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WEALTHCREATION
WITHINGLOBAL
CULTURAL
PERSPECTIVES
Global Consultation on Wealth Creation for
Transformation
March 2017
lausanne.org•bamglobal.org
WEALTHCREATIONWITHINGLOBAL
CULTURALPERSPECTIVES
ApaperfromtheGlobalConsultationon
WealthCreationforTransformation
organizedbytheLausanneMovementandBAMGlobal
inChiangMai,Thailand,inMarch2017.
© LausanneMovement&BAMGlobal
Permissionisgrantedtodistributethispaperforpersonalandeducationaluse,
freeofcharge.Commercialuseisprohibited.
Pleaseincludethisacknowledgementwhensharingandquoting:
2017GlobalConsultationonWealthCreationforTransformation;Lausanne
Movement&BAMGlobal.
Weencouragethedisseminationofthispaperandalsothevarious
translationsoftheWealthCreationManifesto.
GlobalConsultationonWealthCreationforTransformationSeries:• WealthCreationandthePoor
• RoleoftheChurchinWealthCreation
• WealthCreation:BiblicalViewsandPerspectives
• WealthCreationandtheStewardshipofCreation
• WealthCreationwithinGlobalCulturalPerspectives
• WealthCreators'ContributiontoHolisticTransformation
• WealthCreationandJustice
Formoreinformationcontact:[email protected]•[email protected]
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TABLEOFCONTENTS
Foreword...................................................................................................................................5
WealthCreationManifesto.......................................................................................................7
ExecutiveSummary:CulturalPerspectivesonWealthCreationforHolisticTransformation...9
CulturalPerspectivesonWealthCreationforHolisticTransformation..................................10
1.0Introduction..................................................................................................................10
2.0AnApproachto‘Culture’Itself.....................................................................................10
3.0TheAnthropologicalTemptation:Overreaction..........................................................14
4.0ThreeMarket-SpecificCulturalChallenges..................................................................19
5.0SomeWaysForward.....................................................................................................26
Appendix.................................................................................................................................33
Endnotes.................................................................................................................................37
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Foreword
‘RemembertheLORDyourGod,foritishewhogivesyoutheabilitytoproducewealth’(Deut
8:18).
TheBibletalksaboutwealthinthreeways;oneisbadandtwoaregood.Hoardingofwealth
iscondemned.Sharingofwealthisencouraged.Creationofwealthisbothagodlygiftanda
command,andthereisnowealthtobesharedunlessithasfirstbeencreated.Butalltoooftentheissueofwealthcreationismisunderstood,neglected,orevenrejected.Thesame
thingappliestowealthcreators.
TheGlobalConsultationonTheRoleofWealthCreationforHolisticTransformationaimed
ataddressingthat.Wewereabout30peoplefrom20nations,primarilyfromthebusiness
world,andalsofromchurch,missionsandacademia.DuringtheConsultationprocess2016–
2017wediscussedvariousaspectsofwealthcreation,includingjustice,poverty,biblical
foundations,culture,wealthcreators,stewardshipofcreationandtheroleofthechurch.
ThefindingshavebeensummarizedintheWealthCreationManifesto,andwillalsobe
publishedinseveralreportsandabook,aswellasaneducationalvideo.
Allthesecontainawealthofknowledgeandinsights,basedontheScriptures,rootedin
historyandinformedbypresent-dayconversationsandexamples.
Goldinthegroundhasnoparticularvalueuntilitisdiscovered,extracted,andtraded.Using
themetaphorofminingletmementionthree‘goldmines’thatwehavesoughttodiginto
duringourConsultationprocess.
ThebiblicalgoldmineFromtheManifesto:‘WealthcreationisrootedinGodtheCreator,whocreatedaworldthat
flourisheswithabundanceanddiversity.WearecreatedinGod’simage,toco-createwith
himandforhim,tocreateproductsandservicesforthecommongood.Wealthcreationisa
holycalling,andaGod-givengift,whichiscommendedintheBible.’Thereisalotmoregold
tobefoundinthebiblicalgoldmine.
Thehistoricalgoldmine
Wealthcreationleadingtotransformationisnotnew.FromtheManifesto:‘Wealthcreation
throughbusinesshasprovenpowertoliftpeopleandnationsoutofpoverty.’Therearemany
storiesofholistictransformationthroughwealthcreationthroughouthistory,andsomeare
stilluntold.Wealthcreationhasahistoryandweneedtoexploreitfurther.Throughour
reportsyoucandigintohistoricalgoldmines.
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TheglobalgoldmineWealthcreationisnotaWesternorrich-worldphenomenon.Manymenandwomenare
makingadifferencethroughbusinessesonallcontinents.FromtheManifesto:‘Wealth
creatorsshouldbeaffirmedbytheChurch,andequippedanddeployedtoserveinthe
marketplaceamongallpeoplesandnations.’Weneedtolearnfromthemandothersandto
extracttheglobalgold,alsofoundinthesereports.
DiscoverandextracttheintellectualwealthintheManifesto,thereportsandbooksaswellasthevideo,andletthemaddvaluetoyourlifeandwork.Sharewithothers.
PleasestartbyreadingtheWealthCreationManifesto.Itwillgiveyouacontextanda
frameworktobetterunderstandeachreport.
MatsTunehag
ChairmanoftheConveningTeam
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WealthCreationManifesto
Background
TheLausanneMovementandBAMGlobalorganizedaGlobalConsultationonTheRoleofWealthCreationforHolisticTransformation,inChiangMai,Thailand,inMarch2017.About
30peoplefrom20nationsparticipated,primarilyfromthebusinessworld,andalsofrom
church,missionsandacademia.Thefindingswillbepublishedinseveralpapersandabook,
aswellasaneducationalvideo.ThisManifestoconveystheessentialsofourdeliberations
beforeandduringtheConsultation.
Affirmations
1. WealthcreationisrootedinGodtheCreator,whocreatedaworldthatflourishes
withabundanceanddiversity.
2. WearecreatedinGod’simage,toco-createwithhimandforhim,tocreateproducts
andservicesforthecommongood.
3. Wealthcreationisaholycalling,andaGod-givengift,whichiscommendedinthe
Bible.
4. WealthcreatorsshouldbeaffirmedbytheChurch,andequippedanddeployedto
serveinthemarketplaceamongallpeoplesandnations.
5. Wealthhoardingiswrong,andwealthsharingshouldbeencouraged,butthereisno
wealthtobesharedunlessithasbeencreated.
6. Thereisauniversalcalltogenerosity,andcontentmentisavirtue,butmaterial
simplicityisapersonalchoice,andinvoluntarypovertyshouldbealleviated.
7. Thepurposeofwealthcreationthroughbusinessgoesbeyondgivinggenerously,
althoughthatistobecommended;goodbusinesshasintrinsicvalueasameansof
materialprovisionandcanbeanagentofpositivetransformationinsociety.
8. Businesshasaspecialcapacitytocreatefinancialwealth,butalsohasthepotential
tocreatedifferentkindsofwealthformanystakeholders,includingsocial,
intellectual,physicalandspiritualwealth.
9. Wealthcreationthroughbusinesshasprovenpowertoliftpeopleandnationsoutof
poverty.
10. Wealthcreationmustalwaysbepursuedwithjusticeandaconcernforthepoor,and
shouldbesensitivetoeachuniqueculturalcontext.
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11. Creationcareisnotoptional.Stewardshipofcreationandbusinesssolutionstoenvironmentalchallengesshouldbeanintegralpartofwealthcreationthrough
business.
Appeal
WepresenttheseaffirmationstotheChurchworldwide,andespeciallytoleadersin
business,church,government,andacademia.1
• Wecallthechurchtoembracewealthcreationascentraltoourmissionofholistic
transformationofpeoplesandsocieties.
• Wecallforfresh,ongoingeffortstoequipandlaunchwealthcreatorstothatvery
end.
• Wecallwealthcreatorstoperseverance,diligentlyusingtheirGod-givengiftsto
serveGodandpeople.
AdmaioremDeigloriam—ForthegreatergloryofGod
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ExecutiveSummary:CulturalPerspectivesonWealthCreationforHolisticTransformation
Thispaperexaminesculture’simpactuponthebiblicalmandatetocreatewealthforholistic
transformation,anditdoessoinfoursteps.First,itexaminestheconceptofcultureitself:
whatisitandhowshouldChristiansrespondtoit?Wearecalledtobebothintheworldand
notoftheworld—tohaveonefootineternityandtranscendencewiththeotherfootfirmly
intimeandimmanence—andthisisthetensionexploredinsectionone.
