Week 5. Head movement CAS LX 522 Syntax I. X-bar parameters Many (most?) languages of the world have...

Week 5. Head movementWeek 5. Head movement

CAS LX 522CAS LX 522Syntax ISyntax I

X-bar parametersX-bar parameters

Many (most?) languages of the world have Many (most?) languages of the world have something like a something like a basic word orderbasic word order, an , an order in which words come in in “neutral” order in which words come in in “neutral” sentences.sentences.

EnglishEnglish: : SVOSVO Akira ate an apple.Akira ate an apple.

JapaneseJapanese: : SOVSOV John wa ringo o tabeta.John wa ringo o tabeta. John top apple acc ateJohn top apple acc ate ‘‘John ate an apple.’John ate an apple.’

X-bar parametersX-bar parameters These two word These two word

orders work orders work nicely with X-bar nicely with X-bar theory as it theory as it stands; the stands; the difference can be difference can be stated in terms of stated in terms of a simple a simple parameter which parameter which differentiates differentiates languages as to languages as to whether they are whether they are head-initialhead-initial or or head-finalhead-final..

Veat

V

VP

an apple

DP

T

T

TP

Akira

DP

-ed

Vtabe

V

VP

ringo o

DP

T

T

TP

John

DP

-ta

Notice that in Notice that in English, both V and English, both V and T are head-initial, T are head-initial, and in Japanese, and in Japanese, both V and T are both V and T are head-final. In fact, head-final. In fact, languages tend to languages tend to be consistent in be consistent in their headedness:their headedness:

Japanese has Japanese has postpostpositions, C comes positions, C comes afterafter TP in embedded TP in embedded clauses…clauses…

English has English has preprepositions; C comes positions; C comes beforebefore TP in TP in embedded clauses…embedded clauses…

Veat

V

VP

an apple

DP

T

T

TP

Akira

DP

-ed

Vtabe

V

VP

ringo o

DP

T

T

TP

John

DP

-ta



There are also languages in which There are also languages in which the basic word order is VOS, the basic word order is VOS, although they are few in number.although they are few in number.

Malagasy:Malagasy: VOSVOS Nahita ny mpianatra ny vehivavay.Nahita ny mpianatra ny vehivavay. saw the student the womansaw the student the woman ‘‘The woman saw the student.’The woman saw the student.’

See how we might generate an X-See how we might generate an X-bar structure of this?bar structure of this?

X-bar parametersX-bar parameters By changing By changing the order of the the order of the

specifier and the Xspecifier and the X, we can , we can get VOS order, and by get VOS order, and by changing the order of changing the order of bothboth (with respect to English) we (with respect to English) we can get OVS order.can get OVS order.

Malagasy:Malagasy: VOSVOS Nahita ny mpianatra ny Nahita ny mpianatra ny

vehivavay.vehivavay. saw the student the womansaw the student the woman ‘‘The woman saw the student.’The woman saw the student.’

Hixkaryana:Hixkaryana: OVSOVS Kana yanïmno bïryekomoKana yanïmno bïryekomo Fish caught boyFish caught boy ‘‘The boy caught a fish’The boy caught a fish’

Vnahita

V

VP

ny mpia-natra

DP

T

T

TP

ny vehi-vavay

DP

[PAST]

Vyanïmno

V

VP

kana

DP

T

T

TP

bïrye-komo

DP

[PAST]


So by changing the parameters of So by changing the parameters of head-complementhead-complement order and order and specifier-Xspecifier-X order we can generate order we can generate the following basic word orders:the following basic word orders: SVOSVO (spec-initial, head-initial)(spec-initial, head-initial) (English) (English) SOVSOV (spec-initial, head-final)(spec-initial, head-final) (Japanese) (Japanese) VOSVOS (spec-final, head-initial)(spec-final, head-initial) (Malagasy) (Malagasy) OVSOVS (spec-final, head-final)(spec-final, head-final)

(Hixkaryana)(Hixkaryana) And that’s And that’s allall……

The problem of VSO The problem of VSO languageslanguages

There are quite a number of There are quite a number of languages, however, for which the languages, however, for which the basic word order is basic word order is VSOVSO. . IrishIrish, , WelshWelsh, and , and ArabicArabic are among them. are among them.

Try as we might, Try as we might, there is there is no way no way to to set the X-bar parameters to get VSO set the X-bar parameters to get VSO orderorder—we have a specifier (the —we have a specifier (the subject) between the verb and its subject) between the verb and its complement.complement.

FrenchFrench

French presents a French presents a similar problem; similar problem; consider the English consider the English sentencesentence I often eat apples.I often eat apples.

The adverb The adverb oftenoften is is an adjunct, attached an adjunct, attached at Vat V, as seen here., as seen here.

Veat

V

VP

apples

DP

T

T

TP

I

DP

[PRES]

V

AdvP

often

FrenchFrench

In French the sentence isIn French the sentence is Je mange souvent des pommes.Je mange souvent des pommes. I eat often of.the applesI eat often of.the apples ‘‘I often eat apples.’I often eat apples.’

The adverb The adverb souventsouvent appears appears between the verb and its between the verb and its complement; there is no place complement; there is no place to put it in this tree.to put it in this tree.

Moreover, it Moreover, it should should be be basically in the same place as basically in the same place as in English, given the structural in English, given the structural similarity and the sameness of similarity and the sameness of meaning.meaning.

Veat

V

VP

apples

DP

T

T

TP

I

DP

[PRES]

V

AdvP

often

X-bar theory: A sham?X-bar theory: A sham?

So is X-bar theory not up to the So is X-bar theory not up to the task of being a universal principle task of being a universal principle of phrase structure, despite its of phrase structure, despite its initial promise in English (and initial promise in English (and Japanese and Malagasy and Japanese and Malagasy and Hixkaryana)? Should we scrap it Hixkaryana)? Should we scrap it and start over?and start over?

