Legacy of Slavery and Indentured Labour

Linking the Past with the FutureConference on Slavery, Indentured Labour, Migration, Diaspora

and Identity Formation.June 18th – 23th, 2018, Paramaribo, Suriname

Org. IGSR & Faculty of Humanities and IMWO, in collaboration with Nat. Arch. Sur.

THE STORY OF FIVE GENERATIONS OF A SURINAMESE FAMILYFROM BRITISH INDIAN IMMIGRANTS 1873 – 2010

Kermechend Stanley Raghoebarsing.

1. Background, purpose and method of this articleThe central theme of the conference is:'Linking the past to the future: how can knowledge of the past contribute to a better future? Can we connect historical specifications of indentured labour and migration to contemporary issues? 'The conference also aims to promote new perspectives and approaches in the study of forced migration and their impact on the society.

This article tells the story of five generations of the Raghoebarsing family, since the arrival of the ancestors as British Indian immigrants in 1873. The research that covered all five generations was originally meant to write the biography of the third generation (1924 - 2002). The study was carried out through research of family- and public archives, literature and oral sources. The family archives include hundreds of letters written between 1953 and 1982. Valuable technical support was received from my friend Maurtis Safdar Hassankhan. This article is prepared according the guidelines for contributions to this conference and is written as a narrative. The conclusions are recognizable. And there is a clear answer to the central question of the theme of this conference.

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2. A phone callEarly in the morning of January 12, 2008 my 22-year-old daughter Sadhana called me from India. With colleagues from many countries, she followed a training course under the ITEC program of the Indian government. There, in villages and countryside she saw families working, and had felt connected to them. Because more than a century ago her ancestors had travelled from here to Suriname for a better life.‘Dad, do what you have planned for long, write down the story of your parents.’

3. Nandoe on ParnjásOn September 6, 1924, on La Prévoyance, a plantation in Saramacca, Nandoe Raghoebarsing was born. His grandparents had immigrated from British India to Suriname as indentured labourers. After expiration of their contracts they had decided to settle. They had obtained land and became farmers.

Nandoe's parents Sewnarain and Chowhania were second generation, born in Suriname, and had started their own farm, planting mainly rice.Parnjás – as they called it – had been a coffee plantation on the right bank of the Saramacca river, one of the first established here. Since 1790 land in this area was being distributed but with little success, and much unexplored land was available. When immigrants waived their rights to return to British India, they could easily obtain land in Saramacca and become farmers. And so, gradually a lay out of elongated parcels of land developed along the river. The main product was rice. (NAS under plantation Catharina Sophia).

During the population census of 1921, 41 households were counted on Parnjás, most Hindustani, but there were also Creoles, Javanese, Chinese and even a Dutch. The Raghoebarsings were a large family. 'Farmer' was the most common profession, but there were also boatmen, boat builders, shopkeepers, teachers and the midwife. (NAS: Census 1921). Parnjásis were related to each other, sometimes by blood but certainly by land - gá-on ke nátá. Relations were important and children were informed about their relation to the other residents.

Farmers progressed through family labour and through mutual help - 'húnr'. Those who needed extra hands could count on support from their neighbours. But if the neighbours needed help tomorrow, they were helped. Solidarity and cooperation formed a basis of their community. Javanese knew the similar system of goton rojong.

Nandoe was strong, clever, easily taking the lead, courageous, just like his father. He was eager to learn, but the artificial information of school, far from everyday life and normal relations did not appeal to him. From his father and his brothers, on the other hand he learned important life lessons. He learned that people had to be treated equally, that a given word was sacred, that it was important to be honest and just. These ideas touched his soul and helped shape his

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personality. Many times he had admired his father and his brothers when they rejected discrimination and enforced justice.They were chattris, the second caste, and maintained the corresponding qualities like courage, leadership and reliability. But, at the same time they rejected discrimination based on caste. Caste differences had been of little relevance for work during indentured labourship, in social life however differences did not automatically disappear. His family however would not allow discrimination. If during celebrations attempts were made to separate guests for dinner, Nandoe’s family notified the host that they would collectively leave without having any food, which would be a public insult. Nandoe learned how to take steps building a just community.

In 1936 father Sewnarain got ill, his health deteriorated, and eventually he died. He was buried on their land alongside the canal.1 Mother Chowhania took the helm of the farm firmly in her hands; Parnjásis saw her step to the field in the morning, with her seven sons right behind her, from oldest to youngest.

Farming did not appeal to Nandoe, so with brother Bisoen he went working in Anthony's store in Groningen, where they stayed the week. In the weekend they returned home were all the brothers were together again. Then they played soccer with the others or held rowing competitions. Their most noticeable and respected feature however was their solidarity. They supported each other, and when invited somewhere they always walked in together.When Bisoen moved to Leidingen - Kandál - close to Paramaribo, Nandoe went to pick coffee at De Dankbaarheid, next to Parnjás. His weekly earnings of Sf 2,50 helped him on his path to adulthood. But he did not like farming, he wanted to become a tailor in Paramaribo and make good money, like his brother Chab'bi. At Parnjás people were reserved about that idea, because he was young and inexperienced, and he knew neither the profession nor the city. But mother Chowhania had also considered his strengths and had supported him. So in 1939 the fifteen-year-old boarded the boat to Paramaribo to become a tailor. His mother accompanied him.

4. The first and second generationRugbur and Rookmonia: ájá and áji of Nandoe Nandoe's paternal grandfather - ájá - Rugbur B/1719 had arrived on the 8th of November 1873 with the fourth boat from British India,2 and was assigned to the plantation Rust en Werk where he became a 'sardár', a local supervisor. He lived there for 16 years. Rugbur provided the root of the family name Raghoebarsing.