Next,thepaperexaminesthe‘anthropologicaltemptation’:thetemptationtoidolize
culture,andtooverreactbyfreezingitintime,thuspreventingtheorganicchangethatis
naturaltoculture.Economicdevelopmentisanaspectofandpartnertoculture;andatthe
sametime,itisachallengetoculture.Exploringthepush-pullrelationshipgenerally
betweenbusinessandcultureservesasanintroductiontoournextsection.
Thethirdsectionofthepaperdevelopsfurtherthebusiness-and-culturetensionbyfirst
scrutinizingthreevaluesthoughttobekeytobusinessdevelopment—efficiency,
entrepreneurship,andself-help—andaskingwhethertheyarebiblicalanduniversalor
simplyculture-specific.Second,thissectionremindsusofthedangerinvolvedincross-
culturalbusinessthroughacasestudyofnineteenth-centuryHawaii,whichlostits
independencelargelythroughthefailureofbusinessintegration.Andthird,thissectionthen
askswhetherinteriorculturalchangeiskeytobusinesssuccessorouterlegalstructures,
concludingthatbothareimportant.
Lastly,thepapermovesfromthesebigpicturefoundationalissuestoaddressingthespecific
attributesforindividualsandorganizationsseekingtoactuallyengageincross-cultural
wealthcreation.Attributessuchasintegrity,hardwork,communicationstylesandthe
importanceofalocalmentorareaddressed.OnlywhenChristiansadopttheseattributes
canwebegintotackletheculturalchallengesinvolvedinaddressingoneofthemany
purposesofGod’sheart:wealthcreationfortheholistictransformationofpeoplesand
nations.
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CulturalPerspectivesonWealthCreationforHolisticTransformation
PaulMiller,DecioCarvalho,MarissaMaren,Nora Hughes,FrancisTsui
1.0Introduction
Whatisculture’simpactuponthebiblicalmandatetocreatewealthforholistic
transformation?Thatisthispaper’stask.2Andviceversa:thepaperequallyexploresthe
impactoftheBible,anditswealthcreationmandate,uponculture.Weknowfromthe
creationaccountitselfthatGod’sintentionfortheearthwasabundance(iewealth),and
thatthiswastobeablessingtoman:‘AndGodblessedthem....AndGodsaweverything
thathehadmade,andbehold,itwasverygood’(Gen1:22,28,31).Buttoooftenwealth
creation—businessdevelopment—hasbeentwistedintoacurse,destroyingwholecultures.3
Ontheotherhand,thelackofwealthcreationhasequallybeenacurse,condemningsome
toagrinding,soul-destroyingpoverty.Andifpovertyhasbeenacurse,thennolesshave
certainculturalvicesturnedtohurtman.CulturesbearthemarksofGod’sbeautiful
creation,butalsotheybearthemarksofthesinruiningourworld.Inthischallenging
terrain,wedesperatelyneedtohearGod’sheartandGod’sWordastohowtopursuea
godly,robust,andyetculturally-sensitivewealthcreationthatwill,asGodintended,bless
mankind.
Thispaperwillfirstdefineculture,thenexploreChristianity’srelationshiptoculturethrough
bothatheologicalandhistoricallens.Nextitwillexaminethe‘anthropologicaltemptation’
toapotheosizeculture—allowingaproperrespecttodeclineintoanillegitimateidolization
ofculture.Thepapergoesontoinvestigatesomemarket-specificculturalchallenges,
examiningwhetherkeyvaluessuchasefficiency,entrepreneurship,andself-helpare
biblicallyorculturallyrooted.Lastly,thepaperthenmovesfromthesemoreabstract,big-
picturefoundationstoproposingsomepracticalstepsforward:keyconsiderationsin
navigatingthesensitiveareaofcross-culturalwealthcreation.
2.0AnApproachto‘Culture’Itself
2.1Whatis‘culture’Whatdoesthispapermeanwhenitspeaksofculture?Cultureisnotsimplyhighartor
refinedmanners.Cultureinthispaperisusedinitsanthropologicalsenseof‘patternsof
thinking,feeling,andacting’.4Itreferstobothapeople’s‘interior’aspect—their‘[a]ttitudes,
values,andbeliefs’5—aswellastotheirexternalbehaviors—theirinstitutionalstructuresof
‘kinship,friendship,ethnicaffiliation,...law,morality...andjusticeingeneral’.6Relevant
tothethemeofwealthcreation,wecanalsospeakofapeople’s‘economicculture’,the
‘social,political,andculturalmatrix...withinwhichtheseparticulareconomicprocesses
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operate’.7Cultureinfluencesthewaythepeoplesoftheworlddoordonotdobusiness.
This,then,iswhatwemeanby‘culture’.
2.2HowshouldChristiansrelatetoculture?Regardingculture,weChristiansliveinatension:Christcallingustobeboth‘intheworld’
andyetnot‘oftheworld’(John17:13-16).Wearebothheavenlyandearthlypeoplefor,as
theScripturessay,wehaveaheavenly‘treasureinjarsofclay’(2Cor4:7).Wefollowa
Savior‘fromabove’andnot‘frombelow’(John3:31;8:23)evenasweadheretothe
revelatoryWordwhichis‘ofGod’incontrasttothechangingopinions‘ofman’(1Thess
2:13;Jer23:16,26-31).Wehaveafooteachintwoverydifferentworlds.
Transcendenceisinourblood;butthensois‘immanence’.Wecannotbe‘soheavenly
mindedastobeofnoearthlygood’.Jesusdidnotremaininheaven;hewasincarnatedhere
onearth.ThebookofRevelationrevealsthateveninheaven(theplaceoffull
transcendence)wewillbegatheredtherenotjustinourindividualitybutinourgroup
identities,with‘everynation[politicalunits],tribe[ethnicunits],peopleandlanguage
[culturalunits],standingbeforethethroneandbeforetheLamb’(Rev7:9;21:1;22:2).The
groupidentitiesnotedinRevelationareearthly,butevidentlytheyarenot‘transcended’in
eternity,buteventheretheyaretreasuredandpreservedinthe‘newheavensandnew
earth’.Ratherthanexcludingearthlyculture,God’sapproachistobringintoeternitythe
bestofhumanculture:‘thekingsoftheearthwillbringtheirsplendorintoit....Theglory
andhonorofthenationswillbebroughtintoit’(Rev21:24-25)8.IfGodtreasuresculturein
eternity,thencertainlywemustdolikewiseinthehereandnow.
Holdingtothistensionenablesustoresisttwoextremes:thelossoftranscendenceonthe
onehand,seeninthoseanthropologistswhounderstandculturetosimply‘swallow’
Christianity.Fortheseanthropologists,religiousexpressionissimplyculturalexpression.On
theotherextremeisthetyrannyoftranscendenceoverimmanence—thoseChristians,for
instance,whorefusetogiveanyplacetocultureandwhoseeanyaccommodationtoculture
assinfulcompromise.Whatisthelinebetweenbiblicalandanunbiblicalaccommodationto
culture,canbeathornyquestion.Belowweseesomedifferentapproachestothisquestion.
2.3Niebuhr’sFiveRelationshipstoCultureH.RichardNiebuhrwrotehisoften-referencedChristandCulturespecificallytowrestlewith
thisrelationship.HedescribesfivedifferentrelationshipsChristiansmighthavewithculture:
Firstis‘ChristagainstCulture’.HereChristisperceivedasatwarwithculture.Andindeed,
theGodofthepropheticbooksoftheBiblerevealsmuchthathecondemnsinhuman
culture.Whilethepropheticbookscannotbeportrayedaswhollynegativeintone,still,the
negativetoneisbothrealandprominent.Being‘againstculture’issurelyapartofGod’s
view,andhenceoughttobepartofours.
Niebuhr’ssecondapproachisstyled‘ChristofCulture’.Herethecultureswallows
Christianity;thechurchlosesitssaltandreflectsthesurroundingsocietymorethanitdoes
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God’sheartandmind.Thisisthetemptationof‘syncretism’,anditmustberesisted.Third
andfourth,Niebuhridentifiesthestanceof‘ChristaboveCulture’and‘ChristandCulturein
Paradox’.Bothofthesestancesattempttoavoidtheextremesofthefirsttwopositions,
withbothidentifyinghumancultureassomethingbasicallygood,thoughsin-ravaged,and
Christacknowledgedassovereign.The‘aboveculture’-stanceseestheglassashalf-full:It
emphasizestheopportunityChristianityhastocontributetocultureandbetteritstone.The
‘ChristandCultureinParadox’-stanceseestheglassashalf-empty:Itfocusesonthetensions
andparadoxesinherentinhavingonefootintheculturalcampandtheotherinChrist.
‘ChristtheTransformerofCulture’isNiebuhr’slastcategory.Thisstanceemphasizes
Christ’s—andthechurch’s—roleintransformingculture.Christtaughtustopray,‘Thy
kingdomcome,Thywillbedoneonearthasitisinheaven.’Heavendoesnotsimplywaitfor
thefuture,butwasmeanttoinvadehumancultureinthehereandnow.