Answer: No… There is a way we Answer: No… There is a way we can salvage all the good stuff we’ve can salvage all the good stuff we’ve gotten from X-bar theory so far…gotten from X-bar theory so far…

MovementMovement

Consider English yes-no questions…Consider English yes-no questions… To form a question from a statement To form a question from a statement

like:like: Bill should eat his peas.Bill should eat his peas.

We prepose the modal We prepose the modal shouldshould to the to the front of the sentence, before the front of the sentence, before the subject.subject. Should Bill eat his peas?Should Bill eat his peas?

Where is Where is shouldshould in this sentence?in this sentence?

MovementMovement

Should Bill eat his peas?Should Bill eat his peas? There is one position in our sentence structures There is one position in our sentence structures

so far that is to the left of the subject, the one so far that is to the left of the subject, the one where the complementizer where the complementizer thatthat goes (C): goes (C): I said I said thatthat Bill should eat his peas. Bill should eat his peas.

This is where we expect This is where we expect shouldshould to be. It is, to be. It is, after all, a modal, of category T. It after all, a modal, of category T. It is notis not a a complementizer.complementizer.

Also notice that if we embed this question, Also notice that if we embed this question, shouldshould stays after the subject, and stays after the subject, and if if is in C:is in C: I wonder I wonder ifif Bill Bill shouldshould eat his peas. eat his peas.

MovementMovement

All of this suggests that the way to look All of this suggests that the way to look at this is that we start with the at this is that we start with the sentence…sentence… Bill should eat his peasBill should eat his peas

……as usual, and if we’re forming a yes-no as usual, and if we’re forming a yes-no question, we follow this up by question, we follow this up by movingmoving shouldshould to the position of C. If we can’t to the position of C. If we can’t move it (in an embedded question, move it (in an embedded question, there’s already something there’s already something inin C: C: ifif), it ), it stays put.stays put.

MovementMovement

Given that things Given that things dodo seem to move seem to move around in the sentence (that is, they around in the sentence (that is, they start start where we’d expect them to but where we’d expect them to but we we hearhear them somewhere else), this them somewhere else), this gives us a way we might “save X-bar gives us a way we might “save X-bar theory” from Irish and French.theory” from Irish and French.

Let’s go back and look at French Let’s go back and look at French with this in mind…with this in mind…

FrenchFrench

Jean mange souvent des pommes.Jean mange souvent des pommes. Jean eats often of.the applesJean eats often of.the apples ‘‘Jean often eat apples.’Jean often eat apples.’

If we suppose that the French If we suppose that the French sentence starts out just like the sentence starts out just like the English sentence, we have the English sentence, we have the underlying DS (deep structure) underlying DS (deep structure) representation shown here.representation shown here.

What needs to happen to get What needs to happen to get the correct surface word order?the correct surface word order? V

mange

V

VP

des pommes

PP

T

T

TP

Jean

DP

[PRES]

V

AdvP

souvent

DS

FrenchFrench Jean mange souvent des Jean mange souvent des

pommes.pommes. Jean eats often of.the applesJean eats often of.the apples ‘‘Jean often eat apples.’Jean often eat apples.’

Of course—the V (Of course—the V (mangemange) ) moves up to the T position.moves up to the T position.

This This alwaysalways happens in happens in French with a French with a tensed/agreeing verb. This tensed/agreeing verb. This generally generally doesn’tdoesn’t happen in happen in English.English.

Hence, the difference in Hence, the difference in “adverb position” (really, of “adverb position” (really, of course, it’s course, it’s verb verb position)position)

ti

V

VP

des pommes

PP

Vi+T

T

TP

Jean

DP

mange+[PRES]

V

AdvP

souvent

SS

Why does this happen?Why does this happen?

Why would a language need to move its verb up Why would a language need to move its verb up to tense?to tense?

In French, verbs are marked for tense and In French, verbs are marked for tense and agreement—past tense verbs look different agreement—past tense verbs look different from present tense verbs, which look different from present tense verbs, which look different from future tense verbs. If the tense from future tense verbs. If the tense information is in T (information is in T ([PRES][PRES]), and the verb reflects ), and the verb reflects this, somehow the verb needs to get together this, somehow the verb needs to get together with T.with T.

French does this by moving the verb to T.French does this by moving the verb to T. English does this by moving T (English does this by moving T (-ed-ed) to the verb.) to the verb.

Pondering about TPondering about T

In the DS of every matrix sentence (French In the DS of every matrix sentence (French or English or anything) there is a TP.or English or anything) there is a TP.

In the example In the example Jean mange souvent des Jean mange souvent des pommespommes, the tense marked on the verb is , the tense marked on the verb is present tense. So, we suppose that T was present tense. So, we suppose that T was presentpresent, which we can mark as being , which we can mark as being [PRES][PRES], , i.e. having the feature for “present” on tense. i.e. having the feature for “present” on tense. The present tense morpheme in French is Ø, The present tense morpheme in French is Ø, so writing the feature is clearer.so writing the feature is clearer.

FeaturesFeatures

In general, as far as syntax is concerned, we In general, as far as syntax is concerned, we can think of the things at the terminal nodes in can think of the things at the terminal nodes in our tree as being “bundles of features” or our tree as being “bundles of features” or “collections of properties.”“collections of properties.”

The T node has (by definition) the feature “is of The T node has (by definition) the feature “is of category T” for one. Terminal nodes have category T” for one. Terminal nodes have categorial features, like categorial features, like [T][T]..

