Web Science DTC Industry Forum: Opportunities and Challenges 2013
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Transcript of Web Science DTC Industry Forum: Opportunities and Challenges 2013
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7/30/2019 Web Science DTC Industry Forum: Opportunities and Challenges 2013
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Web$Science$Industry$Forum$
Opportunities$&$Challenges:$2013$
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Opportunities+and+Challenges+of+the+Web+
$Web$Science$is$the$study$of$the$World$Wide$Web$$the$technologies,$people,$organizations,$
applications$and$policies$that$have$come$to$shape$our$everyday$lives$and$global$futures.$Web$Science$offers$insight$into$the$
$
analysis$of$massive$international$flows$of$data,$ opportunities$and$challenges$of$our$online$identities,$ emerging$practices$of$our$digitally$connected$citizens,$and$$ new$services$that$enable$them$and$new$business$models$that$support$them.$
$
The$understanding$offered$by$Web$Science$to$partners$in$industry$and$government$is$a$
powerful$resource$to$inform$innovation$and$Web$growth$and$to$maximize$economic$and$
social$value$from$the$UKs$emerging$digital$economy.$
$
The$Web$Science$Doctoral$Training$Centre$(DTC)$provides$a$fourVyear$course$of$
postgraduate$training$designed$to$produce$leaders$in$the$digital$economy$$a$cohort$of$80$
students$with$expertise$in$the$economic$opportunities,$the$legal$underpinnings,$the$social$
organisation,$the$technical$infrastructure$and$the$business$environment$of$the$Web$and$the$
Internet.$$
$
The$Industry$Forum$is$the$DTCs$partnership$with$local$and$national$businesses$and$
government$organisations,$to$promote$deeper$understanding$of$the$Web$and$more$effective$
exploitation$of$the$opportunities$that$it$offers$through$training,$consultancy,$discussion,$joint$
projects,$horizon$scanning.$$
$
The$main$effect$of$the$Web$(and$the$Internet$on$which$it$is$built)$is$to$lower$the$barriers$to$
communication$ between$ people$ and$ organisations.$ $ In$ changing$ communication,$ the$ Web$
alters$the$relationships$between$businesses$and$their$clients,$governments$and$their$citizens$
and$between$health$services$and$their$patients.$The$abundance$and$availability$of$personal,$commercial$ and$ government$ information$ both$ facilitates$ and$ threatens$ businesses.$ The$
technology$of$the$Web$facilitates$criminal$social$networks$as$easily$as$Facebook$and$Twitter$
enable$our$personal$networks.$
$
This$booklet$consists$of$brief$reports$from$five$Industry$Forum$research$discussions$(or$
research$sandpits).$These$topics$in$turn$emerged$from$a$series$of$talks$on$the$challenges$of$
the$Web$to$industry$and$government$given$by$DTC$Industry$Forum$members$at$the$
University$in$December$2012.$$
$
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$ ii$
In$these$brief$reports$we$explore$the$effects$of$this$change$in$communication$in$five$different$
areas,$exploring$current$knowns$and$looking$to$unknowns$to$set$the$stage$for$future$joint$
projects.$
$
$
Social$Businesses$.............................................................................................$1$
Open$Data$Business$models$........................................................................$4$
Big$Data$...............................................................................................................$7$
Attitudes$to$EVHealth$..................................................................................$10$
Cybercrime$......................................................................................................$13$
!
!
If$you$are$interested$in$participating$in$our$next$round$of$discussions,$and$in$discovering$
solutions$to$the$challenges$that$the$Web$provides$your$business,$please$contact$the$DTC$Office$
to$find$out$how$to$join$the$Industry$Forum.$
!
Web!Science!DTC!Directors!
$ Dr Leslie Carr Dr Leif Isaksen Professor Dame
Wendy Hall
Professor Nigel
Shadbolt$
$
$
DTC!Office!
Web$Science$Doctoral$Training$Centre$
Level$3,$Room$3053,$Building$32$
University$of$Southampton$
SO17$1BJ$
Tel:$023$80592738$
Email:[email protected]$
$
$
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$ 1$
Social+Businesses+
Social$media$are$being$adopted$by$business$around$the$World$as$they$look$to$harness$their$
potential$for$fast,$lowVcost$and$easily$targeted$communication,$both$within$the$organisation$
and$ to$ customers$ and$ supporters$ who$ have$ an$ interest$ in$ the$ brand$ [1].$ The$ various$opportunities$for$using$social$media$range$from$information$dissemination$to$eliciting$new$
ideas$through$crowdVsourcing$content,$to$realVtime$monitoring$in$order$to$respond$to$a$live$
event.$Depending$on$the$use$of$these$services,$it$is$clear$that$some$form$of$value$is$produced$$$
however$it$is$currently$a$challenge$for$any$organisation$to$determine$exactly$what$this$value$
actually$ is$ $ especially$ when$ there$ is$ as$ much$ content$ being$ produced$ online$ about$ the$
organisation$ from$ users$ other$ than$ the$ company$ which$ may$ not$ all$ be$ positive$ [2].$ This$
research$whitepaper$elicits$ several$ research$ issues$ in$ this$ area$ that$were$ discussed$ at$ the$
Web$Science$DTC$Industry$Forum$(February$2013),$detailing$why$it$is$difficult$to$study$them$
and$what$ their$ implications$ are$ for$social$ businesses.$ Potential$ research$methodologies$ for$designing$studies$to$establish$initial$insights$into$these$issues$are$also$discussed,$giving$rise$to$
the$opportunity$for$several$Web$Science$research$projects$in$this$theme.$
Determining!the!value!of!social!
technologies!to!a!business!
It$ is$widely$ appreciated$ that$ social$ media$
does$ provide$ some$ sort$ of$ value$ to$ any$
business$ that$ adopts$ it;$ however$ there$
appears$to$be$ little$ clarity$with$regards$to$
what$this$value$actually$is,$what$form(s)$it$
manifests$ itself$ as,$ and$ how$ it$ should$ be$
appropriately$ measured$ (see$ for$ example$
[3,$4]).$This$raises$problems$for$businesses$
when$ trying$ to$ justify$ the$ expense$ of$
implementing$ a$ social$ media$ strategy,$
causing$restrictions$on$the$time$and$effort$
that$ is$ put$ into$ it.$ Additionally,$ without$
knowing$ what$ the$ value$ equates$ to,$ it$ is$
difficult$ to$ identify$ areas$ whereby$ their$
strategy$ could$ be$ improved$ to$ create$
further$ value,$ or$ to$ avoid$ a$ persistent$
negative$ value.$ One$ traditional$
measurement$ for$ value$ would$ be$ the$
additional$revenue$a$business$generates$by$
using$ social$ media$ (arguably$ the$ most$
useful$ measure$ from$ a$ strictly$ business$
viewpoint).$ Possibly$ more$ illuminating$
measures$ could$be$ the$ level$of$ "customer$
loyalty",$the$relative$size$of$their$customer$
base,$ or$ how$ often$ customers$ use$ or$ buy$
their$particular$services$as$a$result$of$social$
media.$ However,$ with$ these$ options,$
working$out$how$much$additional$revenue$
is$ generated$ from$ social$ media$ or$ some$other$variable$can$be$difficult$to$discern.$
Establishing!the!importance!of!rapid!
response!to!a!social!business!