1 Traditionally, Hindus cremate their deceased, but in 1936 the legislation lacked. In 1969, almost a century after their arrival, the legislative provisions were finally taken, and the first cremation could take place.

2 Between 1873 and 1916, 64 shipments arrived, bringing about 33.572 immigrants. About 11.559 returned, 22.013 stayed. Most of repatriates were born in Suriname. (Dr. Mr. Drs. J.H. Adhin (redactie) pages 27 and 28).

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Nandoe’s paternal grandmother - áji - Rookmonia M/712 arrived nine years later, on April 13, 1884, she too was assigned to Rust en Werk. There, on April 16, 1886 Sewnarain, Nandoe’s father was born. Rugbur once wanted to move to Guyana, but Rookmonia had preferred to stay here, close to her brother Matabadal. In 1897 they applied for land and established a farm on Parnjás.

Bhugwansing and Idia: náná and náni of NandoeNáná Bhugwansing C/194, Nandoe’s maternal grandfather came on January 14, 1874, as a 15-year-old son from the family of father Baladeen Sing, mother Purmee and 3 younger brothers. A sister named Munnee was born on the boat at the Paramaribo quay. They were assigned to the coffee plantation Maasstroom, close to Rust and Werk. Within 1½ years after arrival, a brother and the sister of Bhugwansing had died.3

Five years later they signed second contracts. During that period, Baladeen Sing passed away, and Purmee had been sentenced to 18 months in prison for public disturbance. Yet they signed third five-year contracts, all contracts dissolved prematurely on 6 July 1887.In the meantime Bhugwansing had married Idia B/1006, and they had 3 children. In 1888, their fourth child, Chowhania, Nandoe's mother, was born in Beneden Para.In 1889 the whole family, eleven in total left for British India. But a year later Bhugwansing, Idia and their four children returned, Bhugwansing and Idia receiving second contract numbers, their children received a first contract number. So, while their children were born in Suriname they now arrived as immigrants from British India.4 Bhugwansing’s nationality became ‘British Guyanese'. He arrived as a 'free immigrant' who went to work in Nickerie. Idia and the children went to Catharina Sophia, opposite Parnjás.Bhugwansing’s mother and other family did not return to Suriname. It is not known whether they stayed in British India or migrated to Guyana or Trinidad.

Sewnarain and Chowhania: father and mother of NandoeAround 1902 the 16-year-old Sewnarain, son of Rugbur and Rookmonia, and 14-year-old Chowhania, daughter of Bhugwansing and Idia married in Saramacca. They had seven sons and three daughters. Nandoe was their ninth child. Shortly after the birth of their last child, they had taken Mannie Gomes home, a child whose mother had died.In 1939 Chowhania accompanied Nandoe to Paramaribo to become a tailor there.

5. From Parnjás to Paramaribo3 The selection of immigrants in British Indie, and their housing and health care in Suriname during this first year of immigration was inadequate to such an extent, that immigrations were stopped within a year after it’s start, in 1874 and only resumed in 1877. (Choennie volume I page 425).4 There are only 68 registered cased to whom this applieds. (Database).

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While Parnjás had one dam along the river connecting all inhabitants, Paramaribo was a grid of streets, with many houses close together, including large painted mansions. Here were countless shops selling all kinds of products, and cinemas where films from British India too were running, at an entrance fee of a dime. The city was a pretty promise. But Nandoe soon found out that behind the beautiful facades on the street side, there were dilapidated dwellings, where poor people lived. Nandoe learned his way through the city, found out what banks and notary offices were for, and where sewing machines and textile were sold. Daily he cycled from Kandál to the busy Saramaccastreet where he learned about tailoring from tailor Rustam. But he did not earn money yet. On days that he had a few cents, he strolled to the back of the market during break and bought overripe bananas.‘You're going to feed those to your parrot,’ the saleswoman noted. He nodded affirmatively, retreated, devoured his lunch, and drank water from the tap. But often his pockets were empty and he went hungry all day.

In 1939, when Nandoe came to Paramaribo, the country’s economy was impacted by the world economic crisis, and was in bad shape for a long time already. The market for colonial products had collapsed, the largest gold company was shut down, balata was barely traded. Of the once colonial economy of hundreds of sugar-, coffee- and cocoa plantations, three sugar estates had remained. The export of bauxite that had started in 1922 had declined. There was harsh poverty in Paramaribo. In their efforts to survive, urban residents became transporters, set up shops, became domestic servants, or they ended up in prostitution. Farmers and rural workers went to the city in search of work, to discover that the employment opportunities were not much better here.Then World War II broke out. Immediately Suriname became strategically important, because it supplied 60% of the ore for the construction of aircrafts. An army, the ‘Schutterij’ was established to protect the bauxite mines and rivers, offering employment to 5,000 people. Zanderij airport was expanded considerably to serve as a military air base. The war came to the rescue of many families. It also opened opportunities for tailors; suddenly there was a great demand for military outfit that was well paid for: Sf 0.50 fee for sewing a pair of pants. Nandoe already mastered the profession and worked overtime. And while he had suffered from hunger a year ago, he now earned fifteen guilders a week!

In 1943 he moved to his cousin Khumar Dwarkasing in Paramaribo, but shortly thereafter he could rent a house in the Prinsenstreet and start his own tailoring. Suddenly, in a seemingly smooth succession of events, the boy from Parnjás had established his own business in the city. Not bad for a nineteen year old.But his character born on Parnjás, remained intact. He was courageous and helpful. He warmly received family with whom he shared his bread with peanut butter and tea. His knowledge of the city was available to them, he became the bridge between his plantation and the city. He convinced his mother to move in with him, so Chowhania exchanged her rural life of more than

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half a century for a new life in Paramaribo. With her came the first of many children for whom he became the father figure.