The T node also has features indicating what The T node also has features indicating what kind kind of tense it is (of tense it is ([PRES][PRES], , [FUT][FUT], , [PAST][PAST], , [-FIN][-FIN]).).

The V node has features indicating its theta-The V node has features indicating its theta-grid, and so forth. grid, and so forth.

ProjectionsProjections When we say the category of the head of an When we say the category of the head of an

X-bar phrase determines the category of the X-bar phrase determines the category of the phrase as a whole (i.e. an N heads an NP, a D phrase as a whole (i.e. an N heads an NP, a D heads a DP, and so forth), we sometimes heads a DP, and so forth), we sometimes refer to this as refer to this as projectionprojection of the category of the category feature (property).feature (property).

A DP is a A DP is a DDP because the P because the [D][D] feature of its feature of its head projects up to the phrase level (and head projects up to the phrase level (and through the intermediate bar-levels as well).through the intermediate bar-levels as well).

For this reason, XPs are sometimes referred For this reason, XPs are sometimes referred to as “to as “projectionsprojections (of their head)”. (of their head)”.

ProjectionsProjections

One consequence of modeling category One consequence of modeling category this way is that an XP node doesn’t have a this way is that an XP node doesn’t have a category feature intrinsically, it category feature intrinsically, it essentially essentially inheritsinherits it from its head. it from its head.

For this reason, an XP (a phrase, a For this reason, an XP (a phrase, a projection) must projection) must alwaysalways have a head. have a head.

For similar reasons, we also assume that For similar reasons, we also assume that an XP can’t have an XP can’t have twotwo heads—only heads—only oneone head projects its features to the XP.head projects its features to the XP.

What happens whenWhat happens whenV moves to T?V moves to T?

If we think that V moves to If we think that V moves to T in order to get the verb T in order to get the verb together with the tense together with the tense feature, then certainly V feature, then certainly V cannot cannot replacereplace T. T must T. T must still be there, with its tense still be there, with its tense feature.feature.

Moreover, if T were Moreover, if T were replacedreplaced by V, the TP by V, the TP wouldn’t be a TP any wouldn’t be a TP any longer, would it?longer, would it?

ti

V

VP

PP

Vi+T

T

TP

DP

mange+[PRES]

V

AdvP

SS


The T and V must The T and V must fusefuse in in some way, some way, retaining retaining the the features of T, since the features of T, since the tense feature of T is why tense feature of T is why the verb needed to move the verb needed to move up there.up there.

In fact the features of T In fact the features of T must still be must still be primaryprimary, , since a phrase cannot since a phrase cannot have two heads and it have two heads and it remains a TP (not a VP).remains a TP (not a VP).

ti

V

VP

PP

Vi+T

T

TP

DP

mange+[PRES]

V

AdvP

SS


To show that V attaches To show that V attaches to T, but that T remains to T, but that T remains primary, this is drawn in primary, this is drawn in the tree structure like the tree structure like this.this.

We say that V We say that V head-head-adjoinsadjoins (attaches, head-(attaches, head-to-head) to T.to-head) to T. ti

V

VP

PP

T

TP

DP

mangeV

AdvP

SS

T

T

Vi[PRES]


This structure that is formed in this This structure that is formed in this way is a way is a complex headcomplex head. It’s a head . It’s a head (T) with another head (V) attached to (T) with another head (V) attached to it.it.

It’s still a T head, it still heads the It’s still a T head, it still heads the TP. It just has a V attached to it.TP. It just has a V attached to it.

The tree structure shown is the The tree structure shown is the normal convention for drawing this, normal convention for drawing this, so we will follow this convention. so we will follow this convention. This will require a bit of This will require a bit of concentration. This is concentration. This is one headone head, , there is there is one one T—with a V attached.T—with a V attached.

mangeT

T

Vi[PRES]


In past years, I experimented with In past years, I experimented with introducing a convention of drawing introducing a convention of drawing the connection between the “two T’s” the connection between the “two T’s” in the diagram differently to help in the diagram differently to help reinforce the idea that it’s not a reinforce the idea that it’s not a normal mother-daughter relationship.normal mother-daughter relationship.

I will try to continue this tradition I will try to continue this tradition this year, using a double-line (to this year, using a double-line (to evoke the idea of an extra-strong evoke the idea of an extra-strong connection), although outside this connection), although outside this class you will almost always see it class you will almost always see it drawn as a regular line.drawn as a regular line.

mangeT

T

Vi[PRES]


We should also consider We should also consider what happens to the VP what happens to the VP from which the V moved.from which the V moved.

This too is still a VP, it This too is still a VP, it must still have a head.must still have a head.

We notate the original We notate the original location of the V by writing location of the V by writing tt (standing for “trace” left (standing for “trace” left behind by the original V), behind by the original V), and we co-index the V and and we co-index the V and trace to indicate their trace to indicate their relationship.relationship.

ti

V

VP

PP

T

TP

DP

mangeV

AdvP

SS

T

T

Vi[PRES]


Since the VP is still a Since the VP is still a VVP, it P, it still gets a still gets a [V][V] category category feature projected up from its feature projected up from its head.head.

So the trace is still a So the trace is still a verbverb.. In fact, there’s no reason to In fact, there’s no reason to

suppose that any of the suppose that any of the features of the original verb features of the original verb have been removed given have been removed given that that [V][V] is still there. is still there.

We We writewrite it as it as tt, but its , but its content has not really content has not really changed.changed.

ti

V

VP

PP

T

TP

DP

mangeV

AdvP

SS

T

T

Vi[PRES]


What What hashas changed is that changed is that the original verb is now the original verb is now related to a higher related to a higher position in the tree, and position in the tree, and for many purposes, the for many purposes, the top copy in the tree is top copy in the tree is considered to be primary.considered to be primary.