Infact,allofthesestancescanlegitimatelybeaChristian’satonetimeoranother.Eventhe
‘ChristofCulture’mode,whennotinitsworstsyncretisticform,isvalidatpoints:whenits
embraceofculturalexpressionssimplyrecognizesthemfortheirrootingnotinsin,buttheir
rootinginman’smade-in-the-image-of-Godaspect.
2.4EvangelicalMissionHistory
From‘civilization’toacculturationandbackagain
ThequestionofhowChristiansrelatetocultureandhowinturnculturethenimpactsthe
biblicalmandateofwealthcreationhasbeentussledoverthroughoutevangelicalism’stwo
centuriesofmissionoutreach.Inthesetwocenturies,roughlythreecyclesofcultural
engagementcanbeidentified:firsta‘civilizationalmodel’,followedbyan‘acculturation
model’,andfinallybacktoa‘culturallymodifiedcivilizationalmodel’.
Stage1:ThreeC’sofChristianity,commerce,andcivilization(earlynineteenthcentury)Earlyevangelicalmissionswerenotnarrowlyspiritual;theywere‘holistic’,thoughperhaps
withcertainunhealthyelements.Whenonelooksintothefoundationaldocumentsof
England’sLondonMissionarySociety(LMS)ortheAmericanBoardofCommissionersfor
ForeignMissions(ABCFM),onecanseethisplainly.TheLMSinstructeditsmissionariessent
toTahiti,Tonga,andtheMarquesasin1796—asdidtheABCFMtoitsmissionariessentto
Hawaiiin1819—thattheywerenotonlytopreachthegospelbuttoteach‘theusefularts
andoccupations’.9AsHiramBingham,theABCFM’sleadingmissionaryinHawaii,wrote,‘To
savetheirsoulswasthemainobject,butthatobjectwasnottobesinglyandconstantly
pressedontheattentionofsuchapeople.’10MissiologistAndrewWallssummarizedthis
earlymissionphaseasdrivenby‘theconvictionoftheessentialconcomitanceof
Christianity,commerce,andcivilization’11—the‘threeC’s’ofoursubsectiontitle.
So,commercewasembracedalongwithChristianity.Whileintroducing‘commerce’entailed
itsownproblems,thegreaterproblemwasthislast‘C’—‘civilization’—whichstruckanoteof
superiority,anassumptionthatone’sownculturewasasawholemoreelevated.The
problemherewastactical—thatthismaderespectfulcommunicationmoredifficultand,
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consequently,arespectfulreceptionofthetranscendentgospelmoredifficult.Theproblem
wasalsofundamentallytheological—itconflatedone’slocalandimminentculturewiththe
universalandtranscendentgospel.Thebestmissionariessoughttoavoidthissenseof
culturalsuperiority.12Butwith‘civilization’asacentralelementtoone’smission,itwas
difficulttoseehowthissenseofculturalsuperiority,ofarrogance,couldbeavoided.
Stage2:Acculturation,makingthegospelChinese(latenineteenthcentury)HudsonTaylor,in1853,uponarrivinginChina,wasbotheredbythefactthathisfellow
missionarieswentmainlytofellowexpatriatesinChina.Hewantedthegospeltogotothe
Chinese.Todothat,heknewhehadtomakethegospelChinese.Heshockedhis
compatriotsbydressingliketheChinese,wearinghishairinChinesefashion,andgoingout
amongstthemasifhewereoneofthem.Thatmeantdroppinghisown(English)cultural
distinctives.Taylorwasnotinterestedinpreachinghisculturebutinpreachingtheeternal
transcendentgospel.
Taylor’sapproachwasthe‘firstsignsofmissionaryskepticismtowardsthevalueofWestern
civilization’,anapproachthatwastobecome‘broadlyrepresentativeoftheevangelical...
mainstreamofthemissionarymovementattheturnofthe[nineteenth]century’.13So,for
instance,amissionarytotheSudanin1891recordshisapproachthus:‘Wecarefullyavoid
praisingcivilizationorcivilizedpowerstotheheathen,andiftheythemselvesareextolling
civilizationwetellthemthattheyshouldnotsettheiraffectionsonthingsbelow.’14Clearly
therewashereafreshnewwindinevangelicalmissions.
Taylorwashugelyimportantbothfortheglobalmissionarymovementandcertainlyfor
ChristianmissionsinChina.Hisemphasisonmakingthegospelculturallyappropriate
impactedmanyotherevangelicalmissionagenciesinthesecondhalfofthenineteenth
century.15DroppingtheconflationofwesternculturewithKingdomculturebecame
accepteddogma.
Thiswasagoodthing.Buttherewasalsoaweaknesstothisapproach.Theweaknesswas
thattheemphasisonpreachingthepuretranscendent,non-culturalgospelentailedthe
reluctancetointroduceanyWesternwaysintocross-culturalsituations—whichmeantthe
refusaltointroduceWesternbenefitssuchasuniversityeducation,technologicaladvances,
conceptsaboutwomen,etc.Therewasanarrowness,asuspicionofwhatwewouldterm
‘holisticmission’today.
ThisnarrownesswassorigidthatevenagiantsuchasHudsonTaylorallowedittointerfere
withmissionaryunity;ithinderedhisabilitytoaccepttheworkandvisionofanotherChina
pioneer—TimothyRichard.Richard,likeTaylor,wasanevangelistandchurch-planter,buthe
alsobelievedthus:
TheproblembeforethemissionaryinChina,asIfounditforty-fiveyearsago,was
notonlyhowtosavethesoulsofafourthofthehumanrace,butalsohowtosave
theirbodiesfromperishing...andtofreetheirminds...fromaphilosophyand
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customwhichhadlastedformanycenturiesandleftthematthemercyofany
nation.16
Taylor,thinkingthatanyemphasisbeyonddirectevangelismwasgenerallyadistraction,
directedthat‘hispeopleshouldn’tcooperatewiththeworkofTimothyRichard’.17
Stage3:Holismw/out‘civilization’(post-WWII)TimothyRichard’sapproach,whilegratingonHudsonTaylor,wasaprecursortowhatbegan
totakerootwithinthepost-WorldWarIIevangelicalmissionsmovement.Especiallysince
the1960s,theevangelicalchurchhasbeguntore-embraceholism.Butnowitseemstobea
holismminusthe‘civilizational’component.Nolongerwasitcommontotrumpetthe
superiorityofWesterncivilizationoverthe‘uncivilized’;atthesametimetheadvantagesof
medical,intellectual,andtechnologicalbreakthroughshousedinWesternculturewereno
longertobedenied.
Oneseesthistwin-sidedemphasis,forinstance,inBruceOlson.Olson,ayoungAmerican
wentofftolivewiththefearedMotilonetribeinSouthAmerica,andhewrote,‘Ihad
wonderedagainandagainwhatChristhadtoofferthem.Theirwayofgettingalongwith
eachotherwasfarsuperiortothatofAmericans.’18Hereistheuncivilized-themversusthe
civilized-usattitude.Ontheotherhand,hewaswillingtorecognizethesuperiorattainments
atcertainpointsofWesternculture—beingkeentointroducemedical,agricultural,and
technologicaladvancestothetribe.Whatismore,theMotiloneswerekeentoacceptthem.
Butinthis‘holismwithoutthecivilizational’approach,atensionexists.Thatis,theholistic
advantagesofmedicinal,economic,andtechnologicaladvancesthatthemissionarysought
tobringareallinescapablylodgedinacertainculturalsetting.Thesethingsdidnotcome
downfromtheclouds.TheiroriginswererootedinaWesternsetting.Olsonbrought
specificallyAmericanandEuropeanknow-howwithhim.Thisimmediatelyraisesthe
question,then,whetherunwittinglythe‘civilizational’componenthasbeensmuggledback
in,butnowinamoremodified,subdued,andgenteelform.Isitpossible,then,tohave
holismwithoutthiscivilizationalsuperiority?Hereisthedilemma.
3.0TheAnthropologicalTemptation:Overreaction
3.1‘Realwealth’:anthropologyandthe‘affluent’hunter-gatherersOfcourse,‘realwealth’involvesmorethanjustmoney.Economicsisonlyonepartoflife.
MadeintheimageofGod,humanity’srelational,intellectual,emotional,andspiritual
factorsarethethingsofrealvalue.Allcultures,howevereconomicallysimple,withtheir
cultural,attitudinal,andrelationalstrengthsaretherefore‘rich’.Thistruthneedstobe
recognizedandvalued.