He would never forget Parnjás, but the city too had become his home. His business flourished. In 1946 he bought his first lot of land for Sf 1,500. He had become an experienced cyclist who started the Sunday morning, bent over his bike to Leonsberg and back. During konfriyari - Koninginnedag – he participated in cycling races, with delegations he went racing in the neighbouring countries. At Thesos, his gym, he exercised gymnastics and boxing. He bought a guitar and was proud of the Indian Orchestra. ‘I loved music but the music did not love me,’ he would later tell jokingly.

And he travelled! He got on the boat to British Guiana and onward to the Caribbean, looking for family. Because him was told that ancestors had lost each other and landed in Suriname, British Guiana and Trinidad. And there were some indications. Ajá Rugbur had wanted to go to British Guiana because he had friends there. Náná Bhugwansing’s nationality, coming from British India for the second time in 1890, had suddenly changed into ‘British-Guiana’. But the most persistent story was that a brother or sister of his mother Chowhania had landed in Trinidad.The result of his search for family remained unknown, but every time he travelled, he made new friends.

6. Nandoe and TreesOne evening after training at Thesos, friends were talking and waiting for the girls from the St. Thomas Course. When his friends had challenged him, Nandoe had stepped on to Trees and started a chat.

Trees' grandparents too had been immigrants from British India, and had arrived between 1890 and 1893. Her parents were second generation, born in Suriname. Her father Shrikisoen had married her mother Halimun, a muslim, who had changed her name to Chandrewatie after marriage. On Oldenburg - Cabell boiti - close to Paramaribo, they had bought a parcel of land, where on June 29, 1932 Trees was born.Trees was cheerful and sweet, with good manners. She enjoyed school, was smart and asked questions. After school she grabbed her fishing gear, walked to the nearby swamps and returned with fish that her mother roasted for dinner. Trees loved her mother who was gentle and caring and told the most beautiful khissás - stories in the evening. Father Shrikisoen was a good carpenter. On Saturday’s, after receiving his wage, he walked home with a bag full of bread and cans of sardines. And in the dry season along he carried a large watermelon. He was a trained gatká player, a martial art.In January 1945 Shrikisoen got an accident during work, a few weeks later he died. Trees had two brothers who were already working, but their earnings were not enough for the many in

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house. Her daily fishing became a necessity, and increasingly they relied on the breadfruit tree for food. Finally her mother even picked the pepper leaves.At the St. Mariaschool they knew of her poverty, so in August 1946 Trees was baptized and the church offered some help. But the situation got worse. Her eldest sister lost her husband, she and her small children moved in the already overcrowded house.Despite their poverty, the children learned life lessons. ‘No matter how poor you may be, never become a beggar, ask for work, ask for help, but do not become a beggar.’ And they learned to respect nature: trees and plants had to be left alone at night.Desperate they moved to Houttuin at the Parakreek, a rural area 20 km South where the family had come from, hoping to improve their condition by farming. But the plan failed and a few months later they had returned to Cabell boiti. Then mother Chandrewatie died.

Trees was sixteen, she followed a teacher’s course and wanted to earn and escape poverty as soon as possible. But with her second brother, Mahadew she now got heated clashes about culture and customs. She wanted to read and learn, to discover the world, to talk about traditions, to argue, to be convinced. She did not want to be hindered because she was a girl. For him on the other hand, traditions were decisive, and not to be questioned. The conflict had become so intense that Trees had left the house and went to live with the Creole/Hindustani ‘Mother’.That unforeseen step embarrassed the family. ‘Admi ká boli?’ – ‘What would people say?’ An unmarried daughter preferred to live with strangers.When she returned weeks later, the message was clear: If she was not allowed to determine her own future, she was prepared to leave her family! She could not know it was not over.After seven bitter years of poverty and struggle, in 1952 she passed her exams as teacher and gaining her financial independence! She shared her joy with her friend Nandoe. She started to work at Sf 1,500 a year. In early 1953 she was placed at the St. Clara School in Nickerie, 250 km away.Usually a girl left her parental home as a bride to start a family. Trees left in full contrast, unmarried and to earn money. Her eldest brother Hardew, accompanied her on the launch for the inland journey through inland waterways, to see to it that she arrived safely and was well accommodated.She boarded the Maynard house for Catholic teachers. The Creole Maynard was not familiar with Hindustani’s in the house and had felt uncomfortable. After arrival, Trees had picked up pen and paper and had written Nandoe - she always called him 'Singh'. A correspondence arose between the tailor in Paramaribo and the teacher in Nickerie.Regularly she sent a package for the family children at Cabell boiti, sometimes with fish, then with shoes and clothing, or again with books and writing tools.

Trees had wanted a modern short haircut for some time already, but she knew her family would never allow it. Now, independent and far away, in a house where all had short hair, now she had been to the hairdresser. And she had been so pleased with the result that she had a nice picture taken, and had sent it to Paramaribo. That turned into a drama. She received family letters with

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reproaches, Mahadew travelled to Nickerie to see what was happening to her. But Trees had decided she would not give in. If they wanted to fight she was in, this was about her freedom! She loved her family and respected tradition, but they had to have some confidence that she could take her own decisions. Months later, Hardew had backed her up and the case came to a rest.

In Nickerie Trees flourished. She lived in a house with understandable rules that allowed her to live in freedom. She had a friend in Paramaribo who praised her for what she had achieved, who promised to be a good husband and to respect her, even if they might disagree.