What we have created by What we have created by moving the verb is a moving the verb is a chainchain of positions in the of positions in the tree that the verb has tree that the verb has occupied.occupied.

ti

V

VP

PP

T

TP

DP

mangeV

AdvP

SS

T

T

Vi[PRES]


When we think of moved When we think of moved elements in SS and LF elements in SS and LF structures, we will often structures, we will often need to consider the need to consider the chainchain of positions; this is of positions; this is usually written like:usually written like:

( V( Vii , , ttii ) )

referring to the two referring to the two positions held by positions held by VVii and and ttii in the structure here.in the structure here.

ti

V

VP

PP

T

TP

DP

mangeV

AdvP

SS

T

T

Vi[PRES]

Why does V move to T?Why does V move to T? ““The verb and tense have to get The verb and tense have to get

together” is what I said before, but we together” is what I said before, but we can focus this question a little bit more.can focus this question a little bit more.

Think about the English past tense Think about the English past tense morpheme, morpheme, generated in generated in (originating in, (originating in, at DS) T, which we’ve written as at DS) T, which we’ve written as -ed-ed..

We wrote it this way because it isn’t a We wrote it this way because it isn’t a whole word, it is the regular past tense whole word, it is the regular past tense suffixsuffix that appears attached to verbs. that appears attached to verbs.

Why does V move to T?Why does V move to T? Similarly in French, regular tense morphology Similarly in French, regular tense morphology

is realized as a suffix on the verb.is realized as a suffix on the verb. One productive way of thinking about why the One productive way of thinking about why the

verb and tense need to get together is that verb and tense need to get together is that tense is a verbal suffixtense is a verbal suffix..

By definition, a verbal suffix can’t stand on its By definition, a verbal suffix can’t stand on its own, it needs a verb to attach to.own, it needs a verb to attach to.

That is, the “need” for the verb and tense to That is, the “need” for the verb and tense to get together isn’t something that the get together isn’t something that the verbverb needs, it’s something that needs, it’s something that tensetense needs. A needs. A verbal suffix needs a verb to attach to.verbal suffix needs a verb to attach to.

If tense is “stranded” with no verb, the result is If tense is “stranded” with no verb, the result is morphologically ill-formed = ungrammatical.morphologically ill-formed = ungrammatical.

Why does V move to T?Why does V move to T?

In English, the tense affix (e.g., In English, the tense affix (e.g., -ed-ed) moves ) moves down to the verb rather than the verb moving down to the verb rather than the verb moving up to T.up to T.

However, the negative marker However, the negative marker notnot blocks this blocks this movement—for reasons that are controversial, movement—for reasons that are controversial, but we can state the fact as a but we can state the fact as a stipulation stipulation (not (not otherwise derived from our system) like so:otherwise derived from our system) like so:

Affix lowering is blocked by the presence of Affix lowering is blocked by the presence of notnot in English. in English.


What happens in negative sentences in What happens in negative sentences in English, then, is that the tense affix is English, then, is that the tense affix is “stranded” up in T; it can’t lower to the “stranded” up in T; it can’t lower to the verb because verb because not not is “in the way”.is “in the way”.

Bill -ed not buy cheese.Bill -ed not buy cheese. (DS) (DS) As a “last resort”, English has a rule As a “last resort”, English has a rule

which salvages this situation by inserting which salvages this situation by inserting the meaningless verb the meaningless verb do do to “support the to “support the tense affix”— tense affix”— dodo is only there to provide is only there to provide something for something for -ed-ed to affix to. to affix to.

Bill Bill did did not buy cheese.not buy cheese. (SS) (SS)


We can state the rule like this:We can state the rule like this: DoDo-insertion-insertion

When there is no other way to support When there is no other way to support inflectional affixes in T, insert the dummy inflectional affixes in T, insert the dummy verb verb dodo into T. into T.

Bill did not buy cheese.Bill did not buy cheese. In this sentence, the verb has not moved In this sentence, the verb has not moved

up to T nor has T moved down to V. And up to T nor has T moved down to V. And we see no tense suffix on the verb as a we see no tense suffix on the verb as a result.result.


English has two special verbs which English has two special verbs which dodo move to T, the auxiliary verbs move to T, the auxiliary verbs havehave and and bebe in English.in English. Bill Bill isis sloppily eating apples. sloppily eating apples. Bill Bill isis not eating apples. not eating apples. *Bill sloppily*Bill sloppily isis eating apples.eating apples. *Bill not*Bill not isis eating apples.eating apples. *Bill did not*Bill did not bebe eating appleseating apples.. Bill Bill hashas not eaten the apples. not eaten the apples. *Bill not*Bill not hashas eaten the apples.eaten the apples.


Notice that if there is something in T already, Notice that if there is something in T already, like a modal, then the verb doesn’t move up to like a modal, then the verb doesn’t move up to T.T.

John John mightmight not be eating apples. not be eating apples. And moreover, the verb has no tense inflection.And moreover, the verb has no tense inflection. This all suggests that the view that it is This all suggests that the view that it is the the

affix in Taffix in T which causes V to move to T. The which causes V to move to T. The verb is happy not to move, but will move when verb is happy not to move, but will move when it can in order to help T out.it can in order to help T out.

There are requirements on T, not on V.There are requirements on T, not on V.

A word on auxiliariesA word on auxiliaries English has two auxiliary (“helping”) English has two auxiliary (“helping”)

verbs verbs havehave and and bebe, which are not the main , which are not the main verbs of a sentence but generally serve to verbs of a sentence but generally serve to indicate differences in verbal aspect indicate differences in verbal aspect (progressive, past perfect, …).(progressive, past perfect, …).