Butthisisonesideofthetruth.Theothersideisthatwearephysicalbeingslivingina
physicalworldwithphysicalneeds.Focusingmerelyonourcultural,relational,and
emotionalsidesistooblinkered.Economicwell-beingisalsoimportant.Toooftenthe
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churchhasneglectedthis.ThisChiangMai2017consultation,withitsspecificfocuson‘The
RoleofWealthCreationinHolisticTransformation’,deliberatelyzeroesinonmaterial
wealth,andsoweunapologeticallynarrowourfocusinthispaperonthisaspect.
Inthepast,ithasnotjustbeenchurchleaderswhohavestruggledwiththesubjectof
wealthandphysicalwell-being:anthropologistshavetoo.Thisisunderstandable,giventheir
focusonsympatheticallystudyingothercultures,manyofwhicharefar‘simpler’
economicallythanthosetowhichanthropologistsbelong.Manyanthropologistsadopta
methodologicalapproachthat‘presupposesaneutralvantagepoint...call[ing]for
suspendingjudgmentwhendealingwith...societiesdifferentfromone’sown’,thereby
refusinganyassessmentofthe‘actingofonegroupasintrinsicallysuperiororinferiorto
thoseofanother’.19
Thishasmeant,intheeconomicsphere,areluctanceamongstsomeanthropologiststo
acknowledgetheeconomic‘poverty’ofcertaincultures.Indeed,adecades-olddiscussion
loosedbyanthropologistMarshallSahlinsconcerninghunter-gathererculturesexemplifies
thistendency.Sahlins,professoremeritusofanthropologyattheUniversityofChicago,
madethreepointsinhisinfluentialbookStone-AgeEconomics(1972):first,thecounter-
intuitivepointthatsubsistenceeconomiescanbe‘affluent’societies;second,thatone’s
workrateinsubsistenceeconomiesisattunedtoone’slowerexpectations,suchthatthe
resultantreducedworkrateisnoviceof‘laziness’,butratherarationaladjustmentof
meanstoanend;andthird,thatnoneofthissitswellwithourbourgeoiscapitalist
economieswhichtoutthe‘moreandmore’.Asheputit:
Toaccepthuntersasaffluentisalsotorecognizethetragedyofmoderntimesinthe
currenthumanconditionwithpeopleslavingtobridgethegapbetweenunlimited
wantsandinsufficientmeans.Therearetwopossiblecoursestoaffluence.Wants
maybe‘easilysatisfied’eitherbyproducingmuchordesiringlittle....[T]hereis...
aZenroadtoaffluence,whichstateshumanmaterialwantsarefiniteandfew,and
technicalmeansunchangingbutonthewholeadequate.AdoptingtheZenstrategy,
peoplecanenjoyunparalleledmaterialplenty,withalowstandardofliving.20
Sahlinsrejectsthestereotypethatthesehunter-gathererslivedlivesofunendingdrudgery
spentmainlyinthetedioussearchforfood.Rather,hequotesresearchshowingthe
‘materialplentyofAfricanhunters’whichheclaimswassimilartoAustralianAborigines.He
arguesthatbothgroups’workweekamountedtoapproximately15hoursandthat‘when
notworkinginsubsistence,theypassthetimeinleisureorleisurelyactivity...suchas
restingincamporvisitingothercamps.’21Idyllic!
(a)ButSahlinschallengedonfactsandinterpretativezeitgeist(Kaplan)DavidKaplan,ProfessorofAnthropologyatBrandeis,wroteanarticleinthe2000editionof
JournalofAnthropologicalResearchchallengingSahlinsbothonhisfactsandonhisbroader
underlyingassumptions.Hepointsoutvariousmethodologicalshortcomingsinthe
underlyingresearch,forinstancetheverydefinitionof‘work’used.Notincludedinits
definitionwas‘timespentinprocessingfoodaswellashuntingandgatheringit’.Whenone
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includedtimespentinthenecessarytasksof‘foodpreparation,butchery,drawingwater
andgatheringfirewood,washingutensils,andcleaningthelivingspace...estimatedper
weekis44.5hours’onsubsistenceefforts.
Moreover,otheron-the-groundanthropologicalresearchconcerningthesehunter-gatherers
showedthattheyare‘verythinandcomplainoftenofhunger,atalltimesoftheyear’and
concludedthat‘manywouldfinditstrange,asKonner(1983:371)observeswithrespectto
the!KungSan[thehunter-gatherersstudied],torefertoasocietywitha50percent
childhoodmortalityrateandalifeexpectancyatbirthofaboutthirtyyearsasan“affluent”
society.’22
(b)Missionsnapshots:Non-Westernerslikedmodernconveniences(Hawaii/Motilones)Thereisaproblemwiththisredefinitionof‘affluence’andtherejectionof‘things/stuffas
realwealth’asjustyetanotherneo-colonialist,arrogant,culturalimpositionoftheWest.
Thatproblemisthis‘stuff’wasoftenheartilywelcomedwhenintroducedcross-culturally.
Localslikedit!Two(ofmany)examplesfromrecentmissionhistoryillustratethis:Hawaiiin
thenineteenthcentury,andtheMotilonesofEcuador/Colombiainthetwentiethcentury—
bothessentiallystone-agecultures.
So,forinstance,theRev.RichardArmstrongwrotefromhisstationatWailuku,Maui,July7,
1840concerninghisintroductionofthesimplelabor-savingdeviceofyokedoxen:
Idevoteoccasionallyalittletimetoagricultureandwoulddevotemore,ifIhaditto
spare.ItisabusinessthatIwasbroughtupto,andIloveit,asIlovesleepwhen
weary....Ihaveassistedthenativestobreakinsometwelveyokeofoxen,which
havedoneagreatdealtowardsrelievingthepeopleoftheirburdens.Threeyears
agoeverything,food,timber,potatoes,pigs,stones,lime,sand,etc.,werecarriedon
thebacksofnatives,ordraggedonthegroundbytheirhands...butalmostallthis
drudgeryisnowdonebycartsandoxen,andtheheadmensaytheycannotgetthe
menontheirlandstosubmittosuchworkastheyoncecould.Thisiscleargain.23
YokedoxenwasjustoneofmanyWesterntechniquestheHawaiianseagerlyembraced:iron
nails,manufacturingtechniques,weaponry,square-riggedvessels,clothingetc.
BruceOlson’sexperiencewiththeMotilonesinEcuador/Colombiawassimilar,exceptthat
theMotilones,duetocenturiesofnegativeexperiences,wereinitiallyfarmorewaryof
Europeanartifacts.WhenBruceOlsonfinallystartedtopenetratetheMotiloneculture,
actuallylivingwiththemfordecadesintheirlonghousesandeventuallyintroducingthe
gospelthere,herecordedhishesitation,caughtbetweenhisrespectfortheircultureandhis
respectforthebenefitsofmoderntechnology.
Olsonwritesaboutoneofhisearlyheroes,Bobby(thefirstMotiloneconvert,eventually
murderedbyMarxistmilitants)who‘hadavisionforhispeople—tohelpthemincorporate
advantagesofmodernsocietywithoutsacrificingtraditionalvalues’.Olsonwantedto
introducethegospel‘inawaythatshowedunderstandingandrespectforMotilonehistory
andculture’,24whilealso,withBobby,bringingintechnologies:
17
By1971wehadestablishedtwohealthcentersinthejungle....Motiloneslearned
howtotakebloodsmears...formalaria....BecausetheMotiloneshungered
duringtheseasonswhengamewasscarce,Ishowedthemhowtopreparethe
groundforgrowingcrops....Weintroducedlivestock...accesstomeatandmilk.
WealsoorganizedtwoschoolswhereMotiloneslearned...Spanish,sothatthey
wouldbeabletocommunicateandnegotiatewiththeoutsideworld....Iwas
extremelypleasedtoseetheseadvancesimprovethequalityoflifeforthe
Motilone.25
Olson,andtheMotilonesthemselves,sawthesetechnologicaldevelopments—andthe
economicempowermentthatmadethempossible—as‘improv[ing]thequalityoflife.’
Intriguingly,Olsonwritesthatincreasinglyhis‘ideasarenotalwayscompatiblewiththoseof
theIndians,particularlytheyouth’,thethirdgenerationofMotiloneChristianconvertswho
optfor‘modernconveniences’and‘enticementsofWesternculture.’26Olsonhimself
preferredtheoldways.Olson,then,findshimselfsusceptibletooneformofthe
‘anthropologist’stemptation’.