In August 1954, Nandoe had participated in the commemoration of India's sixth Independence Day in Paramaribo. He would make Trees a remarkable proposal.Parnjás and Paramaribo were his. He had never been in India, but there was a connection by descend and history, media and movies. He had followed the rise of nationalism and independence, and was inspired by Gandhi and Nehru, but also by the militant Subhas Chandre Bose. He knew that even Gandhi's leadership had not been able to prevent the partition of British India in India and Pakistan, with the forced movement of twelve million, and the death of hundreds of thousands.Pandit Haridew Sahtoe would later commemorate.'Hindus and Muslims in Suriname celebrated that day brotherly, embracing each other, predicting that independence would one day be discussed in Suriname. The fraternal struggle and the bloodshed in British India should never occur here, they discussed.'

That day, Nandoe asked if she wanted to move with him to India, in Paramaribo names were registered. That was an impulsive move that did not match his character. Trees brought him back on his feet. ‘Here you have work and money. In India, the rich prosper, the poor suffer. In Suriname, the poorest can feed her children at least once a day, in India children die from hunger.’The idea of emigration would never be coined again ... Yet, two decades later it would reappear, no longer as a youthful whim but as a deadly serious dilemma.

Nandoe had not told Trees lies, but he had carefully provided his information by bits and pieces, she had filled the gaps in her mind. It turned out that he had been married before, he had not attended high school, and he was eight years older than her. She was angry and reproached him. Nandoe knew he wouldn’t have stand a chance if he had put all his cards on the table from day one. But he really loved her. He was the man to stand her firmly on her feet when she worried about the future. ‘You would never have to tolerate bad behaviour from anyone. You can lead an independent life, you earn your own money.’

When she ended the two years term in Nickerie in 1954, it turned out to have been an important phase in her life. She was satisfied with her job and her self-confident had grown. She had won

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the freedom to decide for herself, a victory that would benefit future generations of girls in the family too. Her love had grown for the man who loved her. In their letters they had laid the foundation for their marriage. The timid, somewhat insecure girl that moved to Nickerie in January 1953 had become a confident young woman who could handle the world.

7. CulturesShe was a faithful Catholic, he was a practical Hindu. He had agreed to a Roman Catholic wedding. But they considered both religions important, so there would also be a hawan. And not a traditional red sári and jórá jámá, but both in a modern Western suit. After the wedding in the Rajpur church on 16 November 1955, family, neighbours and friends arrived in the Prinsenstreet with flowers and congratulations. On one of the following evenings there had been the hawan in Cabell boiti, his brothers had arrived together, all neatly dressed with a tie. Some from Trees' family remained reluctant, but brother Hardew, a good artist, had made music and sung for the couple.Their wedding was not traditional; traditionally, decisions were taken by the elderly and pandits. Kamlie was the 13-year-old niece of Trees whose life unfolded traditionally. Her marriage had been arranged and she was married. She lived with her in laws. In November 1955 she had loved to come to the wedding of Trees mausi and Nandoe mausá, but her mother-in-law had refused her permission.

With great interest his family from Parnjás had followed what would change, now that he had married an educated urban woman. They were relieved to find out that they were equally welcome in the Prinsenstreet. And Trees had easily made friends with the women from his family.

Great was his joy when on his 32nd birthday Trees gave birth to their first child. Between 1956 and 1966 they would have five children, three sons and two daughters. And in their home the daughters of Saramacca, and sometimes family members of Trees, would remain part of the family.

His workplace had become too small for long already, now the same applied to their house. In 1959 they bought a plot of land with a building on it, in the street at number 43. Downstairs his workshop could be housed, and they could live upstairs. The building was old and solid, but a renovation was needed. When ‘S.R. Sing's Kledinghuis’ opened its doors in 1960, the scents of paint and textiles waved outside. The store looked great with new working tables, counters and display cabinets. Nandoe's uncle had travelled from Saramacca for the opening.Their previous home had no running water, and no toilet, they had cooked on charcoal. Now they had running water with a shower and a water closet, and cooking gas. They had moved to another home, but also to a different way of living. That caused adjustment problems: For weeks Nandoe visited the familiar latrine outdoors.

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When Trees and the children were at school, he went upstairs and put rice and dál on a low fire. During the week they ate rice with dál and vegetables, meat and fish were for the weekend. And for each meal fresh masala was ground on siel and lorha. To their children life was normal, nothing special. But that was not what family saw.‘No, you were the rich, you lived in a big house in the middle of Paramaribo with all the amenities, you had a car.’

Both religions had been given a place in their home. Their children were baptized, and more than Trees, it was Nandoe who encouraged them to attend church. And on Diwali, Trees prepared a festive meal. Together they placed a dia in the hall to the stairs, where an oil painting hung of Jesus driving the merchants out from the temple, once bought by Nandoe.Nandoe’s workspace too gave a good impression of who he was. In one spot there were the pictures of Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr. and John F. Kennedy side by side. Behind his table there was a picture of the ghats at Benares, and on the window a picture of Casius Clay was displayed.

On his plantation he had learned Dutch in school, but life there happened in the Sarnámi language. In the city however, Dutch was important, it was the language of offices and shops, the language for Western education and progress. So they selected good schools for their children. But they also wanted them to grasp the knowledge of plantation, family and traditions. So Trees told the khissas she had learned from her mother. But with the arrival of television in 1964, the old stories were replaced by the new adventures of Batman and Bonanza. They wanted their children to learn Hindi, the pandit would come home. But the children had little interest and the plan failed. Movies on the other hand, were a great success; In contrast to the appeal of the cinema, the efforts of the pandit did not stand a chance.