Social$ media$ provides$ businesses$ with$
direct$contact$with$their$customers$around$
the$globe,$helping$to$make$marketing$more$
effective$ and$ easing$ communication$ with$
customers.$ In$ particular,$ social$ media$ use$
can$produce$value$in$two$situations:$when$
a$ crisis$ occurs,$ and$ to$ benefit$ from$ an$
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unplanned$ and$ developing$ situation.$ In$
both$ cases,$ businesses$ confront$ many$
challenges$in$choosing$the$best$response$in$
a$timely$manner.$An$interdisciplinary$team$
with$a$thorough$crisis$plan$can$ensure$that$
such$ an$ event$ is$ handled$ properly$ and$different$ perspectives$ are$ considered.$
Marketing$specialists$are$no$longer$enough$
for$ this$ task,$ and$ to$ manage$ the$ brand$
reputation,$ the$ crisis$ management$ team$
should$include$specialists$in$sociology,$who$
understand$ the$ dynamics$ of$ social$
interactions;$ and$ psychologists,$ who$
understand$ hidden$ purposes$ and$ can$
provide$guidance$about$how$the$response$
is$ shaped.$When$a$ crisis$occurs,$ the$ crisis$
management$ team$ should$ assess$ the$
source$of$the$crisis$and$the$purpose$of$it.$Is$
it$from$an$unsatisfied$customer,$or$from$a$
group$of$activists?$Is$any$person$with$great$
social$powers$(influential)$involved$in$it?$Is$
it$a$ real$ crisis$ or$ just$ a$ rumour?$Knowing$
who$ is$ behind$ it$ and$ the$ motivation$ is$
essential$for$the$business$to$decide$what$to$
do$ next.$ The$ main$ question$ stands$ how$
could$the$business$plan$for$rapid$response$
to$ protect$ their$ brand?$ Moreover,$ how$
does$ social$ media$ fit$ into$ the$ overall$
response$ of$ the$ business$ V$ both$ for$
gathering$ information$ about$ what$ is$
happening,$ and$ for$ channelling$ the$
reaction?$
Discovering!the!extent!to!which!a!social!business!is!sustainable!
In$able$to$determine$the$true$sustainability$
of$a$ social$ business$ it$must$be$questioned$
whether$ any$ social$ media$ site$ can$ be$
sustainable$ itself.$ With$ the$ Web$ still$
relatively$young,$there$is$a$lack$of$examples$
regarding$ social$ sites$ that$ have$ persisted$
for$ long$periods$of$ time$ V$ sites$have$risen$
and$fallen$such$as$MySpace,$Friendster$etc.$V$and$it$is$unknown$whether$the$sites$that$
are$currently$dominating,$such$as$Facebook$
and$ Twitter,$ will$ last$ the$ test$ of$ time.$ In$
order$ to$ ascertain$ this,$ there$ is$ the$
potential$ to$audit$ the$services$on$the$Web$
and$ determine$ the$ average$ longevity$ of$
their$ success,$ and$ indicate$ whether$ it$ is$
possible$ for$ a$ business$ to$rely$ completely$on$ a$ service$ over$ time.$ From$ looking$ at$
previous$ sites$ that$ may$ have$ now$ fallen$
away,$it$would$be$interesting$to$determine$
whether$ a$ threshold$ exists$ relating$ to$ the$
level$ of$ user$ generated$ content$ on$ a$ site$
which$ can$ determine$ when$ a$ site's$
sustainability$ begins$ to$ waver.$
Subsequently,$if$it$can$be$established$that$a$
social$ platform$ may$ be$ sustainable,$ then$
the$ potential$ for$ a$ business$ to$ sustain$ its$
presence$ on$ that$ site$ can$ be$ examined.$
Again,$ due$ to$ the$ relative$ shortVterm$
nature$of$many$Web$platforms$so$far,$it$is$
difficult$ to$ determine$ with$ any$ certainty$
whether$ a$ business$ can$ V$ for$ a$ prolonged$
period$ V$ maintain$ a$ productive$ and$
valuable$ presence$ on$ them.$ Establishing$
the$ requirements$ for$ a$ business's$ social$
presence$that$can$work$over$the$long$term$
could$ prove$ invaluable$ for$ taking$
advantage$of$these$sites.$$
Opportunities!!