These auxiliary verbs These auxiliary verbs areare verbs, but they verbs, but they have special properties. Among these have special properties. Among these properties: they move to T, and they have properties: they move to T, and they have no theta-roles to assign.no theta-roles to assign.

A word on auxiliariesA word on auxiliaries

The DS of a sentence with The DS of a sentence with an auxiliary verb would be an auxiliary verb would be something like this, where something like this, where the auxiliary verb heads a the auxiliary verb heads a VP, and takes the main VP, and takes the main verb’s VP as its verb’s VP as its complement.complement.

Notice that we are treating Notice that we are treating the past participle the past participle eateneaten as just a special kind of as just a special kind of verb. This is good enough verb. This is good enough for present purposes.for present purposes.

VPT

T

TP

DP

-ed

DS

VP

V

V

V

V

…eaten

have

A word on auxiliariesA word on auxiliaries

The DS of a sentence with The DS of a sentence with an auxiliary verb would be an auxiliary verb would be something like this, where something like this, where the auxiliary verb heads a the auxiliary verb heads a VP, and takes the main VP, and takes the main verb’s VP as its verb’s VP as its complement.complement.

Notice that we are treating Notice that we are treating the past participle the past participle eateneaten as just a special kind of as just a special kind of verb. This is good enough verb. This is good enough for present purposes.for present purposes.

VPVi+T

T

TP

DP

have+-ed

SS

VP

V

V

V

ti

…eaten

English yes-no questionsEnglish yes-no questions

Now, let’s go back and think about English Now, let’s go back and think about English yes-no questions, which we took originally yes-no questions, which we took originally to be motivation that movement occurs.to be motivation that movement occurs. Bill Bill willwill buy cheese. buy cheese. WillWill Bill buy cheese? Bill buy cheese?

What’s happening here? Well, we saw What’s happening here? Well, we saw earlier that it is reasonable to think that earlier that it is reasonable to think that the modal the modal willwill, which starts out in T, , which starts out in T, moves to C in questions.moves to C in questions. WillWillii Bill Bill ttii buy cheese? buy cheese?


Why does this movement Why does this movement happen?happen?

By analogy with the By analogy with the motivation for V-to-T motivation for V-to-T movement, we will take C movement, we will take C to hold a special (this time to hold a special (this time silent, or perhaps prosodic) silent, or perhaps prosodic) affix that must be joined up affix that must be joined up with T. This affix is the with T. This affix is the “question” morpheme, of “question” morpheme, of category C, which we can category C, which we can write as write as ØØ+Q+Q..

ti VP

T

TP

DP

SS

Ti+C

C

CP

Bill

buy cheese

will+Ø+Q

ØØ+Q+Q

Incidentally, Incidentally, lotslots of languages have of languages have an overt question morpheme, which an overt question morpheme, which adds plausibility to our assumption adds plausibility to our assumption that English has a question that English has a question morpheme in C that is just null.morpheme in C that is just null. Akira ga hon o kaimasita Akira ga hon o kaimasita kaka??

(Japanese)(Japanese) Akira top book acc bought Akira top book acc bought QQ ‘‘Did Akira buy the book?’Did Akira buy the book?’


Also notice that if there is an Also notice that if there is an overtovert question morpheme there in English question morpheme there in English (which happens in embedded (which happens in embedded questions), there is no need to move questions), there is no need to move T to C:T to C: I asked if Bill will buy cheese.I asked if Bill will buy cheese. *I asked (if) will Bill buy cheese.*I asked (if) will Bill buy cheese.

T to CT to C

In English, anything that would be in In English, anything that would be in T moves to C. So, modals and T moves to C. So, modals and auxiliaries all “invert” around the auxiliaries all “invert” around the subject:subject: WillWill Bill buy cheese? Bill buy cheese? IsIs Bill buying cheese? Bill buying cheese? HasHas Bill bought cheese? Bill bought cheese?

But main verbs never raise to T in But main verbs never raise to T in English. Consider then:English. Consider then: DidDid Bill buy cheese? Bill buy cheese?

T to CT to C DidDid Bill buy cheese? Bill buy cheese?

Why is there a Why is there a dodo there? Before, we only there? Before, we only saw saw dodo in sentences with in sentences with notnot, inserted , inserted because the tense affix couldn’t “reach” the because the tense affix couldn’t “reach” the verb, blocked by verb, blocked by notnot..

What seems to be the case is that if T What seems to be the case is that if T moves to C (that is, the past tense suffix moves to C (that is, the past tense suffix -ed -ed in this case), it also gets too far away from in this case), it also gets too far away from the verb (now the verb (now BillBill is between the suffix and is between the suffix and the verb), and the verb), and DoDo-insertion is required.-insertion is required.

NegationNegation We’ve used negation as a test, like (in fact We’ve used negation as a test, like (in fact

usually better than) adverbs to see if the usually better than) adverbs to see if the verb appears to the left (suggesting it has verb appears to the left (suggesting it has raised, in a head-initial language) or to the raised, in a head-initial language) or to the right (suggesting it has not raised).right (suggesting it has not raised).

Negation acts a little bit different from Negation acts a little bit different from adverbs in a few ways. One way negation adverbs in a few ways. One way negation acts different is that negation blocks affix acts different is that negation blocks affix lowering in English but adverbs don’t (in lowering in English but adverbs don’t (in the tree, both come between T and V at the tree, both come between T and V at DS):DS): Bill Bill diddid notnot buy cheese. buy cheese. Bill Bill nevernever buys cheese. buys cheese. Bill Bill quicklyquickly bought cheese. bought cheese.

NegPNegP

A common view of negation is that it A common view of negation is that it has its own projection, a NegP, headed has its own projection, a NegP, headed by a negative morpheme. For example, by a negative morpheme. For example, something like this.something like this.