In the Prinsenstreet a mixed culture had emerged that felt natural to them. But when family from Parnjás came, they sharply saw the shifts in standards. City children knew little about language, culture and traditions, and were less aware of relationships. They spoke Dutch, and were westernized. When Nandoe's brothers spent the evening now, they were shocked by 'Chachacha with Edmundo Ros' on television, because of the images of scarcely dressed dancing ladies, but mainly because the children in the house simply walked around as if this was the most common thing in the world.One of his brothers vexed his criticism on Parnjás: 'Nandoe and his 'Queen Juliana' should pay more attention to their family and their values.'

In August 1964 they had booked their first flight together and had flown to Trinidad with their friends Sewbaransing. There they were guests at the Boodoosingh family in Harmony Hall Settlement, close to San Fernando.

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Boodoosingh's parents had been indentured labourers. His mother was lured to Trinidad by recruiters with the story that she could make a good living by sifting sugar - 'cini djále' – Trinidad, so she had boarded. The comparison with the deception in Suriname’s case was unmistakable; here labourers were told that they would go to the country of Sri Rám - Suriname.

8. ServiceThey worked hard and had become prosperous, but they didn’t live for the money. For, as often as they had accomplished steps forward, just as often they had stopped to take fellow humans along. ‘Progress’ was something you did together, that was the basis of every community.Whoever wanted to build a house came to Nandoe, because he knew plots for sale, and the way to notaries. He knew where to buy material and had practical layout and building ideas. Seemingly effortless he made simple but well-considered proposals. Few knew that he consulted with Trees. At night you could hear them talking quietly, and the names of family members were softly audible through the bedroom walls. And every time when construction was finished, his joy was as great, as if it were his own home.

Trees encouraged all children to education, and showed them the way to libraries. She lent her scarce literature to young adults in the family and discussed it with them. Many a daughter of plantation found a modern mother in her.

They led an honourable and successful life, to the modern standards of the city but also to the traditional of plantation. It made them the bridge between cultures, they could adapt traditions. If a resident daughter was dating, the young man could come by on Saturday afternoons so they could get to know each other. If marriages were being prepared, they were always asked for advice.Once, a daughter had been turned down during a - bát-cit - marriage proposal, a serious argument emerged. The pandit advised: ‘Get Nandoe involved, he is the one that can solve this problem.’ Another marriage was not possible, because at the last moment the horoscopes did not match. Tactfully Nandoe convinced the pandit that his knowledge and wisdom could find a solution, so it happened. A serious escalation was about to happen when a young adult man had slept with a minor daughter from the family. Nandoe had carefully listened to the parents, consulted his pandit, and had advised that if the two youngsters cared for each other, they would marry as soon as possible.

The ethnic differences of the Surinamese population largely coincided with cultural, religious, economic and historical differences. Nandoe and Trees had a practical, usually warm and sometimes intensive interaction with people from other ethnicities.

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His parents had taken home Mannie Gomes and raised him as their own son. Nandoe had made sports friends in the city of different ethnicity. A newspaper article from 1950 showed that, from the 12 man strong sports delegation to French Guiana, there were five Hindustanis. 5

Trees had found shelter at Mother’s, and at Maynard in Nickerie she had found peace. She too had made many friends, most from other ethnicities. In the Prinsenstreet 40a they had a good relationship with the Creole neighbours; they did not eat and drink together, but the contacts were warm and cordial.There was a good relationship with whites. Their doctor, Lamers said after a home visit to Trees: ‘I had planned to go fishing tomorrow, Saturday is my day off. But your son is very ill, I will stay home, call me if his condition does not improve.’Father Schippers had become a good friend of the family, the correspondence had continued long after he was transferred to Germany.

During the rising nationalism in the sixties and seventies, they too heard about colonialism, domination and oppression. But the whites they had met in their lives were involved, responsible and organized. These were qualities they could relate to, without the need for explanation. And the whites did not impose a threat to their way of life. Their own experiences gave them no reason to hate whites, nor did they want to get that hatred imposed.

Trees and Helen became close friends. Helen and her husband had fled from China with their baby. They ran a store but lived soberly. Helen had three more children she had had to leave them in China. Her heartfelt desire was to have them with her again. Trees could not do anything, but she listened with compassion.

The Javanese families in the rental houses of Prinsenstreet 43 became family. There was daily contact, the children played together, there was mutual help and during holidays they were together. Sometimes they asked Trees to make roti with masala chicken, that Sunday suddenly there was a party in the yard.

When their eldest son went to study in the Netherlands in 1974, Nandoe's grief was so great that he had collapsed and was paralyzed. Slowly he recovered. Just like 20 years earlier between Paramaribo and Nickerie, a correspondence arose, now between Paramaribo and Tilburg.

Under the influence of Creole nationalism and Dutch political support, Suriname moved towards independence in the first half of the 1970s. Creoles had a head start in the public sector, they were the most educated group with the best administrative positions. But they feared economic and numerical domination by Hindustanis. Hindustanis were the largest population group but were locked out of government. So they were suspicious and feared ethnic and political 5 See a copy of the article in the appendix. Probably Hindustanis participated active in city live, despite the small numbers of them living in Paramaribo those days.

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domination by Creoles. The two largest ethnic groups opposed each other around the issue of independence: Distrust and fear became its building blocks. Rulers did not manage to put the otherwise usually good relations of people from different ethnic backgrounds at work for unity and trust around this historic development.

Nandoe and Trees closely followed what was happening. Hopefully politicians did not only work on the formation of a state, with development aid, but also saw to it that a nation was being built, where people could remain each other's brothers.But tensions arose. Basic food became scarce and was now distributed by the state. Government buildings were set on fire, people were molested.The comparison with neighbouring Guyana surfaced, where nationalism and independence had been hand in hand with a divided and impoverished population. Three years earlier, in 1972, Idi Amin had ripped 80,000 Ugandans from their land, houses, and possessions, and expelled them. And Gandhi's nonviolence had not been able to prevent the British India’s partition in 1947 in India and Pakistan. Hindustanis knew about nationalism and independence.