The$broad$nature$of$this$topic$means$that$
in$ the$ majority$of$ instances,$ the$ value$ of$
social$ media$ will$ be$ specific$ to$ each$
individual$ organisation$ that$ adopts$ them.$
As$such$it$is$proposed$that$using$a$unique$combination$ of$ the$ varied$ and$
interdisciplinary$ expertise$ of$ research$
students$in$the$Web$Science$DTC,$with$the$
realVworld$ accounts,$ scenarios$ and$
businessVknowledge$ of$ organisations,$ a$
worldVleading$ design$ of$ case$ study$
research$ could$ be$ developed$ to$ establish$
social$media$ strategies$ for$companies$that$
can$ go$ on$ to$ produce$ tangible$ returns.$Collaboratively$ producing$ this$
methodology$could$not$only$vastly$benefit$
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$ 3$
the$ organisations$ involved$ in$ developing$
the$approach,$but$could$also$create$skilled$
researchers$who$would$be$able$to$develop$
and$analyse$social$media$strategies$for$any$
organisation.$$
$Future$sessions$should$seek$to$combine$the$
talents$ of$ research$ students,$ social$ brand$
agencies,$ and$ social$ mediaVusing$
organisations$to$develop$robust$methods$of$
establishing$ the$ value$ of$ social$ media$ to$
business.$ This$ could,$ for$ example,$ be$
achieved$by$developing$a$thorough$survey$
which$ can$audit$ the$organisations$ targets$
and$social$aims,$and$compare$them$to$what$
they$ are$ doing$ on$ social$ media$ and$ how$
this$appears$to$be$producing$value$relevant$
to$ their$ stated$ aims.$ The$ design$ of$ this$
survey$ will$ need$ to$ integrate$ and$
synthesise$ the$ use$ cases$ of$ organisations,$
the$ expertise$ of$ brand$ and$ marketing$
agencies,$ and$ the$ research$ ability$ of$Web$
Science$ students$ so$ that$ a$ comprehensive$
understanding$ of$ how$ and$ why$ the$
organisation$ in$ question$ is$ using$ social$
media$ can$ be$ gained,$ and$ to$ determine$
what$forms$of$value$they$should$be$seeking$
to$ gain$ from$ doing$ so.$ Building$ on$ this,$
methods$ of$ tracking$ and$ quantifying$ this$
value$ can$ be$ sought$ V$ although$ this$ will$
only$be$suitable$for$each$case$study$when$
the$type$of$value$desired$is$known.$There$is$
potential$ at$ this$ point$ for$ this$ project$ to$
work$ as$ part$ the$ Web$ Observatory$ [5]$ V$
tracking$ and$ analysing$ the$ realVtime$
fluctuations$ in$ value$ that$ a$ business$ is$
receiving$ from$ their$ social$ presence.$ Only$
when$ research$ such$ as$ this$ has$ been$
completed$ will$ businesses$ be$ able$ to$
reliably$ improve$ the$ value$ they$ are$
receiving$from$their$social$media$work$V$as$
the$ saying$ goes:$ you! cant! improve! what!
you!cant!measure.$$
Readings!
[1]$Altimeter$Group$Network$on$SlideShare,$
The$ Evolution$ of$ Social$ Business:$ Six$
Stages$ of$ Social$ Media$ Transformation,$
05VMarV2013.$
[2]$A.$M.$Kaplan$and$M.$Haenlein,$Users$of$the$ world,$ unite!$ The$ challenges$ and$
opportunities$ of$ Social$ Media,$ Business!
Horizons,$ vol.$ 53,$ no.$ 1,$ pp.$ 5968,$ Jan.$
2010.$
[3]$R.$Ferguson,$Word$of$mouth$and$viral$
marketing:$ taking$ the$ temperature$ of$ the$
hottest$ trends$ in$ marketing,$ Journal! of!
Consumer! Marketing,$ vol.$ 25,$ no.$ 3,$ pp.$
179182,$2008.$
[4]$B.$D.$Weinberg$and$E.$Pehlivan,$Social$
spending:$Managing$the$social$media$mix,$
Business!Horizons,$ vol.$ 54,$ no.$ 3,$ pp.$ 275
282,$2011.$
[5]$ The$ Web$ Science$ Trust,$ Web!
Observatory!@!Web!Science!Trust.$ Available$
at$webscience.org/web-observatory/$
Authors!Chris$ Phethean,$ Javier$ Pereda,$ Rob$ Blair,$
Nora$ Alrajebah,$ James$ Baker,$ Gareth$
Beeston$
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$ 4$
Open+data+business+models+
In$ the$ information$ economy,$ data$ is$ a$ valuable$ asset.$ Companies,$ governments$ and$
associations$create$and$gather$vast$quantities$of$data:$from$inventory$records$and$timetables,$
to$transaction$and$research$datasets.$Yet,$paradoxically,$the$greatest$value$in$many$of$these$datasets$is$realised$when$they$are$openly$shared.$$
Open$ data$ is$ data$ that$ anyone$ is$ free$ to$ reVuse.$ The$ open$ data$ movement$ first$ rose$ to$
prominence$ with$ free$ our$ data$ campaigns$ calling$ on$ governments$ to$ release,$ for$ free,$
datasets$which$had$been$collected$using$taxpayers$money,$such$as$national$maps,$or$statistics$
on$health$ and$ education$ services.$ Sharing$ government$ datasets$ as$ open$ data,$ it$ is$ argued,$
generates$both$social$and$economic$value,$allowing$innovators$to$build$on$top$of$datasets$that$
are$otherwise$underVused$inside$government.$Businesses,$however,$need$not$only$be$users$of$
open$data.$There$are$ also$business$opportunities$ in$being$open$data$providers.$This$white$
paper$explores$business$models$for$both$consuming,$and$producing,$open$data.$$
Open!data!business!models!
Data$has$been$described$as$the$new$oil$V$a$
raw$material$for$the$information$economy.$
The$ analogy$ points$ to$ the$ importance$ of$
data$ as$ a$ fuel$ for$ growth$ V$ but$misses$ an$
important$ property$ of$ data.$ Unlike$ the$
excludable$and$finite$product$of$oil,$digital$
data$ can$ be$ replicated$ at$ near$ zeroVcost.$
We$get$the$most$value$from$data$by$using$it,$
rather$than$by$restricting$supply.$$
Business$models$for$open$data$involve$four$
parts:$ open! data! supply! +! added! value! +!
value!realization!=!net!benefit$.$
$
Open$data$supply$$firms$may$draw$upon$open$ data$ from$ government,$ or$ other$
providers,$or$may$ choose$ to$provide$ their$
own$ open$ data.$ Standards$ play$ an$
important$role$in$making$open$data$usable,$
as$ do$ delivery$ platforms$ for$ open$ data,$
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such$ as$APIs$ to$allow$thirdVparty$ systems$
to$ interact$ with$ a$ data$ service$ directly,$
rather$than$downloading$the$whole$dataset$
first.$
Added$value$$firms$need$to$combine$open$
data$ with$ something$ only$ they$ can$ offer.$For$ example,$ the$ domain$ expertise$ to$
provide$ business$ intelligence$ using$ open$
data,$or$the$technical$expertise$to$integrate$
different$datasets.$Open$data$might$also$be$
combined$ with$ existing$ IP$ in$ consumer$
products$ or$ services,$ or$with$ investments$
in$ technical$ infrastructure$ to$ provide$ a$
platform$on$top$of$which$others$innovate$.$$
Value$ realisation$ $ there$ are$ a$ range$ of$
models$for$realising$value$from$open$data,$
from$ freemium$ pricing$ (where$ a$ free$
product$ is$ offered$ to$promote$ a$ premium$
charged$for$offering)$and$charging$for$data$
analysis$services,$through$to$using$data$to$
better$ target$ marketing$ or$ to$ streamline$
existing$ business$ operations.$ Being$ the$
firstVmover$into$a$new$market,$or$being$the$
first$ to$ take$ a$ service$ to$ scale,$ can$ also$
allow$firms$to$benefit$from$networkVeffects.$$
Net$benefits$$using$open$data$can$lead$to$
new$revenue$streams,$brand$ development$
and$ growing$ market$ share.$ It$ can$ also$
support$firms$to$address$the$triple$bottom$
line$of$economic,$social$and$environmental$
impact,$ and$ to$ proactively$meet$ changing$
market$ conditions.$ One$ of$ the$ most$
important$ benefits$ may$ be$ in$ helping$
sector$ growth.$ Just$ as$ the$ standardised$
shipping$container$facilitated$the$explosion$
of$ 20th$ Century$ trading$ relationships,$
standardised$ open$ datasets$ could$
dramatically$ transform$ certain$ sectors$ of$
the$economy.$
Examples!of!open!data!business!models!