(c)Thetemptation:overlyrosyon‘solidarity’Theanthropologicaltemptationistoavoidvaluejudgmentsonculturaldifferences;heor
sherefusestosaysuch-and-suchstandardoflivingis‘better’.Regardingwealthcreation,the
anthropologistmaybepronetomisreadattitudesandvalues,asevidentintheDavidKaplan
articlecitedaboveonthe!Kung(Bushmen)hunter-gatherers.Forinstance,some
anthropologistshavebeenover-readytopraisethe!Kungfortheirnon-individualistic
solidarityand‘sharing’.Butotheranthropologistsdismissthisasranknonsense:
BothWiessner(1982:79)andMarshall(1968:94)havecommentedonthefactthat
thepersistentpressurestosharehaveledthe!Kungtolimittheirworkeffort,since
inworkinghardertheywouldlikelyexposethemselvestodemandstosharethe
fruitsoftheiradditionallabors.Torefusetoshareopensoneselftoaccusationsof
stinginessorworse.HereareWiessner's(1982:79)observations:‘Inreciprocal
relations,themeansthatapersonusestopreventbeingexploitedinarelationship..
.istopreventhimorherselffrombecominga‘have’....Asmentionedearlier,men
whohavekilledanumberoflargeranimalssitbackforapausetoenjoy
reciprocation.Womengatherenoughfortheirfamiliesforafewdays,butrarely
more....Andso,indecidingwhetherornottoworkonacertainday,a!Kungmay
assessdebtsanddebtors,decidehowmuchwildfoodharvestwillgotofamily,close
relativesandotherstowhomheorshereallywantstoreciprocate,versushowmuch
willbeclaimedbyfreeloaders.’The!Kung,wearetold,spendagreatdealoftime
talkingaboutwhohaswhatandwhogavewhattowhomorfailedtogiveittowhom
(Wiessner1982:68).Alotoftheexchangeandsharingthatgoesonseemstobeas
muchmotivatedbyjealousyandenvyasitisbyanyvalueofgenerosityora‘liberal
customofsharing’.Inhissurveyofforagingsocieties,Kelly(1995:164-65)notesthat
‘Sharing...strainsrelationsbetweenpeople.Consequently,manyforagerstryto
18
findwaystoavoiditsdemands.’...Myownreadingofethnography,andmyown
experienceinanumberofAmericanIndianandAfricansocietieswhosemembers
wouldberegardedashavinghadlittleinthewayofmaterialwealthsuggestsrather
thatpropertyisvalued,thatpeopleareverymuchawarethatpossessionsgiveriseto
envyandthattheyarefearfuloftheconsequencesofenvy.27
3.2TrumpingEconomicsbyCulturalAnthropologyCulturalanthropologyhasmanyinsightstocontribute,buttheymustnotbeallowedto
dismissortrumptheinsightsprovidedbythedisciplineofeconomics.Suchatrumpingis
preciselywhatDouglasWilsonallowsinChristianMissionsandEconomicSystems:aCritical
SurveyoftheCulturalandReligiousDimensionsofEconomies,a2015bookthatdoeswellby
willinglygrapplingwiththeeconomicimplicationsofmissions.Wilsonbeginshisarticleon
Mali:
TheWestandAfricahavedevelopeddifferenteconomicsystemsoutofdistinct
historicalcontexts.Bothsystemshavebeensuccessfulintheirrespectivecontexts.
Maranznotes,‘ContrarytowhatWesternersthink,theAfricaneconomicsystem
workswellindeedindoingwhatitwasdesignedtodo.’28
Thisisextraordinary—Africa,specificallyMali,defendedaseconomicallysuccessfulwhenit
iswidelyadmittedthat,‘Maliisoneofthepoorestcountriesintheworld,ranking178outof
182countriesinthe2009UNDPHumanDevelopmentIndex.Itisestimatedthat60percent
[sic]ofthepopulationlivesbelowthepovertyline.’29WilsonandMaranz’sdefensefortheir
positionreadsthus:
ThefundamentaleconomicconsiderationinWesternsocietyistheaccumulationof
capitalandwealth.ThefundamentaleconomicconsiderationinAfricansocietyis‘the
distributionofeconomicresourcessothatallpersonsmayhavetheirminimum
needsmet,oratleastthattheymaysurvive.’30
Bare‘survival’then,istheaim!Butsurelybare‘survival’istheverydefinitionofpoverty—
theverythingNGOsaimtocombat!
Wilson’s(an‘interculturalministryspecialist’)andMaranz’s(an‘internationalanthropology
consultant’)problemhereistheiraims—apredominantlyanthropologicaloneratherthan
aneconomicaim—asMaranzmakesclearinthearticleWilsonreferences.Maranzlistshis
aimsas,firstly,theincreasingofmutualunderstandingasenabling‘moremeaningful
relationships’and,secondly,‘Westernershavinggreaterrespectforauniqueeconomic
systemthataccomplishesitsmainpurposesverywell’.31Economicbettermentisnot
Maranz’purpose.RatherthanchallengingwhatAfricadoesnothave,hewantsusto
appreciatewhatAfricadoeshave.Whileunderstandablefromaculturalanthropological
pointofview,thissimplywon’tdoinabookclaimingtowanttotakeeconomicsseriously.If
19
therewereeconomiclack—astestifiedtobythemultitudesofeconomicmigrants—one
mustsurelyacknowledgeithonestly.
Anthropologistsneedtoseethatineconomicsgoodintentionsarenotenough,thata
positiveembraceofacultureisnosubstituteforeconomicgoodsenseconcerningit.They
shouldbelikethefarmerinIsaiah28:24-29,ofwhomweread:
Whenafarmerplowsforplanting,doesheplowcontinually?...Whenhehas
leveledthesurface,doeshenotsowcarawayandscattercumin?...Carawayisnot
threshedwithasledge,noristhewheelofacartrolledovercumin;carawayis
beatenoutwitharod,andcuminwithastick.Grainmustbegroundtomakebread;
soonedoesnotgoonthreshingitforever.Thewheelsofathreshingcartmaybe
rolledoverit,butonedoesnotusehorsestogrindgrain.Allthisalsocomesfromthe
LordAlmighty,whoseplaniswonderful.32
Ratherthanimposinghisownrulesontheeconomicsphere,thefarmer,first,observesand
learnswhatworkswithinthatsphere(whatareitswaysandrules)andthen,second,brings
hisactionsintoconformitywiththoserealities.Thisapproach,saysIsaiah,comesfromthe
Lord.
4.0ThreeMarket-SpecificCulturalChallenges
Businessandeconomicdevelopmentaretwo-edgedswords—usheringineithercultural
improvementsorculturaldangers(seetheHawaiicasestudybelow).Belowweraisetwo
questionstoprobethisissueofbusiness’two-edgedpotential,andwelookatitthroughthe
challengespresentedintwoconcretesituations—inEcuadorandHawaii.
4.1Question1:‘Market-centeredprinciplesofefficiency,entrepreneurship,andself-helpequalculturalimposition’?
RobertAndolina,AssociateProfessorofInternationalStudiesatSeattleUniversity,through
hisresearchontheCañarregionofEcuadorraisesthequestionastowhetherthevaluesof
‘efficiency,entrepreneurshipandself-help’—valuescentraltomarketactivityandwealth
creation—arebiblical(hencelegitimate)orsimplynarrowlycultural(henceillegitimate).
Andolina’sresearchidentifiedthesethree‘market-centeredprinciple’asbeingcentraltothe
faileddevelopmentapproachofthoseseekingtohelpEcuadoriantribalsbetterthemselves
economicallythroughanirrigationdevelopmentproject.Heconcludesthatthesemarket
principlesweresimplythe‘colonial’impositionofa‘neoliberalcultureofdevelopment.’33Is
heright?
(a)CañarinEcuadorWhileAndolinarejectsthesethreevaluesastheculturalimpositionofcapitalist
‘neoliberalism’,thispaperarguesthevalues(thoughnotnecessarilytheirapplication)are
biblical.Simplylookateachone:efficiency,entrepreneurship,andself-help.Godhimselfis
20
‘efficient’.Heisthemaster‘doer’;hegetthingsdonewell.Heisnotsloppy.Heis
extravagantbutnotwasteful.WhenGoddoesthingsthey‘work’,theyaresuccessful.
‘Success’isnotsimplyaWesternvalue.OnethousandsixhundredyearsbeforeChrist,the
Egyptiansvaluedit.Afterall,wereadthatPotiphar,Pharaoh’scaptainoftheguard,put
Josephinchargeofallhishouseholdbecauseofonequality:hesaw‘thattheLordgavehim
[Joseph]successineverythinghedid’(Gen39:3).Equally,theearlyHawaiians,ina
Polynesiansocietythatdevelopedinisolationfor400yearsaftertheirfinalsettlementby
Tahitiansinc.AD1400,34valuedsuccess.Thatis,though‘birth-orderstatus’androyal
genealogicalconnectionswerecentraltoanyaspiringHawaiianmonarch’sabilitytogarnera
following,attheendoftheday,andsomewhatparadoxically,‘Hissuccess[inwar]signaled
hismana[hissupernaturalpower],andhismanalegitimizedhispoliticalpower.’35Indeed,as
nativeHawaiianhistorianandactivistGeorgeKanaheleobserves,‘Wenote…theclose
correspondencebetweentheusefulnessofanobjectanditsdegreeofsanctity.’36Sanctity—
that’safairlyhighevaluationofefficiency!