From all ethnic groups people started to leave the country. In February 1975, Nandoe and Trees called their children and discussed with them the difficult decision they faced: stay or leave. On November 18, a week before independence, opposition and coalition managed to find each other and the grim atmosphere relaxed. Trees was relieved.

Trees taught her children life lessons.'Life is a journey, you know the date of your arrival, but nobody knows when he will return. You decide what the journey of your life will look like, you decide what you make of your life. You decide whether you will spend it in a hammock, or want to learn, work, meet people, make friends be happy. You determine whether to wait for help from others, or start to work on your challenges; you yourself decide the journey of your life. And one day, nobody knows when, that journey will be over and you will be called back.'

They taught their children to take responsibility for their own lives and not to feel themselves victims. And Trees taught her daughters never to accept violence in a relationship.

9. Entrepreneurship but no successionLike Nandoe had built his tailoring, many descendants of immigrants had built successful businesses, some advanced into large companies in agriculture, transport, wood processing, trade and construction. Those companies, large and small, became important part of a new economy. But all descendants - including Nandoe and Trees - dreamed of high education and permanent jobs for their children. Because those gave fixed incomes, respect - ijjat - and status. So children were sent to universities. The sacrifices made by parents and children had yielded many doctors, lawyers, engineers and other intellectuals. But that had come at a high price: For the vibrant

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companies the parents had built, there was no succession, and with the passing of the founders, knowledge and capital were lost.

10. A new situation1982 would be a good year. Trees would celebrate her 50 th birthday, and the 25th anniversary as teacher. And their eldest son graduated and was ready to remigrate. A big party was planned. But Trees struggled with her health and was hospitalised. On 12 March, three months before her 50th birthday she died. Nandoe was broken. Her death had taken him by surprise, he never saw it coming: Trees had been hospitalised before but always returned home. Now he felt deeply sorry for her, her whole life she had only worked. And he felt guilty. Why had he celebrated phagwa the day before her death, why had he not done more for her? He tried to keep his life together and move on, especially for his young daughters.Two years later he had met Mama Ram. He still talked about Trees every single day, but slowly he regained his zest for life and was able to look to the future again. And finally he had dared to travel to India without feeling guilty. With Trees he had dreamed about it, but it was with Mama Ram that he had travelled to the land of their ancestors. India was recognizable, language, culture, the Taj Mahal ... But it was also different. Never had he seen such vast numbers of people, completely in contrast with his small-scale world of Suriname, Guyana and Trinidad where things were soon personal, were he made new friends every time.Then Mama Ram died. Again he tried to hold up. He opened his workplace, worked quietly, came upstairs, ate his meal in silence, and went to sleep.

But there was the other side of life too, when he turned around, looking into the future and opening the door to welcome the new little people clambering into his life. He became close friends with his nine grandchildren. He provided them candy and pocket money, protected them from strict parents, and chatted with them. When the grandchildren visited him in the afternoon, they saw him bare chested, cutting trees in the yard, removing stumps, dragging bags.‘He was tall and athletic, sharp facial features, strong, smart, honest, a warrior!’ They hardly knew the word chattri, but the description they gave of their grandfather was accurate.In the course of time he had given them something, from the past, something that would be of lasting value. When his grandchildren were worried about something, he encouraged them: ‘Hey, don’t you worry, you can overcome all problems, you are strong and intelligent, don’t forget, you are a Raghoebarsing!’ He transferred the sense of identity and solidarity he had known since Parnjás.

On the afternoon of December 23, 1991, he went to the university at the Leysweg for the graduation of his youngest daughter. Today the responsibilities of both him and Trees were fulfilled: All their children were educated, had jobs, and were neatly married. No one could ever

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point a finger at him, for failing to having fulfilled his duties because Trees was no longer by his side.

In the first half of the 1990s, the economic crisis in the country had led to scarcity and devaluation. With great satisfaction he observed his children meeting every month to help each other keeping up. Good memories of the bond with his brothers on Parnjás emerged. But what had been smouldering since 1975 actually happened in 1991. Daughter Asje and son Iwan emigrated to the Netherlands, where they had to start from the bottom up again. But they applied what they had learned at home: Work on your progress, don’t be a burden to the community but take responsibility for it, stand for justice.When Iwan was offered a job below his qualifications, and was told that he was allowed to refuse, he expressed the attitude to life of four generations of his family. ‘I came here in the interest of my family, I do not intend to hold up my hand, I want to work. I do not have to start at the top of the ladder, I can climb. What I need is that I get on the ladder.’He bought a house in The Hague.'How do you accomplish that', his white colleague asked. 'I was born here in the Netherlands and have lived my entire life in a rented house, you are here a few years and have already bought a house.'Iwan explained how he had learned to deal with money. And what the difference was between paying rent and paying a mortgage. His colleague had listened well: Within a year he had bought his first home.

Iwan would present radio programs in The Hague where Surinamese in the Netherlands told their stories of achievements and disappointments, integration, and about their relation with Suriname.A decade later, Nandoe’s second son, Rommy would encourage citizens in Suriname to demand greater influence in their political parties. Some politicians responded resentful and tried to silence him. ‘What does he want?’ was asked, alluding to positions or material gain, as long as he would keep shut. His brother could answer: ‘He does not want positions or money. He has three daughters and wishes that we build a decent country in which the next generation has fair chances so they can work and progress.’Their oldest son became a public speaker and was appointed member of cabinet in the year 2000.