Mastadon$ C$ is$ a$ startVup$ hosted$ at$ the$
Open$ Data$ Institute$ providing$ big$ data$analytics.$ By$ charging$ for$ their$ data$
analysis$ infrastructure,$ and$ for$ their$
expertise$ making$ sense$ of$ datasets,$ they$
help$ business$ make$ better$ strategic$
decisions.$ Their$ analysis$ of$ government$
prescribing$open$ data$ has$ highlighted$ the$
potential$for$millions$of$pounds$of$savings.$
Their$ cloudVcomputing$ platform$intelligently$uses$lowVcarbon$data$ centres,$
adding$ an$ environmental$ angle$ to$ their$
sales$pitch.$$
The$Ordnance$Survey$have$responded$to$
the$changing$mapping$market$by$providing$
a$ free$mapping$ service,$whilst$ still$ selling$
more$ detailed$ maps.$ This$ free$ service$
provides$ a$ platform$ that$ other$ firms$ can$
innovate$on,$creating$value$added$products$
and$services.$
The!shift!
The$ way$ in$which$ open$ data$affects$ firms$
will$ depend$ upon$ the$ structure$ of$ the$
market$ they$ operate$ within.$ The$ promise$
of$ open$ data$ for$ society,$ commerce$ and$
government$may$ only$ be$ realised$when$ a$
market$successfully$transitions$from$one$in$
which$ core$ datasets$ are$ closed,$ to$ one$ in$which$open$data$has$become$the$norm.$
Consider$the$transport$market.$If$providers$
of$ both$ public$ and$ private$ transport$
published$ standard$ open$ data$ on$ their$
services$and$prices,$then$platforms$helping$
consumers$pick$the$best$travel$options$can$
be$provided,$with$the$potential$to$decrease$
private$car$use,$and$promote$use$of$public$
transport,$ taxis$ and$ other$ services.$However,$ incumbent$ transport$ providers$
may$not$want$to$provide$open$data,$and$it$
may$take$disruptive$innovation$from$a$new$
market$ entrant,$ or$ a$ number$ of$ smaller$
providers$ to$ start$ publishing$ and$ using$
using$ open$ before$ the$ market$ reaches$ a$
tipping$point$where$open$data$makes$sense$
for$ everyone.$ Game$ theory,$ and$ agent$
based$ models$ can$ be$ used$ to$ understand$potential$ outcomes$ as$ a$ market$ shifts$
towards$open$data.$$
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$ 6$
The$ standards$ chosen,$ and$ technical$
implementations,$ in$ a$ shift$ towards$ open$
data$ have$ significant$consequences.$In$ the$
transport$ case,$ for$ example,$ if$ data$
standards$ include$ a$ way$ of$ recording$ the$
carbon$ costs$ of$ certain$ transport$ options,$then$ services$ can$ give$ consumers$ the$
option$ of$ choosing$ the$ least$ polluting,$ as$
well$as$the$cheapest,$modes$of$transport.$If$
the$ standards$ dont$ include$ this,$ that$
particular$ dimension$ of$ competition$ may$
be$downplayed.$If$the$chosen$means$of$data$
sharing$ involves$ central$ databases,$ or$
restrictive$(i.e.$nonVopen)$licenses,$then$the$
market$ risks$being$ tied$ into$ one$ platform$
provider,$ where$ innovation$ may$ stall.$
Whereas$open$and$distributed$approaches$
to$ data$ sharing$ provide$ potential$ for$
ongoing$innovation.$$
Directions!for!web!science!!
We$ are$ right$ at$ the$ start$ of$ an$ open$ data$
revolution.$The$UK$Government$ is$ putting$
millions$ of$ pounds$ into$ promoting$ the$
Open$ Data$ economy$ through$ the$ Data$Strategy$Board,$and$the$Open$Data$Institute$
(ODI).$Web$Science$has$a$key$role$to$play$in$
understanding$ the$ opportunities$ and$
challenges$ of$ open$ data$ for$ different$
business$sectors.$$
Through$ agent$ based$ modelling$ we$ can$
look$ at$ the$ potential$ for$ society,$
government$ and$ industry$ to$ see$ the$
benefits$ of$ a$ shift$ towards$ open$ data$ in$particular$markets.$
Through$ qualitative$ research$ we$ can$
explore$ the$ technical$ and$ organisational$
architectures$needed$ to$make$ the$most$ of$
open$data.$
And$ by$ drawing$ on$ the$ interdisciplinary$
foundations$ of$ web$ science$ we$ can$ bring$
together$ economic,$ social$ and$ technical$
perspectives$ to$ develop$ practical$
understandings$ of$ how$ different$ firms$
should$operate$in$networked$economies.$
Authors!