IfefficiencyisbothvaluedinmultipleculturesandrootedinGod’sverynature,sotoois
entrepreneurism.Godisentrepreneurial—justlookatcreation!Therearemanydefinitions
of‘entrepreneurship’,but‘[a]titscore,itisamind-set—awayofthinkingandacting.Itis
aboutimaginingnewwaystosolveproblemsandcreatevalue’,or‘seeinganopportunity
andgatheringtheresourcestoturnapossibilityintoareality’.37Thissoundsdistinctlylike
GodinGenesis1and2.Equally,itsoundsverymuchlikewhatAdamandEvewere
mandatedtodointhoseverychapters.Mankind,formedinhisimage,weremeanttoreflect
thecharacteristicsoftheirMaker,includinghiscreativityandentrepreneurialism.
God(asallsufficient)isnaturallyaself-helpagentinawaywehumanssimplycannotbe.But
heretoowereflectourCreator,evenifnottotheextentofhisself-sufficiency.Oneseesit,
forinstance,inthepre-Fallmandatetoworkandprovideforoneself(Gen2:5,15).Adam
wasnottosimplysitinreposeandwaitforGodtodropgrapesinhismouth.Ontheother
hand,Adamwasalsoprovidedwitha‘Helper’—Eve.Goodidea!Goingitalonewasnotthe
way.Self-helpactuallymeant‘self-responsibility’,andthatmightbeamorebiblicalwayto
expressit.
TheissuewiththethreevaluesAndolinachallengesmaynotbesomuchtheirbiblical
validityintheabstract;rathertheissuemaybetheirvalidityasconcretelyapplied.Inother
words,thepreceptitselfmaybeclear;therealchallengemaycome,aswithSolomonfacing
twomothersclamoringforasurvivingbaby(1Kings3:16-28),inapplyingittotheparticular
situationathand.
Take,forinstance,thevalueof‘efficiency’.Surely‘efficiency’isgodly.Godis‘efficient’;he
makesthingsworkperfectly—whichisanaspectofefficiency.Butinapplyingour
evaluationsofefficiencytoconcretesituations,ourassessmentmaybeheavilycoloredby
non-biblicalvalues.Thatis,onecannotevenbegintoassesswhethersomethingis‘working’
21
(isbeing‘efficient’)withoutfirsthavinginmindcertaingoals.Efficiencyismeasuredonlyby
firstidentifyingourgoalsandthen,secondly,consideringwhetheroureffortsarereaching
thosegoals.Butherecomestheproblem:Ifourgoalsarenotbiblical,thenneitherareour
attainmentefforts—nomatterhow‘efficiently’theyattainourgoals.Insuchacase,the
biblicalvalueof‘efficiency’hasbeenmisusedfornon-biblicalpurposes.Soyes,the
measuresmaybe‘efficient’inonesense,butnotinabiblicalsenseof‘efficiency’.Thisisthe
difficultyinembracing‘efficiency’asaclearlybiblicalnorm.
Thatsaid,Andolina’scritiqueisweakenedbyatroublingoversight:Andolinaonlybriefly
mentionsthewiderEcuadorianfactualcontext—thefactofCañarprovinceemigration¾and
thencompletelyignoresitswiderimplications.Thatis,hewritesthatdevelopmentprojects
‘reinforcedmarketsocietywithoutstemmingemigrationofindigenouspeoplefromCañar
Province’,adding,‘by2007,morethan80percentoffamiliesaffiliatedwithTucayta[the
indigenousorganizationcontrollingtheirrigationprojectheisstudying]hadrelatives
workingabroad.’38Surelythefactofsuchmassemigrationissignificant.Indeed,ithasthree
implications,allchallenginghisclaims:
• First,ifindigenouspeoplesrejectedallchange(astheauthorsuggests)thenwhy
wouldtheyembracetheradicalchangeofemigration?
• Second,ifmarket/economicthinkingweresoforeigntothem,whywouldadverse
economicconditionstriggertheirmigration,asthearticlesuggestsitdoes?
• Third,iftheseindigenouspeoplesfoundthemarketthinkingoftheneoliberal
economiessoantithetical,whywouldtheyheadfortheveryfreemarket,neo-liberal
capitaloftheworld,UnitedStates(theprimaryfocusofemigrationfrom1970–
1998),orfree-marketSpain(since1998)?39
(b)FamilybusinessesinAsiaand‘efficiency’Again,anunderlyingprinciplemaybecross-culturalbutitsapplicationlooksverydifferentin
differentcultures.So,forexample,inthefamily-orientationtypicalofmanybusinessesin
Asia,wherepreservationoffamilyinvolvementinthebusinessisasimportantasthe
business’economicbottomline,whetherthebusinessis‘efficient’wouldbejudgedbyhow
muchfamilyinvolvementtherewere,notsimplybyhowmuchmoneyprofittheannual
reportrevealed.Hereis‘efficiency’withadifferentface!
(c)Solidarity/individualismand‘self-help(responsibility)’Yetanotherfactorinconsideringwhether‘efficiency,entrepreneurship,andself-help’are
biblical,ishowthesevaluesstandinrelationshiptoothervalues.Dotheyneedtobe
complementedbyothervalues,evenas,forinstance,justiceneedstobecomplementedby
mercy.Withoutsuchacomplementing,theymightbeoutofbalance.So,canself-
responsibilityreallystandalonewithout‘others-responsibility’inordertofullyreflectthe
biblicalpictureofman?
Moreover,inansweringthesequestions,howmuchroomdoestheBiblegiveusforavariety
ofculturalapproaches?Isitlegitimate,forinstance,forScandinavian‘solidarity’toanswer
22
differentlyfromAmerican‘ruggedindividualism’(toputitstereotypically)?Itwouldseem,
fromourearlierconsiderationsregardingthevaluetheBibleputsonculture,thattheredoes
existcultural‘wiggle-room’inapplyingthesevalues.
(d)StewardshipWeconclude,then,thatthesethreeprinciplesof‘efficiency,entrepreneurship,andself-
help’areclearlybiblical.Theyarenotmerely‘cultural’—specifictooneculture—buthuman-
universal.Theyaremorethansimplyabstract‘principles’;theyarerather‘values’that
reflecttheverybeingofGod.
Again,however,itiskeythatthesetermsbefilledwithbiblicalcontentandpropercontext
byensuringthattheydonotstandalone.Theymustfindtheircomplementinotherbiblical
values.Whilethebiblicalmeaningforeach—efficiency,self-help/responsibility,
entrepreneurship—willoftenmatchtheircommonlyacceptedmeaning,onecontrolling
biblicalvaluemustalwaysaccompany(andsometimeschallenge)them:thatof
‘stewardship’.
Thisisclearwhenwelookatthecreationaccountwhereeachofthethreevaluesof
efficiency,self-help/responsibility,andentrepreneurshipfindexpression.So,whenGod
directedmaninGenesis1:26to‘ruleover...alltheearth’healsoinstructedthemhowthey
weretodoso:creatively(Gen2:19),productively(Gen1:28),andresponsibly(Gen2:15).
Thislast—wheremanwasinstructedto‘takecareofit’—isthestewardshipprinciple.
‘Efficiency,entrepreneurship,andself-help’mustbeinterpretedandappliedinawaythat
embodiesthismandateto‘takecare’ofGod’screation,boththenaturalworldandthe
humanworld.
Now,whatitmeansto‘takecare’oftheworldanditspeople—aswecreateandseektobe
efficient—willhavearichvarietyofexpressions.Therecanbelittledoubt,however,thatit
willcertainlyimpactandmodifywhat,forinstance,‘efficiency’means.Onecannotbe
‘ruthlesslyefficient’whilesimultaneously‘takingcare’ofpeople.Beingastewardwillentail
empathyandkindnessinourdealingswithpeople,becausewearemeantto‘takecare’of
them.Itdoesnot,ofcourse,meanthathardchoicesthatnegativelyimpactpeoplecan
alwaysbeavoided;itsimplymeansthesewillnotbetakenwithoutseriouslyconsidering
theirimpactonpeople.Itwas,perhaps,thelackofthisstewardshipprinciplebyallparties,
indigenousandforeign,thatwasatissueintheHawaiistorypresentedbelow.
4.2Question2:Developingbusinesscross-culturallycanbeculturallydangerous—howdowelimitthedanger?