Interestingly, negation sometimes Interestingly, negation sometimes comes “in two parts”, with two comes “in two parts”, with two morphemes implicated in negation. morphemes implicated in negation. NegP has in principle two positions NegP has in principle two positions available for negative morphemes, its available for negative morphemes, its specifier and its head.specifier and its head.

Standard French Standard French ne…pasne…pas is an example is an example of this which we’ll look at now.of this which we’ll look at now.

Neg

NegP

Neg

French negationFrench negation In standard French, the negation of a In standard French, the negation of a

sentence generally involves a morpheme sentence generally involves a morpheme nene placed before the tensed verb and a placed before the tensed verb and a morpheme morpheme paspas placed after it, as in: placed after it, as in: Jean Jean nene mange mange paspas des pommes. des pommes. Jean Jean NENE eats eats NOTNOT of.the apples of.the apples ‘‘Jean doesn’t eat apples.’Jean doesn’t eat apples.’

However, English gives us reason to However, English gives us reason to believe (assuming NegP is in the same believe (assuming NegP is in the same place in the tree in both languages) that place in the tree in both languages) that NegP comes between TP and VP:NegP comes between TP and VP: Bill will Bill will notnot eat apples. eat apples.

French negationFrench negation

A common view of how French A common view of how French negation looks at DS is like negation looks at DS is like this, with this, with nene being a morpheme being a morpheme of category Neg, heading a of category Neg, heading a NegP with NegP with paspas in its specifier.in its specifier.

For the moment, we won’t For the moment, we won’t concern ourselves with the concern ourselves with the categorial status of categorial status of paspas; clearly ; clearly it must be an XP of some kind it must be an XP of some kind itself, maybe also of category itself, maybe also of category Neg, but it never heads the Neg, but it never heads the main NegP in a sentence. I’ll main NegP in a sentence. I’ll write it just as write it just as paspas in the in the specifier.specifier. V

V

VP

PP

T

T

TP

DP

[PRES]

DS

Neg

Neg

NegP

pas

ne


How do we get the correct How do we get the correct word order?word order?

We know that V needs to We know that V needs to move to T, but wouldn’t this move to T, but wouldn’t this yield:yield: Jean mange pas ne des Jean mange pas ne des

pommes.pommes.??

You’d think so, yet the facts You’d think so, yet the facts tell us that we actually get:tell us that we actually get: Jean ne mange pas des Jean ne mange pas des

pommes.pommes.V

V

VP

PP

T

T

TP

DP

[PRES]

DS

Neg

Neg

NegP

pas

ne


Suppose, however, that Suppose, however, that the verb moves the verb moves firstfirst to to Neg, and Neg, and thenthen moves up moves up to T…to T…

What will happen first is What will happen first is that the V will head-that the V will head-adjoin to Neg, creating a adjoin to Neg, creating a complex head…complex head…

V

V

VP

PP

T

T

TP

DP

[PRES]

DS

Neg

Neg

NegP

pas

ne


Note that we take Note that we take nene to be to be a a prefixprefix (not a (not a suffixsuffix), ), which means when we which means when we create the complex head, create the complex head, the verb adjoins on the the verb adjoins on the right.right.

Now, the verb still needs Now, the verb still needs to move to T, but it is to move to T, but it is attached to the Neg now… attached to the Neg now… so the Neg moves to T.so the Neg moves to T.

Complex heads move Complex heads move as a as a unitunit. You can’t “dis-attach” . You can’t “dis-attach” a head from a complex a head from a complex head.head.

ti

V

VP

PP

T

T

TP

DP

[PRES]

Neg

NegP

pas

neNeg

Neg

Vi


This final movement This final movement ends up with the verb ends up with the verb close enough to the close enough to the tense suffix to satisfy the tense suffix to satisfy the requirement that tense requirement that tense have a verbal host, while have a verbal host, while at the same time “taking at the same time “taking nene along” to get us the along” to get us the right word order.right word order. Jean ne mange pas…Jean ne mange pas…

ti

V

VP

PP

T

T

TP

DP

[PRES]

SS

Neg

NegP

pas

neNeg

Negj

Vi

T

tj

French negationFrench negation So, we see that assuming that So, we see that assuming that nene is the is the

head of NegP in French (with head of NegP in French (with paspas in the in the specifier), and assuming that the verb specifier), and assuming that the verb “stops off” to attach to Neg before moving “stops off” to attach to Neg before moving (now as a part of the complex Neg head) (now as a part of the complex Neg head) up to T, we get the right word order.up to T, we get the right word order.

Note that, since Note that, since **Jean mange pas ne des Jean mange pas ne des pommespommes is ungrammatical, we also know is ungrammatical, we also know that the verb that the verb hashas to stop off at Neg on the to stop off at Neg on the way up.way up.

Head Movement Head Movement ConstraintConstraint

This is an example which motivated the This is an example which motivated the hypothesis that head movement is hypothesis that head movement is constrained by the constrained by the Head Movement Head Movement ConstraintConstraint (or (or HMCHMC) which says that when ) which says that when a head moves to another head, it cannot a head moves to another head, it cannot “skip” over a head inbetween. So, the “skip” over a head inbetween. So, the reason the verb stops at Neg is because reason the verb stops at Neg is because Neg is between where V began and T.Neg is between where V began and T.

Head Movement ConstraintHead Movement ConstraintA head cannot move A head cannot move overover another head. another head.

Colloquial French?Colloquial French? It turns out that the negation morpheme It turns out that the negation morpheme nene

that we suppose is the head of the NegP that we suppose is the head of the NegP projection is actually generally optional (or projection is actually generally optional (or even preferentially omitted in colloquial even preferentially omitted in colloquial French)—yet French)—yet paspas doesn’t act any doesn’t act any differently (i.e. it doesn’t get “picked up” differently (i.e. it doesn’t get “picked up” by the verb on the way up to T instead of by the verb on the way up to T instead of nene).).

