fairness or equity (outputs) is tipped, that is, when an employee perceives that effort is greater than reward.

Perceived Balance

What Happens When an Employee Perceives That

More Is Given Than Received?

Equity and Organizational Justice

• There are two types of justice in organizations:

– Distributive Justice (fairness and equity in distribution of rewards and resources)

– Procedural Justice (fairness with which people feel employees are treated with organizational processes such as decision making)

• Research has shown that perceptions of higher levels of justice in organizations are correlated with positive work-related attitudes.

Process Theories• Vroom: Expectancy Theory

– Expectancies and dependent variables– Expectancy theory in public organizations

• Skinner: Operant Conditioning and Reinforcement

• Bandura: Social Learning (cognitive) Theory

• Locke: Goal-Setting Theory

Vroom: Expectancy Theory

• The main claim: An individual considering an outcome sums up the values of all outcomes that will result from the action, with each outcome weighted by the probability of its occurrence.

– The theory draws on the classic utilitarian ideas (maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain).

– It integrates elements of needs, equity, and reinforcement theories.

Vroom: Expectancy Theory

• Based on three main ideas or concepts:

• Valence refers to the emotional orientations people hold with respect to outcomes or rewards. (For example, how important are pay, flexibility, challenge?)

• Expectancy: Employees have different expectations and levels of confidence about their capabilities.

• Instrumentality refers to the perception of employees with respect to whether outcomes or rewards will actually result.

Expectancy Theory: Formulations

Fi= ∑(EijVj)

F = The force acting under individual to perform act i.

E = The expectancy or perceived probability that any effort will lead to an outcome (act i will lead to outcome j)

V = The valence of outcome j

Vj = ∑(Vk Ijk )

V = The valence of outcome jI = The instrumentality of the

outcome j for attainment of the outcome k

V = The valence of outcome k

Expectancy Theory: More Implications for Managers

• Valence: Managers must understand what individuals value (extrinsic and intrinsic).

• Expectancy: If expectations are based on confidence and ability, it is important to accurately assess skills and weaknesses.

• Instrumentality: Performance requires that managers come through on promises.

Expectancy Theory: Where We Stand

• Expectancies as Dependent Variables

• Expectancy type questions about relationships between performance and pay, job security, promotion, and incentives often show an association with reported work satisfaction and effort.

• Use in Public Organizations

• The underlying principles still underpin many civil service reforms and government pay systems.

B. F. Skinner: Operant Conditioning• Skinner (1953) pointed out that

• Animals develop behaviors in response to more than just stimuli.

• Behaviors are also produced, and operate on our environment and generate consequences.

• We repeat or drop (extinguish) behavior in response to the consequences. 

• The theory focuses on• Operant conditioning, that is, the use of consequences

to modify the occurrence and form of behavior• The relationship between observable behavior and

contingencies of reinforcements

Operant Conditioning: Selected Principles of Reinforcement • Positive reinforcement provides the most efficient means of

influencing behavior. Punishment is less efficient and effective in shaping behavior.

• Low ratio reinforcement schedule produces rapid acquisition of the behavior but more rapid extinction when the reinforcement stops.

• Intermittent reinforcement, especially in highly variable intervals or according to a variable ratio schedule (reinforcement after long varying periods or after varying numbers of occurrences), requires more time for behavior acquisition, but extinction occurs more slowly when the reinforcement seasons.

Bandura: Social Learning Theory

• Theory is developed by Albert Bandura (1978) and others.

• Theory reflects value and limitations of operant conditioning and behavior modification.

• Theory draws from behavior modification, but puts greater emphasis on internal cognitive processes, like goals and a sense of self-efficacy.

• Theory gives attention to forms of learning and behavior change that may not be tied to external environment.

Social Learning Theory

• A main claim is that individuals learn in ways other than through extra reinforcement, including

• Modeling the behavior of others• Vicarious experiences• Mental rehearsal and imagery• Self-management through setting goals for oneself

Edwin Locke and Colleagues: Goal-Setting Theory

• Theory simply states that difficult goals lead to higher performance than easy goals, no goals, or vague goals.

• Once established, goals focus behavior and motivate individuals to achieve desired end states.

• Commitment to the goals and feedback are also necessary to performance.

• As the value of a goal increases the commitment to the goal increases.

How Do Goals Affect Behavior?• Goals may

• Direct attention• Intensify effort• Intensify persistence• Spark creativity in problem solving

• Assignment of difficult goals enhances performance because goals appeal to motive and desire to achieve (Locke and Latham, 1990a).

•  Goals provide a sense of purpose and create standards for evaluating performance.

• Participation in goal setting is not clearly linked to higher levels of motivation.

Recommendations for Goal Setting

• Goal setting works best with management support.

•  The greater the success, the greater the satisfaction.

– Paradox: More difficult goals are less likely to be achieved, leaving people unsatisfied; this, in turn, fosters ambition, pushing people to strive to achieve further.

•  Mix qualitative and quantitative goals.

•  Assign responsibility for achievement of goals. 

Recommendations for Goal Setting• Empower employees to develop strategies and

tactics for achieving goals.•  Goal setting requires effective leadership.• Feedback stimulates the accomplishment of

goals.• People should be committed to goals. The

manager should stress that the goals are important (have personal value) and are attainable.

• Beware of goal overload. • Mix qualitative and quantitative goals.

Recent Directions in Motivation Theory• No theory has provided a conclusive explanation

of motivation.

• Researchers agree that theory development is in a disorderly state. • Calls for separate theories to apply to different settings• Some saying universal theories are fruitless• Calls for “middle range” theory• Calls for development of taxonomies (motivational

types, settings)

• Although disjointed, the literature on motivation remains useful for attempting to understand the complexities of motivation.

Motivation Practice and Techniques• The theories on motivation discussed in this

chapter all make some contribution. For example:

• Content theories remind us of the importance of intrinsic incentives and equity.

• Expectancy theory and operant conditioning emphasize an analysis of what is rewarded and punished in work settings.

• Many general techniques have come out of the literature.

Incentive Structures and Reward Expectancies in Public Organizations • Linking rewards (especially extrinsic) to

performance is even more challenging in the public sector.

• More highly structured imposed personnel procedures- civil service . . .

• But all government agencies are not the same

• Some pay-for-performance plans have met with success while others have not.

• Findings are conflicting as to whether government employees perceive the connection between extrinsic rewards and performance.

Are Public Sector Employees Less Motivated?

• Some argue that the different incentive structures in the public sector diminish motivation.

• Research has not shown significant differences between the sectors for self-reported motivation.

• In surveys, public employees have high levels on measures related to motivation.

• Despite the constraints and frustrations found in the public sector, public employees appear to be highly motivated.