Tim$ Davies,$ Richard$ Fyson,$ Terhi$
Nurmikko,$ Manuel$ Leon$ Urrutia,$ Jack$
Townsend,$ Mark$ Frank,$ Reuben$ Binns,$
Eamonn$Walls,$Christopher$Hughes$
Richard$ Stirling$ Open! Data! Institute$
Jacqui$ Taylor$ Flying! Binary $Mark$Stileman$Ordnance!Survey$
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Big+Data+
Big$ data$ may$ refer$ to$ a$ range$ of$ issues$ from$ the$ capture$ and$ storage,$ to$ the$ analysis$ of$
datasets$too$large$to$be$effectively$tackled$using$traditional$computer$science$and$statistical$
methodologies.$ In$ this$ case$ we$ refer$ mainly$ to$ the$ problem$ of$ combining$ and$ analysing$arbitrarily$large$datasets.$
The$ underlying$motivation$ for$ this$project$ is$ that,$after$discussions$with$ industry$partners$
including$the$British$National$Archive,$Nominet,$Ordinance$Survey,$and$others,$a$key$theme$
we$have$been$asked$to$help$address$is$how$to$identify$what$aspects$of$their$data$are$of$real$
interest$or$value.$Central$to$this$is$the$ability$to$link$different$forms$of$data$together,$perform$
crossVcomparison$and$analysis$of$data$in$order$to$identify$anomalous$behaviour$automatically.$
In$the$simplest$terms$if$every$line$in$a$dataset$holds$exactly$the$same$information$them$there$
is$no$value$in$keeping$all$of$it.$alue,$or$information$content$is$of$cause$subjective,$however$it$
is$ intrinsically$ a$ function$ of$ how$ surprising$ a$ piece$ of$ data$ in$ relation$ to$ its$ immediate$environment$(Shannon$1948).$Through$the$process$of$linking$different$sources$of$information$
together$ we$ begin$ to$ create$ Big$ Data,$ and$ this$new$ form$ of$ information$will$ provide$ new$
analytical$capabilities$for$both$research$and$industry.$
Developing$a$Big$Data$solution$also$requires$the$consideration$of$how$information$can$be$best$
expressed$ in$ order$ to$ illustrate$ its$ value,$ both$ analytically$ and$ visually.$ For$ our$ industry$
partners,$data$presents$a$challenge$to$traditional$business$processes$and$planning;$typically$a$
company$will$want$to$maximize$some$metric$of$success$when$undertaking$an$action.$In$terms$
of$data$this$is$problematic$since$the$value$of$a$dataset$is$difficult$to$interpret.$$
The$challenge$is$then,$how$can$we$best$develop$a$solution$that$enables$the$linkage$of$different$forms$of$information,$from$different$sources,$and$use$them$efficiently$to$identify$normal$and$
abnormal$ behaviour$ in$ large$ datasets,$ and$ as$ an$ outcome$ of$ this,$ deliver$ a$ return$ on$ the$
investment$to$industry$and$the$research$community?$$
Axes!of!Integration! !!
Any$ data$ analysis$ we$ wish$ to$ undertake$
depends$ on$ being$ able$ to$ find$ axes$ along$
which$different$datasets$can$be$linked$and$
compared$ together.$ $ As$ an$ example,$ the$
British$ National$ Archives$ store$ thousands$
of$Web$pages$from$domains$owned$by$the$
UK$ government.$ For$ this$ data$ to$ be$
analysed$ in$ any$ meaningful$ way$ requires$
some$ common$ attributes$ that$ can$ be$
extracted$ and$ then$ used$ as$ a$ vector$ for$
comparison$ with$ other$ datasets.$ As$ these$
kinds$of$datasets$are$longitudinal$in$nature,$
it$ would$ make$ sense$ to$ extract$ and$ use$
timestamps$ (i.e.$the$ data$and$ time$related$
to$a$record$within$a$dataset)$as$a$common$
vector$ of$ comparison.$ If$ we$ have$ data$
about$ the$ time$ and$ date$ that$ every$ page$
was$ published$ we$ can$ then$ compare$ and$
triangulate$ the$ content$ of$ these$ pages$ to$
with$many$different$source$of$information,$
including$ news$ articles$ and$ other$ social$platforms$ (Twitter,$ Facebook,$ etc.)$ to$
identify$ specific$ trends,$ events$ or$ even$
anomalies$ within$ the$ data.$ Using$ a$
timestamp$ is$ only$ one$ example$ of$ a$
common$attribute$that$can$be$used$to$link$
different$datasets$together;$using$Semantic$
Web$ and$ Linked$ Data$ technologies$ also$
offer$a$way$to$link$and$express$the$data$in$a$
common$format,$rich$for$comparison.$Understanding$ the$ needs$ of$ our$ Industry$
Partners$ is$ an$ important$ factor$ in$
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developing$ standards$ to$ link$ different$
datasets$ together.$ By$ creating$ a$ platform$
that$can$manipulate$and$link$multiple$sets$
of$data$together$using$different$vectors$is$a$
critical$step$ in$providing$ a$ solution$which$
can$ perform$ complex$ and$ useful$ analysis,$both$for$Industry$and$Research.$
Issues!with!MultiBDimensional!Spaces!
Large$ datasets$ are$ potentially$ highly$
dimensional$ $ that$ is,$ they$ could$ have$ a$
very$large$amount$of$axes$describing$them.$
This$ is$ problematic$ to$ both$ traditional$
visualisation$ and$ statistical$ approaches$ to$
data$ analysis.$ Typically,$ graphical$
visualisations$ may$ display$ two$ or$ three$
different$ dimensions$ of$ a$ dataset,$ this$ is$
clearly$limiting$when$considering$sets$with$
many$more$ dimensions.$ Typical$ statistical$
models$ are$ also$ difficult$ to$apply$because$
high$ dimensionality$ increases$ the$
probability$ of$ finding$ spurious$
relationships.$ These$ issues$ of$
interpretation$ and$ visualisation$ are$ also$
present$ when$ linking$ different$ datasets$together$ in$ order$ to$ reveal$ analytical$
insights$not$previously$discovered;$as$part$
of$this$process,$we$need$to$offer$the$choice$
of$ different$ visual$ solutions$ in$ order$ to$
extract$ the$ most$ value$ from$ the$
information.$
The$challenge$is$then$how$can$we$develop$a$
collection$ of$ visualisation$ methodologies$
that$ can$ cope$ with$ increased$dimensionality$ and$ linked$ datasets,$ and$
how$ can$ we$ also$ derive$ statistical$
methodologies$ for$ describing$ highly$
dimensional$ spaces?$ Driven$ by$ the$
discovery$ of$ new$ datasets$ and$ analytical$
requirements,$ the$ development$ of$ a$
visualisation$ toolkit$ offers$ a$way$ to$begin$
tackling$these$challenges.$
Value!and!Positive!Feedback!
