European Nationalism, Industrial Revolution, Mass Society 1750-1900 A.D.

I. Reaction and Revolution (Post-Napoleonic Europe)

A. Congress of Vienna 1814

1. Cooperative European diplomacy meant to preserve balance of power after the defeat of Napoleon

2. Great Britain, Prussia (Germany), Russia, and Austria drew up new “suitable” borders for the map of Europe

3. Foreign policy continued the practice of preventive alliances and adopted the principle of interventionism

4. Congress of Vienna (Concert of Europe) mainly represented Conservative mentality toward preserving stability and preventing drastic social-political change

B. Revolutionary Outbursts Challenge the Status Quo

1. Forces of social and political change embraced Liberal ideas of expanding democracy and conservative ideas of nationalism simultaneously

(Impact of French Revolution!!!)

2. 1830-1848 saw brief uprisings in Belgium, France, Netherlands, Poland, Germany, Italy, and the Austrian Empire

II. Nationalism and National Unification

A. Crimean War 1853-1856

1. Struggle between Russia and the Ottoman Empire resulted in the breakdown of any international cooperation of European governments

2. Britain and France declared war on Russia fearing their potential gains in the Black Sea and Mediterranean

3. Individual European Nationalism Begins to peak

B. Italian Unification 1850-1871

1. Required civil conflict and numerous phases of war against neighboring powers that had retained territorial control for centuries (France, Spain, Austria)

2. King Victor Emmanuel, Prime Minister Camillo di Cavour, and Commander Giuseppe Garibaldi were all committed to unifying Italy

3. Nationalism/Patriotism/Italian identity was central to the struggle for political unity and removing foreign powers

C. German Unification 1848-1871

1. Failures of 1848-1849 led to Prussian “realpolitik” which meant an aggressive approach to a goal that seemed practical

2. Prussian Germany under Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck led German states to unification through a combined militarist/nationalist agenda

3. 1870 Franco-Prussian War “sealed the deal” as German states formerly opposed to Prussian dominance joined the effort to defeat France as a mutual enemy

4. United Germany under Bismarck and Kaiser Wilhelm gained territories of Alsace and Lorraine from France

5. Unification/Militarism/Industrialization made Germany the largest continental European power by 1871

6. German “realpolitik” turned into the pre-WWI alliances that brought all of Europe into the Great War 1914-1918

D. Great Britain in the Victorian Age 1837-1901

1. Reforms toward greater democracy continued as Britain’s global power and empire increased simultaneously

2. British National pride peaked as her empire was at its height pre-WWI in India, Africa, Middle East, East Asia

3. British nationalism emphasized cultural superiority and civilizing mission around the globe

E. France’s Second Empire 1852-1870

1. Plebiscite Election 1848- popular vote brought about shift in France again from democracy to monarchy

2. President Louis-Napoleon became Emperor Napoleon III and he proceeded to expand the French economy and build infrastructure and beautify Paris

3. Losses to Germany in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870 brought about the end of the Second Empire and France continued to experience national difficulties

F. Austria-Hungary

1. Hapsburg Dynasty of had to make concessions to Hungary allowing for more national independence although Austria and Hungary were ruled by one monarchy with a dual crown

2. Austria and Hungary each had their own independent legislatures and capitals at Vienna and Budapest

3. Other nationalities within the Empire would grow increasingly frustrated/nationalistic circa WWI (Serbia)

G. Russian Empire 1861-1900

1. Czar Alexander II emancipated the serfs and provided them with land to work independently

2. Russian conservatives assassinated Czar Alexander II and his son Alexander III continued many of the more authoritarian/oppressive forms of Russian monarchy

a. Secret police, censorship, exile, torture were all common practices when revolutionary movements began in the late 1800s

3. Czar Nicholas II believed in absolutism and the principles of autocracy in Russian government but workers parties were growing stronger in Russia circa 1900

a. Socialist movements and more radical Communist movements were rising against Russian authorities

b. “Bloody Sunday” 1905, government forces opened fire on protestors in St. Petersburg that were demanding reforms

c. Massive labor strikes followed the brutality

4. Czar Nicholas created the Duma (National Assembly) for the purpose of having a public forum for grievances but the Czar’s army and bureaucracy would continue to control politics through WWI

(Russian Revolution? Execution of Czar and Family?)