Nandoe loved all his children, but he wanted to spend his old days with Iwan. So he moved to the Netherlands in 2001 where he was comfortably accommodated and became the centre of attention. But he could not fit in. He did not know this country, nor the people, nor their way of life. Perhaps he would have succeeded a long time ago, in 1975, to learn everything again, but not anymore. Here on the second floor of a flat in The Hague he became a prisoner of the unknown. Slowly and painfully, the simple truth had unfolded: the Netherlands was not his, his kingdom was elsewhere. Suriname was his, he was from Suriname. A few months later he was back in Suriname and moved in with his eldest son.

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In August 2002 Nandoe broke his hip and was hospitalised. His health went downhill. He spoke to his eldest son. ‘My son, look where I came from, from the primary school, from the clay of Saramacca. Look where you arrived. Continue giving your best every day.’

On August 28, 2002, Nandoe died. The morning after the cremation, his children and grandchildren had collected his ashes, and had sailed to the confluence of the Suriname- and Commewijne rivers. There the ashes were entrusted to nature, close to the plantation Rust en Werk, where 129 years earlier, on 8 November 1873 the indentured labourer Rugbur, had gone ashore to make Suriname his homeland.

11. ConclusionsNew perspectives and approachesWhat was the perspective and approach of this study?This article was written based on research of five generations of one family, since 1873. The study was conducted through research of literature, family archives including approximately hundreds of letters, and oral sources. The results were processed into this article according to the guidelines for contributions to this conference. It was researched and written ‘from the inside’, by a family member, and is written as a 'narrative'.

Linking the past to the futureHow can knowledge of the past contribute to a better future? Can we connect historical specifications or indentured labour and migration to contemporary issues?

Philosophy, knowledge and wisdom from the past have proven to be valuable building blocks for material and social progress through generations. Transfer of life values took place in two mutually supportive ways, namely by oral transfer, and by living on it, to show how to live by them.

Philosophy, knowledge and wisdomValues such as taking responsibility for one's own life and progress, responsibility for the community, truth and justice, leadership, and the willingness to adapt to changing circumstances, are the main themes throughout this story. The life lessons can be traced back to the Bhagwad Gita and the Ramayan, universal wisdom that provided the immigrants and their descendants in Suriname, and in the Netherlands a life attitude that contributed to their material and social progress.But there was no blind acceptance of traditions. Nandoe's family used their chattri caste to behave in accordance with the associated high standards. But if the same caste system was used to discriminate, they rejected it and opposed it.

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Trees loved family and culture, but she refused to be hindered by rigid traditions in her search for her own path in life. She would fight and was prepared, if pressured, to leave the family behind. Note that a distinction is made between ‘philosophy, knowledge, wisdom and values’ on the one hand and ‘habits and traditions’ on the other.

AdaptabilityWhen Nandoe came to Paramaribo, he made a thorough assessment of it. That knowledge would prove beneficial to him and his family. He embraced sport and social life in the city. In a similar way, earlier generations had made Parnjás their home and had developed it into their community.Trees came from a Hindu family, but she embraced Western education that opened her world, and Christianity that provided her strength. Remarkable but also understandable was that she found peace and order in Maynard’s home. In the lessons they later transferred to their children, both traditional and new found values resonated.Particularly in Trees’ family scepticism about mixed culture was visible. But when it turned out that Nandoe and Trees were successful and respected according to the standards of both, the modern urban life as well as the traditional of plantation, their authority grew to advise and build bridges, and the attitude of family slowly changed.

Leadership and community spiritFrom the time of Rugbur being a 'sardár' at Rust and Werk the quality of leadership was prominently visible and was carried forward to future generations: It appeared in Sewnarain and in his sons. Nandoe easily took the lead and fulfilled a pioneering role for the family living in the city.Their leadership was characterised by ‘helpfulness’ and ‘showing others the path’, but it was also ‘corrective’ if necessary.

Trees stood out by fighting and taking the power of decision-making over her life and her future in her own hands. Her success also made it easier for future generations of in particular girls in the family to advance to school and education.The characteristics of leadership and service to the community are recognizable in their children in both Suriname and the Netherlands.

ReligionMixed religious marriages occurred since the first generation. Nandoe's náná and náni, Bhugwansing and Idia, and Trees' náná and náni Baburam and Nasiban were both Hindu-Muslim marriages. Both, Nandoe and of Trees’ mothers came from mixed Hindu-Muslim marriages. The children of Bhugwansing and Idia were given Hindu names, those of Baburam and Nasiban were given Muslim names.

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Their own marriage was Hindu-Christian. Christianity was more pronounced through the RC schools where Trees worked and the children attended, and the church visits. Nandoe was more spiritual than religious. But both religions were respected.Their children and grandchildren have mixed marriages, usually Hindu-Christian.

Christian churches worked actively among the poor. From Saramacca it was known that, among others, the EBG church offered help to the poor. But Hindu and Muslim congregations too operated facilities to accommodate orphans, and children from districts who studied in the city.

Economic and social mobilityThe first generation arrived as indentured labourers and had progressed to independent small scale farmers within one generation. Nandoe's ancestors came at the beginning of immigration (1873/1874) and signed up to three contracts. Apparently, obtaining land was not well known in the beginning. Their land applications came around the turn of the century. The ancestors of Trees on the other hand, arrived between 1890 and 1893 and applied for land after termination of their first contrats.Some of the second generation already started leaving farming: Trees’ father had become a carpenter. In the third generation the migration out of agriculture was obvious. Nandoe and a brother became tailors, two other brothers had become civil servants. In her family, Trees became the first with a Western education. Her brothers started as carpenters, one became a good singer and musician, the other a grocer. The children of Nandoe and Trees - the fourth generation - entered higher education, all working in public and private services. Some of their children had wanted to succeed and continue the tailoring business, but Nandoe was against it. Their children nonetheless initiated entrepreneurial activities like a concrete factory, a supermarket, an IT company and a consultancy firm, all of them successful, but none of the life span of Sing’s tailoring.In the fifth generation, eight grandchildren have at least higher education, the ninth is also on that path. They mostly work in services, banking and larger companies.