A$ third$ point$ is$ how$ can$ we$ create$ an$
efficient$ and$ streamlined$ process$ for$
storing,$analysing$or$augmenting$a$dataset?$
Big$ Data,$ as$ the$ name$ suggests,$ typically$
requires$a$solution$that$offers$large$storage$
volumes,$ and$ smart$ archiving$ methods.$However,$ one$ of$ the$ challenges$ that$ we$
wish$ to$ overcome$ is$ reducing$ these$
overheads$whilst$retaining$the$value$of$the$
data.$$
The$challenge$of$this$comes$from$knowing$
where$ the$ value$ in$ the$ data$ is.$ From$ our$
discussions$with$our$industry$partners,$it$is$
apparent$ that$ they$ are$ unaware$ of$ the$
value$ in$ the$ data$ they$ store,$ and$ thus$ the$
tendency$has$been$ archive$all$ the$ data.$In$
terms$of$data$completeness,$this$is$the$best$
solution,$ however,$ this$ raises$ overheads,$
and$ potentially$ decrease$ return$ on$
investment.$ In$ order$ to$ streamline$ data$
storage$ requires$ the$ability$ to$understand$
the$potential$value$the$might$be$contained$
within$a$dataset.$
Further$ to$ this$ point$ is$how$ research$and$
development$ departments$ can$ motivate$
their$ colleagues$ to$ invest$ additional$
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$ 9$
funding$ on$ data$ analysis$ projects.$ The$
challenge$lies$in$providing$a$solution$were$
we$ can$ quickly$ provide$ addedVvalue$ to$
their$ datasets,$ and$ thus$ their$ business$
processes.$$By$demonstrating$the$ability$to$
create$ a$ return$ on$ investment$ from$ Big$Data$analysis$is$a$critical$step$that$needs$to$
be$achieved.$
Further!Work!
We$are$currently$engaged$in$collaboration$
with$ the$ National$ Archives$ to$ look$ for$
better$ solutions$ to$ format$ their$ currently$
unstructured$web$page$archives.$The$Web$
Observatory$ project$ is$ also$ underway,$ a$
key$theme$of$which$is$collaborating$with$a$
range$of$ stakeholders$ to$define$ standards$
of$ data$ reporting.$ As$ more$ partners$ join$
and$ datasets$ become$ available,$ the$
agreement$ of$ basic$ standards$ for$ data$
formatting$ will$ improve,$ and$ so$ will$ the$
processes$ and$ standards$ for$ facilitating$
data$exchange,$analysis$and$augmentation.$$
Research$ into$ analytic$ methods$ is$ also$
underway.$ In$ terms$ of$ visualisation$ tools,$there$ are$ exciting$ opportunities$ for$
collaboration$ with$ partners$ providing$
feedback$ of$ their$ experiences$ with$ Web$
Observatory$ tools.$ In$ terms$ of$ statistical$
methodologies,$a$range$of$new$procedures$
have$ been$ developed$ for$ clustering$ large$
datasets$and$dimension$reduction$that$can$
potentially$be$translated$ into$work$ in$this$area.$Also,$ projects$working$with$industry$
partners$ such$ as$ Switch$ Concepts,$ have$
been$ attempting$ to$ find$ appropriate$
metrics$of$system$performance$that$can$be$
used$as$a$baseline$for$anomaly$detection.$
There$ is$ also$ onVgoing$ research$ into$ the$
theoretical$understanding$of$value$ in$data$
exchange$ and$ augmentation$ at$ the$
university.$ Work$ in$ this$ area$ is$ currently$
focused$ on$ finding$ common$ units$ of$
currency$or$index$values$that$can$be$used$
to$describe$and$understand$data$exchange.$
Collaboration$ with$ partners$ on$ this$ front$
could$provide$helpful$insight$into$how$such$
metrics$ can$ be$ practically$ integrated$ into$
success$criteria$for$big$data$projects.$$
References!
Shannon,$C.$(1948).$A$Mathematical$Theory$of$ Communication.$ The$ Bell$ System$
Technical$Journal,$27,$379423.$
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Attitudes+to+E
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healthVrelated$ experiences$ and$knowledge$
about$illness,$without$any$of$the$associated$
embarrassment$ possible$ when$ seeking$
help$ offline.$ It$ is$ important$ to$ further$
explore$ how$ Web$ features$ influence$
interaction$ within$ online$ support$ groups.$What$new$support$structures$does$the$Web$
facilitate?$Can$traditional$expertise$become$
embedded$ in$ emergent$ peer$ support$
networks?$
$
It$ has$ been$ argued$ that$ anecdotes$ from$
similar$ patients$ hold$ significant$ power$ as$
these$ are$ strongly$ considered$ by$
individuals$when$making$health$decisions.$
This$ 'expertise$ through$ experience'$ raises$
important$ questions$ about$ the$ Web's$
impact$on$health$information.$Furthermore,$
it$ questions$ the$ extent$ to$ which$ medical$
expertise$ is$ becoming$ embedded$ in$ these$
peer$ support$ networks,$ as$ opposed$ to$
being$ supplanted$ by$ anecdotal$ evidence$
that$may$go$against$the$medically$accepted$
advice.$
Expertise!
The paternalistic healthcare view, where
patients$are$passive$ and$doctors$diagnose$
and$ treat$ them,$ is$ based$ upon$ the$
understanding$ that$ doctors$ have$ the$
expertise$ and$ patients$ do$ not.$ The$
increased$ availability$ to$ this$ specialist$
knowledge$ via$ the$ Web$ is$ challenging$ the$
authority$in$the$doctorVpatient$relationship.$This$increases$the$power$that$patients$have,$
such$ as$ the$ power$ to$ retrieve$ a$ second$
opinion,$obtain$a$referral$to$a$specialist$or$
negotiate$ treatment.$ However,$ the$ doctor$
still$functions$as$a$gatekeeper$to$treatment.$
Do$ these$ changes$ impact$ the$ relationship
between doctor and patient? How does the
fact that the Web provides this information
empower patients?
Dissemination!of!Information!
The Web provides many platforms for the
dissemination$ of$ health$ information$ in$
several$formats$and$from$countless$sources.$
Though$ this$ opportunity$ promises$ to$
satisfy$ the$ informational$ needs$of$citizens$for$ healthcare,$ it$ also$ presents$ challenges$
when$ attempting$ to$ unlock$ its$ potential.$
Citizens$ must$ overcome$ several barriers
including finding the requisite information
from the Web's enormous collection,
evaluating its quality and also deciphering the
technical language sometimes used. What
skills do individuals need to navigate this
Web environment? How can these skills be
delivered or developed?
Delivery!
eVMonitoring$ devices$ are$ giving$ patients$
more$control$over$how$ they$manage$ their$
conditions$ without$ having$ to$ regularly$
attend$ a$ medical$ facility$ for$ testing$ or$
remain$ there$ for$ close$ monitoring.$
Understanding$ how$ the$ Web$ supports$ or$
disrupts$ the$ facilitation$ of$ healthcare$delivery$is$ important.$For$example,$though$
more$ convenient$ and$ efficient,$ patient$
satisfaction$with$these$tools$and$the$social$
implications$ of$ using$ them$ may$ not$ be$
positive.$ These$ tools$ may$ reduce$ the$
amount$ of$ physical$ contact$ between$
patients$ and$ practitioners,$ as$ there$ is$ no$
need$ to$ see$ the$ patient$ unless$ the$ eV
Monitoring$device$reveals$negative$results.$Not$all$patients$might$be$satisfied$with$this$
arrangement.$Given$the$potential$for$these$
types$ of$ technologies,$ it$ is$ imperative$ to$
consider$whether$delivery$of$these$services$
will$support$or$disrupt$health$services.$
Responsibility!