What this suggests is that colloquial What this suggests is that colloquial French has a French has a nullnull morpheme which is the morpheme which is the head of NegP—that head of NegP—that paspas is still in is still in SpecNegP, but the head is SpecNegP, but the head is ØØ instead of instead of nene..

English negationEnglish negation

A common view of English negation is actually A common view of English negation is actually an extension of this: Many people consider an extension of this: Many people consider notnot to be in the specifier of NegP, with a null to be in the specifier of NegP, with a null head.head.

However, sometimes English negation does However, sometimes English negation does appear to be the head of NegP, when it’s appear to be the head of NegP, when it’s “contracted” as “contracted” as -n’t-n’t.. IsIsn’tn’t Bill hungry? Bill hungry?

Notice that when the verb moved to T and Notice that when the verb moved to T and then to C, it seems to have carried negation then to C, it seems to have carried negation along.along.

English negationEnglish negation

NotNot doesn’t act this way, though— doesn’t act this way, though—and often sounds a bit archaic:and often sounds a bit archaic: Has Bill Has Bill notnot bought cheese yet? bought cheese yet? HasHasn’tn’t Bill bought cheese yet? Bill bought cheese yet?

There are lots of interesting There are lots of interesting questions about negation in English questions about negation in English and other languages—we can’t and other languages—we can’t pursue them here any further, but pursue them here any further, but this is a good first approximation to this is a good first approximation to how negation works.how negation works.

Back to VSOBack to VSO Now, let’s return to the question of VSO order Now, let’s return to the question of VSO order

in languages like Irish (remember that?). in languages like Irish (remember that?). Recall that we started off with the observation Recall that we started off with the observation that there isn’t any way to “generate VSO that there isn’t any way to “generate VSO order” at DS using X-bar rules because V and order” at DS using X-bar rules because V and O are sisters at DS.O are sisters at DS.

However, now that we have verb movement at However, now that we have verb movement at our disposal, we could certainly derive VSO our disposal, we could certainly derive VSO like this:like this:

DS:DS: SubjectSubject VerbVerb ObjectObject SS:SS: VerbVerbii SubjectSubject ttii ObjectObject

IrishIrish In support of verb movement, consider:In support of verb movement, consider:

PhógPhóg Máire an lucharachán. Máire an lucharachán. kissedkissed Mary the leprechaun Mary the leprechaun ‘‘Mary kissed the leprechaun.’Mary kissed the leprechaun.’

TáTá Máire ag- Máire ag-pógáilpógáil an lucharachán. an lucharachán. IsIs Mary ing- Mary ing-kisskiss the leprechaun the leprechaun ‘‘Mary is kissing the leprechaun.’Mary is kissing the leprechaun.’

We find that if an We find that if an auxiliaryauxiliary occupies the verb occupies the verb slot at the beginning of the sentence, the slot at the beginning of the sentence, the main verb appears between the subject and main verb appears between the subject and verb—it remains, unmoved.verb—it remains, unmoved.

This suggests that deriving VSO from SVO is This suggests that deriving VSO from SVO is on the right track.on the right track.

VSO order in IrishVSO order in Irish

Where is the verb moving to, though?Where is the verb moving to, though? The verb ends up to the left of the The verb ends up to the left of the

subject, which in English we took to subject, which in English we took to be movement to C:be movement to C: Will BillWill Bill buy cheese? buy cheese?

A natural thing to suppose is that the A natural thing to suppose is that the verb moves to T and then to C in Irish verb moves to T and then to C in Irish to get VSO order.to get VSO order.


Except, consider these:Except, consider these: AnAn bhfaca tú an madra? bhfaca tú an madra? QQ See you the dog See you the dog ‘‘Did you see the dog?’Did you see the dog?’

Duirt mé Duirt mé gurgur phóg Máire an lucharachán. phóg Máire an lucharachán. Said I Said I thatthat kissed Mary the leprechaun kissed Mary the leprechaun ‘‘I said that Mary kissed the leprechaun.’I said that Mary kissed the leprechaun.’

If the verb moves to C, where are If the verb moves to C, where are anan and and gurgur??


In English (and German and other In English (and German and other languages) if there is something languages) if there is something inin C, the C, the verb doesn’t move there (it doesn’t need verb doesn’t move there (it doesn’t need to):to): IsIs Bill hungry? Bill hungry? ShouldShould Bill Bill bebe hungry? hungry? I wonder I wonder ifif Bill Bill isis hungry. hungry.

But in Irish, we see an But in Irish, we see an overtovert complementizer followed by VSO.complementizer followed by VSO.

A VP-internal subject?A VP-internal subject?

One possibility that this One possibility that this suggests is that the verb is only suggests is that the verb is only moving to T, but the subject is moving to T, but the subject is actually actually lowerlower than T—and we than T—and we have a place in our tree which have a place in our tree which hasn’t been used yet, the hasn’t been used yet, the specifier of VP.specifier of VP.

But what about English? We But what about English? We expect that DS looks pretty expect that DS looks pretty much the same across much the same across languages, so why does the languages, so why does the subject seem to start in different subject seem to start in different places in Irish and English?places in Irish and English? ti

V

VP

…

C

C

CP SS

T+Vi

T

TP

DP


Actually, though, there’s some Actually, though, there’s some reason to think that in reason to think that in EnglishEnglish the subject originates in SpecVP the subject originates in SpecVP too, contrary to what we’ve too, contrary to what we’ve been assuming—and been assuming—and movesmoves to to SpecTP.SpecTP.