Hawaiiwasanationwhichafternearly600yearsofisolation(fromitsownTahitianroots)
leapedfromitsstone-agestage,when‘discovered’byEngland’sCaptainCookin1778,into
ever-increasingeconomicdevelopment.Whilethereweremanybenefits,wewillseebelow
thatitwaslargelythroughtheunsuccessfulintegrationofglobalbusinesspracticesintothe
indigenousHawaiianculturethatHawaii’speopleeventuallylosttheirsovereigntybythe
latenineteenthcentury.
23
Ofcourse,Hawaiiasa‘type’issomewhatraretodayinourglobalizedworld.Thatis,in1778
itwasstillanisolated,stone-ageculturewithoutwriting,withoutmoney,andwithouteven
verydevelopedinternalmarkets.Nevertheless,Hawaii’scasecanbeusefulinpresenting
moresharplytherealityofculturaldifferencesandtheirchallengethatbusinessthatseeks
tobless.CouldHawaii’stroubleshavebeenavoided,and,ifso,how?
(a)TheHawaiicasestudy,1778–1893/1898Thestoryofnineteenth-centuryHawaiiisparticularlyrelevanttogospelpeoplekeento
engagein‘wealthcreationforholistictransformation’.ThisispreciselywhattheNew
Englandmissionariessetouttodo—withlargesuccessesandlargefailures—whenthey
cametoHawaiiin1820.Whatwentrightandwhatwentwrongandwhy?
(1) SuccessesandfailuresAmongstthepositives,especiallyafterthemissionaries’arrivalin1820
40:
• Christianitybecamedeeplyrootedwithinthenation—withmanyhealthychurches
establishedandHawaiisendingoutitsownmissionariesintoPolynesiaalreadyby
1853(JamesKekalaswasthefirst,senttotheMarquesas).
• Literacybecamenearuniversal,Hawaiihavingby‘thesecondhalfofthe
nineteenthcentury...ahigherliteracyratethantheUnitedStates’!41
• Tradeandbusinessintroducedincreasingprosperityforbothcommoners42
(patchily)andchiefs(mightily,atleastforthefirstdecades43)whilepolitical
development(enablingHawaiitoretainitsindependencefromcolonizingWestern
powersinthePacific)sawpoliticalrightsextendedeventothecommoners.Hawaii
exercisedavibrantiftroubleddemocracyrightuptothe1890s.
Amongstthenegatives:
• Theindigenouspopulationplummetedalarmingly.
• Thelandreformof1848didnotextendlandownershiptomostcommoners.
• Businessdevelopment,especiallyafter1860,begantoexacerbatenational
tensions,insteadofhealingthem.
• Hawaiianslosttheirpoliticalsovereigntyin1893,largelyduetotheclashbetweenthepoliticalleadershipandthebusinessinterests.
Here,then,isboththegloryandtheshame.
(2) FourdifferentelementsTobetterunderstandtheHawaiistory—whatwentrightandwhatwentwrong—one
needstokeepinmind:a)fourdifferentelements,b)threeparticularsourcesof
dangers,andc)theinternaltensionsatwork.First,then,thefourdifferentelements
toconsider:
1.Thefourdifferentpartiesinvolved:TherulingHawaiians(kingandali’i[chiefs]),
thecommoners,themissionaries,andtheoutsidebusinessparties;eachhad
differinginterestsandneeds,sometimesworkingharmoniously,sometimesatwar
withoneanother.ThesedifferentpartiesneedtobekeptfirmlyinviewifHawaii’s
24
struggleistobeunderstood.Notonlydidthesedifferentpartiessetupconflicts
betweenethnicHawaiiansandforeigners,butequallysetupconflictsbetweenthe
Hawaiiansthemselves.
2.Hawaii’stwoverydifferenteras:themissionaryerafrom1820toroughly1855,
followedbythepost-missionaryerawithverydifferentdrivers.Inthemissionaryera,
theindigenouspopulation’sbestinterestswereapredominatedriver;inthepost-
missionaryeratheirinterestsweresimplyoneofseveralvariouslyweightedfactors.
3.Thewants,needs,andabilitiesofeachofthefourdifferentpartiesdrovewhat
happened.Theseneedidentifyingandweighing.Itisthesewants,needs,and
abilities—sodifferentforeachoftheparties—whichsetuptheboilingtensions
whicheventuallyboiledoverintotheultimatelytragicdevelopmentsofthe
overthrowofQueenLiliuokalaniin1893andHawaii’sannexationin1898.
4.Lastly,thewildcardofindividualpersonalities:differentpeoplewithdifferent
reactionscouldwellhaveresultedindifferentoutcomesforHawaii.Nothingwas
fixedinexorably.Differentpeoplemanageproblemsdifferently.
(3) ThreesourcesofdangerPeoplearecentraltothisnarrative,abletobothhelpandendanger.Astothe
dangers,threeproblemareasemergedinHawaii’sstory.
1.Thecross-culture(foreign)businessagentscouldnotorwouldnotwaitforthe
culturetochangeandabsorbbusinesspractices.Theverysurvivaloftheirown
economicendeavorshunginthebalanceandtheyhadnottheluxuryoftime.So,for
instance,ifplantationworkdidnotattracttheHawaiians,thentheyimportedthe
ChineseandJapanese.Increasingly,theywentintoconflictmodewiththelocal
culture.
2.Thereceivingculture’selite—economicandpolitical—couldnotorwouldnot
masterthebusinessculture/institutions.Afterthelanddivisionof1848,theali’i
(rulingchiefs)increasinglysoldmoreandmoreoftheirlandstotheHaole
(foreigners),therebylosingcontrolofit.Thissplitpoliticalcontrol(stilllargelyin
Hawaiianhands)44fromeconomiccontrol:abreedinggroundforconflict.
3.Thereceivingculture’scommonerscouldnotorwouldnotmastertheeconomic
practicesnecessaryforsuccess,andthereforedidnotsucceedeconomically.Again,
thiswasabreedinggroundforconflict.
(4) InternaltensionsTherewerebothexternalpressures(thecomingoftheforeigners)andinternal
pressurescontributingtoHawaii’sdownfall.Theseinternalpressures—whatKirch
andSahlinscall‘thecontributionoftheHawaiiansystemtoitsowndemise’45—were
thefollowing:
• Lackofexposuretotheinternationalcapitalsystem
• Populationdecline46• Familyimplosion
47
25
• Afalteringnobilityunabletomakeproductivetheirlands,andincreasingly
alienatingthecommoners48
• A‘productionforuse’workethicwhichundercutHawaiians’successinentrepreneurialbusinessventures
49
Itwastheseinternaltensionsthat,incombinationwiththepost-missionaryera
characteristics—anerainwhichforeignbusinessmenwerelesswillingandable(astheir
businessesoftenfailed),toforegobusinesssuccessforthesakeofopeningparticipationto
indigenousHawaiians—andincombinationwithHawaiians’owndemandsforthebenefits
ofbusiness,thatthenresultedinthecombustibleoutcomeofthe1890s.Thisvolatilebrew,
withbusinessatitsheart,blewupintorevolutionin1893andannexationbytheUnited
Statesin1898.
ThesuccessesandfailuresofholisticmissionhopesinHawaiiremindusthatthereareno
patsolutionswhenitcomestointroducingwealthcreationpractices.Goodintentionsare
notenough.Eachculturehasitsownuniquechallengesand,hence,itsuniquesolutions.We
cannotsimplyassumeourbackgroundsandtraining,nomatterhowrich,equipustomaster
thecross-culturalchallengebeforeus.Realityiscomplex,andwemustprayforwisdom,
listeningbothtoGod,whograntswisdomliberally,andtopeople—especiallypeoplewho
understandthecultureinwhichwearebringingwealthcreationpractices.
(b)Note:PaulPolak...leapcomplexities/justdoit!DavidBronkema,realizingthecomplexityofintroducingbusinesscross-culturally,
disparages,inChristianMissionandEconomicSystems,simplebusinesssolutionsas‘the
economizationofsocialjustice’50—toosimplebyhalf,hesays.Hearguesinsteadforpolitical
advocacy.Atthesametime,hecannothelpbutexpresshisgrudgingrespectforagriculturist
‘povertyfighter’PaulPolak’ssimplebusinessapproach,writing
Nevertheless,this‘business’approachisimportanttoexplore,sincethematerial
impactcanbesignificant.OneneedlooknofurtherthanPaulPolakandhis
InternationalDevelopmentEnterprise,inexistencesince1981,andtheirstrategyof
jumpingoverthecomplexityoftheproblemscausingpovertytofocussimplyon
helpingsmallfarmersmakemoremoneyofftheirfarms.Theimprovementsin
appropriatetechnologyandmarketingofproductsthattheysupportincrease
income,whichbyitselfcanleadtomoreopportunitiesforthefarmersandtheir
families.51
PaulPolakclaimstohave‘effectivelyendedthepovertyof17milliondollar-a-dayrural
people’52throughsimplebusinesssolutionswhichhelpedtheruralpoorhelpthemselves.