The$ ideological$ shift$ to$ an$ individualised$
approach$ to$ healthcare$ is$ not$ a$ new$
phenomenon$ and$ has$ been$ prevalent$ in$neoVliberal$ politics$ for$ decades.$ The$ Web$
provides$a$major$ step$ towards$individuals$
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$ 12$
taking$ more$ responsibility$ for$ their$
healthcare$ (e.g.$ reflexively$ navigating$
various$ spaces$ to$ consider$ health$
pathways).$However,$there$arise$questions$
of$responsibility.$If$there$is$a$shift$towards$
individualisation$ of$ health,$ is$ it$ still$ the$responsibility$of$health$professionals$if$ the$
patient$encounters$a$problem?$Where$does$
the$ liability$ lie?$ Does$ a$ system$ of$
distribution$ need$ to$ be$ developed$
regarding$responsibility?$If$there$is$a$move$
to$this$model,$how$do$we$support$people$to$
take$ responsibility$ for$ their$ own$
healthcare?$
What!Can!Web!Science!Contribute?!
Given$ its$ focus$ on$ interdisciplinarity,$Web$
science$is$dedicated$to$delivering$impactful$
research$ resulting$ in$ a$ significant$
contribution$ being$ made$ to$ the$ future$ of$
health.$ Perhaps$ we$ find$ that$ patients$
obtaining$ misinformation$ online$ or$ selfV
medicating$ and$ being$ at$ risk$ is$ less$ of$ a$
problem$ than$ the$ authorities$ envisage.$
There$is$a$pressing$need$to$identify$what$is$and$ is$ not$ working,$ and$ to$ proceed$ with$
finding$ways$to$develop$a$more$proVhuman$
Web$ that$ supports$ the$ former$ and$
effectively$ addresses$ the$ latter.$ Similar$ to$
what$ it$ has$ done$ and$ continues$ to$ do$ in$
other$ industries$ (e.g.$ cyber$ security),$Web$
science$can$develop$effective$ways$to$study$
and$ deliver$ actionable$ insight$ into$
complicated$issues$related$to$health$on$the$
Web.$Perhaps$observing$and$obtaining$the$
perspective$ of$ the$ patient$ (usually$
underrepresented$ in$ healthcare$ research)$via$ joint$ projects$ with$ the$ Web$
Observatory.$In$addition,$as$information$is$
being$ readily$ sought$ without$ professional$
input,$ new$ methodological$ approaches$
must$be$considered$in$trying$to$determine$
the$ availability$ of$ credible$ information$
online.$$
$
Authors!
Lisa$Sugiura$
Mark$Weal$$
Susan$Halford$
Renaldo$Bernhard$$
Becki$Nash$
Craig$Allison$
Richard$Gomer$
Gemma$Fitzimmons$
Huw$Davies$Laura$German$
Katie$Spires$
Will$Lawrence$
$$
$ +
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Cyber+Citizenship+and+Cyber+Policing+
With$the$latest$statistics$showing$little$indications$of$a$decline$in$cybercrime,$the$study$of$this$
phenomenon$is$both$critical$and$timely.$Hence,$a$research$sandpit$was$recently$held$between$
scholars$from$the$University$of$Southampton$and$representatives$from$the$security$industry$with$the$aim$of$aligning$research$interests$with$industry$needs.$
Cybercrime!and!the!Underground!
Economy!
Defined$by$the$Home$Office$[2],$cybercrime$
refers$ to$ crimes$ that$ involve$ the$ use$ of$
technologies.$ Recent$ studies$ indicate$ that$
cybercriminals$ engage$ in$ competitive$
trading$with$one$another$on$underground$
forums$(a.k.a.$carding!forums)$and$Internet$
Relay$ Chat$ (IRC)$ channels.$ In$ essence,$ a$
global$ digital$ underground$ economy$ (see$
below)$ has$ emerged$ with$ a$ continued$
influx$ of$ skilled$ individuals$ from$ around$
the$ world$ looking$ to$ make$ a$ profit$ by$
satisfying$the$demand$in$this$economy$[4].$
The$ following$ section$ presents$ two$
significant$ challenges$ to$ the$ disruption$ of$
this$underground$economy.$
Current!Challenges!
Jurisdictional$constraints$
Law$ enforcement$ systems,$ in$ particular$
within$ the$ UK,$ have$ traditionally$ been$
reactive$ and$ centralised.$ With$ the$ growth$
of$criminal$activity$online$it$is$increasingly$
evident$ that$ the$ traditional$ model$ of$
policing$does$ not$ always$ translate$ well$ to$
the$cyber$domain.$$
One$ of$ the$ predominant$ challenges$ to$ the$
traditional$ policing$ model$ relates$ to$ the$
issue$ of$ jurisdiction.$ Online$ crime$ with$ a$
crossVborder$ element$ generates$ problems$
for$ both$ police$ investigation$ and$
prosecution.$ Law$ enforcement$ agencies$
have$jurisdiction$only$over$crimes$that$take$
place$in$the$geographic$location$where$they$
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have$ authority.$ Yet,$ the$ criminal$may$ not$
be$ in$ the$ same$ country$ as$ the$ victim$ and$
evidence$ of$ wrongVdoing$ may$ be$ widely$
distributed$in$multiple$countries.$$$
Indeed,$one$might$question$what$exactly$is$
meant$ when$ referring$ to$ the$ concept$ of$jurisdiction$ in$ cyberspace.$ Brenner$ and$
Koops$[1]$ask:$$
[I]s$it$the$place$of$the$act,$the$country$
of$ residence$ of$ the$ perpetrator,$ the$
location$of$the$effect,$or$the$nationality$
of$ the$ owner$ of$ the$ computer$ that$ is$
under$attack?$Or$all$of$these$at$once?$
These$ facts$ are$ potential$ hurdles$ to$
following$ the$ digital$ trails.$ The$ growing$
reliance$ on$ cloud$ computing$ adds$ further$
complexity.$ For$ example,$ the$ physical$
infrastructure$ of$ multiVterritorial$ data$
processing$ centres$ moves$ data$ at$ high$
speeds.$ In$effect,$crossVborder$transfers$of$
data$become$instantaneous$and$ubiquitous,$
which$cannot$easily$be$traced.$
$
Such$ problems$ open$ the$ door$ to$jurisdictional$ conflicts$ in$ terms$ of$
determining$which$state$has$precedence$to$
prosecute$as$having$the$closest$connection$
with$a$crime,$an$issue$of$some$importance$
when$one$ considers$ that$ laws$ differ$ from$
country$ to$ country$ (or,$ perversely,$ to$ the$
situation$ that$ no$ state$ claims$ jurisdiction$
over$ a$ cybercrime).$ It$ also$ highlights$ the$
importance$ of$ law$ enforcement$cooperation$required$between$states.$$
The$ foregoing$ issues$ highlight$ the$ added$
expense,$ time$ and$ sometimes$ futility$ in$
attempting$ to$ enforce$ the$ law$ against$
cybercrime.$ While$ there$ have$ been$
attempts$at$harmonising$laws$and$process$
transVborder,$ most$ notably$ in$ the$ Council$
of$ Europe$ Convention$ on$ Cybercrime$ and$
other$attempts$to$ form$ interVjurisdictional$taskforces,$some$jurisdictions$may$deny$or$
ignore$ extradition$ requests.$ $ Queries$
therefore$ hang$ over$ the$ ability$ of$ the$
traditional$law$enforcement$system$to$keep$
up$ with$ the$ speed,$ scale$ and$ reach$of$ the$
online$domain$[3].$$
A!balance!between!security!and!privacy!