One argument for this concerns One argument for this concerns the “floating quantifier” the “floating quantifier” allall.. AllAll the students will leave. the students will leave. The students will The students will allall leave. leave. *The students will leave*The students will leave allall..

Where can Where can allall be found?be found? V

V

VP

…

C

C

CP DS

T

T

TP

DP


AllAll the students will leave. the students will leave. The students will The students will allall leave. leave. *The students will leave*The students will leave allall..

First of all, First of all, all the studentsall the students looks like the basic form—this is looks like the basic form—this is what the second sentence what the second sentence meansmeans, but the , but the allall has somehow has somehow “floated off”.“floated off”.

However, if the subject moves However, if the subject moves from SpecVP to SpecTP from SpecVP to SpecTP and if and if the studentsthe students can move, leaving can move, leaving allall behind behind, then , then allall got left got left behind in SpecVP.behind in SpecVP. V

V

VP

…

C

C

CP DS

T

T

TP

DP

A VP-internal subject?A VP-internal subject? The movement of DPs (like The movement of DPs (like

subjects) will be the topic of next subjects) will be the topic of next week’s class, but this idea the week’s class, but this idea the subject appears in SpecVP in Irish subject appears in SpecVP in Irish (and indeed in English) is not (and indeed in English) is not implausible.implausible.

Note: Note: For this week’s homework, For this week’s homework, feel free to continue drawing your feel free to continue drawing your DS as if the subject originates in DS as if the subject originates in SpecTP. Since we haven’t talked SpecTP. Since we haven’t talked about the details of “NP” (DP) about the details of “NP” (DP) movement, you need not concern movement, you need not concern yourself with it… yourself with it… yetyet..

V

V

VP

…

C

C

CP DS

T

T

TP

DP

The Italian DPThe Italian DP

Remember earlier (not so long ago, Remember earlier (not so long ago, really), we supposed that proper really), we supposed that proper names could be of category D, but names could be of category D, but yet we observed that in some yet we observed that in some languages, it is possible (even languages, it is possible (even obligatory) to say obligatory) to say the Billthe Bill (rather (rather than than BillBill, as we say in English)., as we say in English).

Let’s take a look at Italian, which Let’s take a look at Italian, which has this property.has this property.

The Italian DPThe Italian DP In Italian, in many cases, there is simply an In Italian, in many cases, there is simply an

option (stylistically governed) as to whether option (stylistically governed) as to whether you say you say The GianniThe Gianni or just or just GianniGianni::

GianniGianni mi ha telefonato. mi ha telefonato. GianniGianni me has telephoned me has telephoned ‘‘Gianni called me up.’Gianni called me up.’

Il GianniIl Gianni mi ha telefonato. mi ha telefonato. the Giannithe Gianni me has telephoned me has telephoned ‘‘Gianni called me up.’Gianni called me up.’

The Italian DPThe Italian DP

However, there is a difference with However, there is a difference with respect to the order of adjectives and the respect to the order of adjectives and the noun depending on which one you use.noun depending on which one you use. L’ antica RomaL’ antica Roma the ancient Romethe ancient Rome ‘‘Ancient Rome’Ancient Rome’ *Antica Roma*Antica Roma ancient Romeancient Rome Roma anticaRoma antica Rome ancientRome ancient

E’venuto il vecchio Cameresi.came the older Cameresi

*E’venuto vecchio Cameresi. came older CameresiE’venuto Cameresi vecchio.came Cameresi older

The Italian DPThe Italian DP But this makes perfect sense, if But this makes perfect sense, if

what is happening in the cases what is happening in the cases where there is no determiner is where there is no determiner is that the N is moving up to D that the N is moving up to D (just like V moves up to T in the (just like V moves up to T in the main clause), and when there main clause), and when there isis a determiner, the N stays put.a determiner, the N stays put. L’ antica RomaL’ antica Roma the ancient Romethe ancient Rome

Roma anticaRoma antica *Antica *Antica RomaRoma

Rome ancientRome ancient ancient Romeancient Rometi

N

…

SS

D+Ni

D

DP

AdjP

N

NP

And English?And English? So, in Italian, there seems to be pretty good So, in Italian, there seems to be pretty good

evidence that the N raises to D.evidence that the N raises to D. In English, adjectives can sometimes be found In English, adjectives can sometimes be found

with proper names, and they precede it:with proper names, and they precede it: Good old JohnGood old John Ancient RomeAncient Rome

However, in English, we can However, in English, we can nevernever have a have a determiner with a proper name (determiner with a proper name (*The Mary*The Mary).).

For now, all we can conclude is that English For now, all we can conclude is that English lacks a (null affixal) determiner that causes lacks a (null affixal) determiner that causes raising, but Italian has it. Later, we might be raising, but Italian has it. Later, we might be able to revise this in light of further able to revise this in light of further discussion.discussion.

WrapupWrapup So, what we’ve seen is basically that So, what we’ve seen is basically that

there is an operation of there is an operation of head movementhead movement which can take the head of an XP and which can take the head of an XP and attach it (attach it (head-adjoinhead-adjoin) it to a higher ) it to a higher head.head.

This kind of movement cannot skip over This kind of movement cannot skip over intervening heads in the structure intervening heads in the structure ((HMCHMC).).

We’ve seen V-to-T movement, T-to-C We’ve seen V-to-T movement, T-to-C movement, and N-to-D movement as movement, and N-to-D movement as examples of this.examples of this.

Week 5. Head movement CAS LX 522 Syntax I. X-bar parameters Many (most?) languages of the world have...

Documents

Transcript of Week 5. Head movement CAS LX 522 Syntax I. X-bar parameters Many (most?) languages of the world have...