Land ownership was highly appreciated. Agricultural land was important to income generation and wealth accumulation. In later generations land ownership is still highly appreciated, its purpose now being more consolidation of wealth.

Decisive influence of the support of the elderlyWinning the support of an authoritative elder turned out to be important through generations. Nandoe obtained the support of his mother at a decisive moment to go to the city and become a tailor. Trees finally got the support of her eldest brother in her fight for freedom. Elderly expressed responsibility in practical ways. Chowhania got on the boat and accompanied her son to town, Hardew accompanied Trees to Nickerie. Nandoe helped his son settling in the Netherlands. Despite their deep differences, Trees’ family continued feeling responsible for her

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until she was married. After the death of Trees, Nandoe continued feeling responsible for his children until they finished study, had a job and were married.

Multi-ethnic and multicultural societyThere was ethnic consciousness, but ethnic differences were not a problem in their daily routine. Sentiments arose when risks of dominance were experienced, related to political developments.

The Census of 1921 showed that the population of Parnjás was ethnically varied. There was no separation of races, residents were positive about their multi-ethnicity. An ethnically mixed population was observed too, for the Houttuin and Mon Plaisir plantations.

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Appendix

Newspaper article in ‘De West’ of 29 May 1951, on a cycling delegation to French Guyana

Source: “Wielrennen”. “De West: nieuwsblad uit en voor Suriname”. Paramaribo 29-05-1951. Geraadpleegd op Delpher op 11-05-2018, https://resolver.kb.nl/resolve? urn=ddd: 110637699:mpeg21a0059

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Glossary

ájá paternal grandfatheráji paternal grandmotherbát-cit marriage proposal and discussions, usually done by elders an panditschattri caste of leaders and warriors cini djále sifting sugar – deception (based on name similarity: Trinidad) of

potential emigrants during recruitment in British Indiegá-on ke nátá people who are related to each other by coming from the same area,

village or plantationgatká martial art, exercised by using two long stickshúnr system of mutual support in agriculture;

Javanese know the comparable goton rojongjórá jámá groom’s suit consisting of a long yellow coat, pants and a turbanKandál Leidingen is a rural area West of Paramaribo also known as Kandálkonfriyari festivities on the queen’s birthdayLa Prévoyance, Parnjás plantation on the right bank of the Saramacca rivermausá uncle, husband of sister of your mothermausi aunt, sister of your mothernáná maternal grandfathernáni maternal grandmotherParnjás see La Prévoyancesardár indentured labourer with some executive authoritySarnámi Surinamese, language originally based on Hindi and mostly spoken

by Hindustanis

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ReferencesPrimary Sources:

Delpher (consulted on newspaper articles): geef aan welke kranten gebruikt en welke periode of nummers.

Family archive of Raghoebarsingh, consisting of ……??????

Nationaal Archief Suriname : Volkstelling 1921 (Population census 1921)

Hassankhan, Maurits and Sandew Hira, 1998: Historical database Suriname. Indian immigrants. Paramaribo/The Hhague. University of Suriname/Amrit

Adhin,. J.H. (ed) 1973. 100 jaar Suriname, gedenkboek i.v.m. een eeuw immigratie (1873 – 5 juni – 1973), uitgegeven door de Nationale Stichting Hindoestaanse Immigratie, Paramaribo, 5 juni 1873

Algoe, Kirtie , 2016. Hindu and Muslim responses tot Christian dominance, Interreligious relations in Suriname and Guyana 1950 – 2014, Paramaribo, 2016

Buddingh’ Hans. 1995. Geschiedenis van Suriname, Uitgeverij Het Spectrum BV, Utrecht 1995

Choenni, Chan E.S. 2012. Hindostaanse contractarbeiders 1873 – 1920, Van India naar de plantages in Suriname, LM Publishers

Groenewoud, van Jotta, Loor, André e.a. 2004. in opdracht van Stichtingen Brasa en SekrepatuFrimangron in kaart gebracht, februari 2004

Sedney, Jules. 2010. De toekomst van ons verleden . VACO uitgeversmaatschappij Paramaribo, tweede volledig herziene druk,

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Oral sources (aangeven wanneer ongeveer de personen zijn geinterviewd of geraadpleegd)

Family name First name (nicknames in italics)Autar RamlakhanBhola SatishBhola-Raghoebarsing Andjenie, AnneBoodoosingh Charoe KamlieCharoe SoekhraadjDwarkasing WaltherGangaram Panday Ishwar, IsserGirjasing Nandkumar, MonaGoormachtigh-Lobo Marie, MarietjeGopi-Raghoebarsing SitaKoendjie BalraadjRaghoebarsing Seshykumarie, AsjeNaipal JulietteOedjaghir Maria Dulari, MientjeOedjaghir Balradji, MohiniOedjaghir JagdishOemrawsingh DhirRadhakishun-Ramlakhan Roshnie, RosaRaghoebarsing Sahadew, Nandoe, baas Lando, baas Sing, vaderRaghoebarsing Primchand, RommyRaghoebarsing Soebhaschand, IwanRaghoebarsing Kisoensing, BaboeRaghoebarsing Bintiwatie, bhauwdjiRaghoebarsing SoesilaRaghoebarsing Vishvenath, JohnnyRamdihal WaldoSahtoe Haridew

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