H. Europe on the Verge of War

1. 1878-1914 Ottoman Empire was losing territory in the Balkans and Austria and Russian each saw opportunities to expand their influence

2. Austria annexed territory against the wishes of Serbia and Russia and the Balkan became the symbolic “powder keg” that would ignite WWI

3. Losses of Russo-Japanese War 1905 had agitated Russia and now Austria seemed to be undermining Russian interests in Europe

III. Causes of Industrial Revolution

A. Great Britain Lead Industrial Change

1. Agriculture Improved, less labor produced more food

2. Population growth led to new employment needs and opportunities

3. Technological advancements allowed for mechanization of labor but required workers to oversee factory systems

4. Britain was rich in natural resources for powering early factories such as rivers for water power and coal for fire-generated steam power

5. Strong banking industry with available capital ($) for loans and investment by entrepreneurs

B. The New Factory System

1. Workers were required to keep the machines moving at a constant pace

2. Work shifts involved repetitive tasks and hourly wages

3. Shifts were typically up to twelve hours and work conditions were unsafe

4. Factory employment was open to men, women, and children and ultimately led to the emergence of a larger urban working class as people viewed hourly wage labor as a positive opportunity

5. Workers were often faced with harsh treatment by employers and management

C. Industrial Capitalism vs. Socialism

1. Private ownership and profiteering by investors drove debates over fair wages and the conditions of workers quickly developed in industrializing nations

2. Socialists advocated public ownership/regulation of key industries to promote fair conditions of employment and a more cooperative society with more equality

Ex. Robert Owen’s Utopian Experiment in New Lanark saw initial success as a planned community

Utilitarianism: the belief that all actions taken should be to bring about the most happiness for the greatest number of people

Utopia: “no place”, the ideal society that exists in perfect harmony

IV. Growth of Industrial Prosperity

A. Second Industrial Revolution 1860-1920

1. Steel production, electricity, petroleum (OIL), chemistry, combustion engines, and electric applications continued to advance industrial production and expanded modern economies

2. Key innovators of 2nd revolution- Thomas Edison, Alexander Graham Bell, Henry Ford

3. Faster mechanized factory system incorporated the ideas of the assembly line which allowed for mass production at a faster pace

B. The “Working” Class Seeks Reform…or Revolution?

1. Moderate Socialism promoted government regulation of wages, hours, conditions, workers’ rights, and public ownership/management of major industries

2. Radical Communism promoted working class (Proletariat) revolution occurring due to capitalism allowing continuance of social, political, and economic inequalities(French Revolution? Tear down the old?)

a. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels wrote the Communist Manifesto in 1848 which outlined the gap between wealthy and working class people

b. Goal: classless society where everybody shares equally in society’s labor, resources, and wealth where government would eventually become unnecessary

c. Most Marxists have been associated with the violent, or subversive, overthrow of government and dictatorship to implement political, economic, and social change by force

d. Revisionist Marxists oppose violence and support democratic reforms

C. Push for Democratic Reforms

1. Trade Unions and Social Democrat Parties developed in industrialized countries in the late 1800s and were able to influence government to make changes that bettered the status of the working classes

a. KEY CHANGES: Universal male suffrage, standard workday/week, minimum wages, safety standards, collective bargaining rights for workers (legal unionization)

b. Communist revolutions were avoided in most of Western Europe and the

United States but conditions would be optimum in other parts of world for Socialism/Communism to gain great popularity

c. Growth of the Communists International (COMINTERN) as an organization committed to worldwide revolution and connection between labor/political organizations

V. Emergence of Mass Society

A. Urbanization= city growth

1. Population movements occurred due to mechanization of agriculture and availability of jobs in urban areas

2. 1850-1890 industrialized cities greatly increased in size due to population movement

3. Effects

a. Needs for Municipal (city) government to play a greater role in day to day life

b. Local taxation was needed for public sanitation and services such as schools, hospitals, sewage, and housing regulations

4. Lifestyles revolved around workday schedule and 6 day work weeks which resulted in “scheduling” of leisure activities

5. Leisure activities became business ventures in the form of amusement parks, professional sporting events, and eventually cinema (movies)

6. Public Education was designed to promote literacy, patriotism, and civic-minded citizenship

7. Mass Media- newspapers, journals, magazines continued to become more widespread and informative to more literate populations