Ironically,$ the$ same$ networking$
technologies$which$empower$the$criminals$
also$ empower$ the$ police$ with$
unprecedented$ opportunities$ for$
surveillance.$ The$ increasing$ amount$ of$
digital$trails$being$left$behind$by$citizens$is$
enabling$policing$ to$ transcend$ time,$place$
and$ space$ [6].$ In$ essence,$ the$ Internet$
could$ become$ one$ of$ the$ most$ effective$
tools$ for$ monitoring$ ever$ created.$
However,$as$Wall$ notes,$ the$ downside$ of$
using$ technological$ solutions$ to$ achieve$
crime$ prevention$ goals$ is$ that$ an$
acceptable$ balance$ has$ to$ be$ reached$
between$ security$ and$ privacy.$ Is! such! a!
balance!achievable?!!
To$ address$
this,$ it$ is$
useful$ to$realise$ that$
surveillance$
is$ not$ just$
used$ for$
policing.$
Employers,$
parents,$
commercial$ companies$ and$ governments$
all$use$surveillance$ techniques$ to$monitor$the$behaviour$of$those$they$wish$to$control.$
In$ addition,$ since$ the$ boom$ of$ Web$ 2.0,$
citizens$ have$ been$ surrendering$ their$
privacy$to$online$social$networking$sites$in$
exchange$ for$ a$ free$ service.$ Therefore,$ it$
appears$ that$ citizens$ are$ willing$ to$ trade$
privacy$ if$ incentives$ are$ deemed$
appropriate$ and$ thus$ a$ balance$ between$
security$ and$ privacy$ is$ indeed$ achievable.$The$question$then$is,$how?!
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An$ important$ aspect$ to$ this$ subject$ refers$
to$ peoples$ actual$ perceptions$ of$
surveillance$mechanisms$used$for$security$
purposes.$ Several$studies$have$ focused$on$
how$ people$ view$ the$ tradeVoff$ between$
security$ and$ privacy$ and$ found$ that$ the$fundamental$ factors$ to$ striking$ a$ balance$
between$ security$ and$ privacy$ include$
transparency,$ accountability$ and$ trust.$ In$
the$ U.K.,$data.gov.uk$ is$ one$ such$ initiative$
[5].$
Conclusion!
The$ fight$ against$ cybercrime$ has$ drawn$
attention$ to$ the$ need$ for$ new$ policing$
models.$ However,$ emerging$ trends$ to$
complement$ or$ replace$ the$ traditional$
policing$model$run$the$danger$of$rendering$
individuals$ increasingly$ invisible.$ These$
unbalance$ the$ framework$ of$ investigatory$
powers$and$respect$for$individuals$rights.$$
Debates$ around$ the$ struggle$ to$ carry$ out$
effective$ policing$ in$ the$ cyber$ age$ should$
include,$ therefore,$ not$ just$ international$
cooperation$ and$ assistance,$ but$ also$engage$ the$ perspective$ of$ citizen$
protection,$ including$ the$ right$ to$ private$
and$ family$ life,$ together$ with$ data$
protection$and$accountability.$
$
ibliography!
[1] Brenner,$ B.S.W.,$ Koops,$ B.,$ and$ Tech,$J.H.$ Approaches$ to$ Cybercrime$
Jurisdiction.$Journal!of!High!Technology!
Law!IV,$1$(2004),$146.$
[2] Home$ Office.$ Cyber! Crime! Strategy.$Surrey,$ 2010.Kozlovski,$ N.,$ 2005.$ A$
Paradigm$ Shift$ in$ Online$ Policing$ $
Designing$ Accountable$ Policing.$ Yale$
University.$
[3] Kozlovski,$ N.$ A$ Paradigm$ Shift$ in$Online$ Policing$ $ Designing$Accountable$ Policing.$ 2005.$
http://crypto.stanford.edu/portia/pap
ers/Kozlovski.pdf.$
[4] Moore,$T.,$Clayton,$R.,$and$Anderson,$R.$The$ Economics$ of$ Online$ Crime.$
Journal! of! Economic!Perspectives!23,$ 3$
(2009),$320.$
[5] OHara,$ K.$ Transparency,$ Open$ Data$and$Trust$in$Government:$Shaping$the$
Infosphere.$ ACM! Web! Science! 2012,$
(2012),$10.$
[6] Wall,$ D.S.$ Policing$ Cybercrimes:$Situating$the$Public$Police$in$Networks$
of$ Security$ within$ Cyberspace.$ Police!
Practice!and!Research!8,$2$(2007),$183205.$
Authors!
Michael$ Yip,$ Aristea$ Maria$ Zafeiropoulou,$
Alison$ Knight,$ Huw$ Fryer,$ Jaymie$ Caplen,$
Phil$ Waddell,$ Dominic$ Hobson,$ Russell$
Newman,$Kieran$Rones,$Abigail$Whitmarsh,$
Elsabi$Rimington,$allia$Calda$
$