B. Women’s Experiences

1. New fields of work opened up with industrialization and urbanization

a. Clerks, Secretaries, Salespeople, Teachers, Typists, Nursing

2. Married women (middle and upper class) experienced few rights under the law because their daily role involved primarily household management

3. Working class women often had to work outside of the home in addition to their household “duties” to have adequate incomes for their families

4. Modern Feminism 1830-present advocated equality under the law, voting rights (suffrage), equal wages, and equal education

VI. Western Culture 1800-1900

A. Romanticism- (1st half of 1800s) a cultural obsession with an idealized past

1. Popular art, music, literature, and poetry expressed individuality in a time when conformity remained strong in modern European cultures

(industrial worker culture= robotic society???)

B. Realism- (2nd half of 1800s) a cultural movement closely related to scientific inquiry promoting truth and reality

1. Popular art and literature moved toward exhibiting ordinary imagery/characters that people could relate to

Ex. Charles Dickens- novelist known for “A Christmas Carol” and “Oliver Twist” which showed the difficulties of life in Industrial Britain

C. Modernism- (late 1800s into 1900s) a cultural movement to abandon all previous standards of human expression

1. Furthered the push for individuality and individual perceptions of the world around us

D. New Ages of Science

1. Louis Pasteur- 1862 the germ theory of diseases

2. Michael Faraday- magnetics, electricity, chemistry

3. Charles Darwin- 1859 the principles of evolution and natural selection

a. Herbert Spencer- 1859 applied Darwin’s principles to individuals, race, business, and nationality

4. Sigmund Freud- 1900 dream analysis and psychoanalysis of the human mind to diagnose behaviors and social disorders

5. Marie Curie- 1898 the principles of the atom and energy within

6. Albert Einstein- 1905 theory of relativity that summarized the uncertainty of all natural events in the universe (beginning the Atomic Age)

***Tension between faith and secular science increased throughout the 1800s

VII. Industrialization, Imperialism, and European Rivalries

A. Great Britain in the Victorian Age 1837-1901

1. Reforms toward greater democracy continued as Britain’s global power and empire increased simultaneously

2. British National pride peaked as her empire was at its height pre-WWI in India, Africa, Middle East, East Asia

3. SOCIAL DARWINISM- philosophy of survival of the fittest helped Britain justify its global position of dominance via capitalism and imperialism

B. France’s Second Empire 1852-1870

1. Plebiscite Election 1848- popular vote brought about shift in France again from democracy to monarchy

2. President Louis-Napoleon became Emperor Napoleon III and he proceeded to expand the French economy and build infrastructure and beautify Paris

3. Losses to Germany in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870 brought about the end of the Second Empire and France continued to experience national difficulties

C. Austria-Hungary

1. Hapsburg Dynasty of had to make concessions to Hungary allowing for more national independence although Austria and Hungary were ruled by one monarchy with a dual crown

2. Austria and Hungary each had their own independent legislatures and capitals at Vienna and Budapest

3. Other nationalities within the Empire would grow increasingly frustrated/nationalistic circa WWI (Serbia)

D. Russian Empire 1861-1900

1. Czar Alexander II emancipated the serfs and provided them with land to work independently

2. Russian conservatives assassinated Czar Alexander II and his son Alexander III continued many of the more authoritarian/oppressive forms of Russian monarchy

a. Secret police, censorship, exile, torture were all common practices when revolutionary movements began in the late 1800s

3. Czar Nicholas II believed in absolutism and the principles of autocracy in Russian government but workers parties were growing stronger in Russia circa 1900

a. Socialist movements and more radical Communist movements were rising against Russian authorities

b. “Bloody Sunday” 1905, government forces opened fire on protestors in St. Petersburg that were demanding reforms

c. Massive labor strikes followed the brutality

4. Czar Nicholas created the Duma (National Assembly) for the purpose of having a public forum for grievances but the Czar’s army and bureaucracy would continue to control politics through WWI

(Russian Revolution? Execution of Czar and Family?)

H. Europe on the Verge of War

1. 1878-1914 Ottoman Empire was losing territory in the Balkans and Austria and Russian each saw opportunities to expand their influence

2. Austria annexed territory against the wishes of Serbia and Russia and the Balkan became the symbolic “powder keg” that would ignite WWI

3. Losses of Russo-Japanese War 1905 had agitated Russia and now Austria seemed to be undermining Russian interests in Europe