Polakrejectswhathecallsthe‘threegreatpovertyeradicationmyths’that,first,‘wecan
donatepeopleoutofpoverty’,secondthat‘urban-centeredindustrialgrowth’andnational
GDPwillsolveruralpoverty,and,third,that‘bigbusinesswillendpoverty.’53Doingthelittle
things,gettinginvolvedon-the-grounddirectlywiththelocals,andhelpingthemthenturna
profitiswhatheisallabout.
26
Isthis,then,perhapsawaytobypasstheproblemsofmacro-culturalrisksseenintheHawaii
scenario?
4.3 Question3:Businesssuccess—isitskeycultureorisitlegal-politicalstructures?Questionsoneandtwoofthissectionaddressedthequestionofthecultural
appropriatenessofcertainbusinessvaluesandpractices.Questionthreeherestepsback
andaskswhichismoreimportantforshapingaculture’seconomicprogress—itscultural
values/practicesoritspolitical/economicstructuresandpolicies?
Thisquestionhasbeenthesubjectofaveryactivedebateinthescholarlyworld.Two
advocatesofbusinesssolutionshavecomeupwithverydifferentanswers:forLawrence
Harrison,formerUSAIDdirectorinLatinAmericaanddirectorofTuftUniversity’sCultural
ChangeUnit,itcomesdownto‘culture’;whereasforPeruvianeconomistHernandodeSoto
itcomesdownto‘legalstructures’.54Outerstructuresorinnervalues?Perhapsitisalittle
likesaying:‘Whichismoreimportant—theskeletonorthebody’ssoftorgans?And,whatis
moreimportantfortheomelet—theeggsorthepan?’Onecannotchoose;bothare
important.Alongtheselines,Harrison,co-laboringwithSamuelHuntington(ofTheClashof
Civilizationsprominence)noted:
PerhapsthewisestwordsontheplaceofcultureinhumanaffairsarethoseofDaniel
PatrickMoynihan:‘Thecentralconservativetruthisthatitisculture,notpolitics,that
determinesthesuccessofasociety.Thecentralliberaltruthisthatpoliticscan
changeacultureandsaveitfromitself.’...Thekeyissuethusiswhetherpolitical
leadershipcansubstitutefordisasterinstimulatingculturalchange.Thatpolitical
leadershipcanaccomplishthisinsomecircumstancesisexemplifiedinSingapore.55
Theseseemsagewords,andaretheapproachadoptedbythispaper.
5.0SomeWaysForward
Thematerialabovesetsthebig-picturecontextforhowChristiansshouldthinkbiblically
aboutwealthcreationinrelationtoculture.Thisnextsectionbuildsonthisfoundationby
suggestingmorespecificattitudesandattributesweneedaswemovefromthinkingabout
cross-culturalwealthcreationtoactuallyengaginginit.Thisdemandswisdom.Christians
believeGodisthesourceofallwisdom,andthatwecanaccesshiswisdomthroughhis
Word,hisSpirit,andthroughthewisdomhehasimpartedtoothers.LookingtohisWord—
andtopractitionerswhohavesoughttoapplythisWord—severalitemsemergevery
strongly.
5.1KingdomValuesTrumpMereCulturalValuesAlltheparticipantsandallthecasestudiesusedinthispapershowaverystrongadherence
tothesupremacyofKingdomvaluesoverculture.Biblicalwealthcreationdemanded,even
inchallengingcross-culturalsituations,thatwheneveraculturalvaluecameintoconflict
27
withaculturalnorm,thentheculturalnormmustbow.Biblicalvaluesweretranscendent
anduniversal.
Unsurprisingly,empiricalresearchbysecularsourceshasechoedthisinsistenceonthe
realityofuniversalvalues.RushworthKidder’sresearchwiththeInstituteforGlobalEthics,
forinstance,showsfivecorevaluesshareduniversally:honesty(ortruthorintegrity),
responsibility,respect,fairness,andcompassion.56
Amongstthepractitionersweinterviewed,57themostcommonlynotedbiblicalvalues
relevanttothetaskofwealthcreationwerethefollowing:
(a)IntegrityTheissueof‘corruption’isfrequentlymentionedasachiefconcern.Itsrealitywasclear,and
numerousbusinessleadersexpressedtheirdeterminationtofightit,evenatthecostof
significantlyendangeringtheofficialpermissionsnecessaryfortheirprojects.Encouragingly,
despitetherisks,therewerenumeroustestimoniesoftheeventualsuccessofthesesame
projects.Moreover,theirstanceforintegrityearnedthemtheaddedadvantageofthegood
reputation,bothfortheirbusinessesandtheGodtheyrepresented.
(b)HardworkHardworkwasequallycitedasabiblicalvaluekeytosuccessfulwealthcreation.Asone
cross-culturalstart-upentrepreneurputit:
AkeyfindinghasbeenthatChristianemployeeseitherreallyexcelandworkhardor
theydonotfitwiththecompanyworkethicandexpectations.Thesolutionhasbeen
tointroduceatrialperiodfornewworkersthatistakenseriously.Inthepastthey
haveneededtofiremanyworkers,particularlywhohavecomefromministry
backgrounds,becausetheirworkethicandprofessionalgrowthdidnotmeet
companystandards.58
Itisashametohearthatsomefrom‘ministrybackgrounds’donotalwayshaveagoodwork
ethic,despitebiblicaladmonitionslike,‘Alittlesleep,alittleslumber,alittlefoldingofthe
handstorest—andpovertywillcomeonyoulikeathiefandscarcitylikeanarmedman’
(Prov24:33).
(c)ProfitItalmostgoeswithoutsayinginthecontextof‘wealthcreation’thatmakinga‘profit’isa
biblicalvalue.Itisbothnecessaryandlegitimate.Profitisnotadirtyword.Profitisthe
surplusremainingafterthetotalcostsaredeductedfromtotalrevenue.59Profithastodo
with‘surplus’—thatwhichisoverandaboveourbareconsumptionneeds—andwithout
surplusthereisnothingavailableforfutureinvestment.Itisthe‘seed’whichcanbesowed,
ratherthanconsumed(see2Cor9:10-1160).Itisthissurplus,thisincreasedreturnoninitial
investment,whichChristapplaudedwitha‘welldone’whenseeingonewhoseapproach
was,‘Master,youdeliveredtomefivetalents;hereIhavemadefivetalentsmore’(Matt
25:20).
28
Withoutaprofitthereisnowealth,andwithoutwealththereisnocounteractingpoverty.
Energeticeffortstorollbackpovertyentailtheequallyenergeticembraceoftheprofit
motive.
(d)RelationshipsBiblicalwealthcreationnotonlyprioritizesprofit;equally,itprioritizesrelationships.Biblical
wealthcreationhasmultiplebottomlines;itsonlyconcernisnotmoney.Numerouscase
studiesevincedthisrelationalcomponentthroughtheirconcernfor‘servantleadership’,for
‘employeeempowermentanddevelopment’,forteam-building,forbuildinga‘flat’
organizationthatgaveemployeeseasieraccesstotopleadership.‘Wedonotwanttomake
robotsbutlife-longfriends,’saidoneentrepreneur.
Atthesametime,thiscombiningofthepriorityofprofitwithapriorityonrelationships
provedtobeoneofthemostdifficultchallenges—specificallywhenitcametothepointof
needingtofiresomeone.Strikingly,thischallenge,wasnotbasicallyacross-culturalissue;
ratheritwasabasichumanissue.Itprovednoeasierforacaringandconscientiousbossto
fireanemployeeinhisownculturethanitwasfiringsomeonecross-culturally.Thecross-
culturalsituationaddedafewmorelayersofcomplexity,butthebasichumanpainand
strugglewasthesame.
Itisapainthatcannotbeavoided.Businessleadershavebeenentrustedwiththewell-being
ofanorganizationandthelivelihoodoftheemployeeswhodependonthesurvivalofthat
organization.Theycannot,then,avoidthedifficultdecisionofdismissingemployeeswhodo
notfitthedemandsofthatorganizationandevenendangeritswell-being.
Whilemanyspeakofsomeculturesbeing‘task-oriented’andothers‘relationship-
oriented’,61biblicalwealthcreatorsmusthavebothgoalsinview.Godisboth.Wealth
creationhasataskinview;itistheretotakeGod’smaterialworldinorder,andmakeit
produce—allinlinewithGod’soriginalcommandto,‘Befruitfulandincreaseinnumber;fill
theearthandsubdueit.Ruleover...everylivingcreaturethatmovesontheground....
TheLordGodtookthemanandputhimintheGardenofEdentoworkitandtakecareofit’
(Gen1:28;2:15).Butthepointofthismaterialworldistoservepeople,andthe
relationshipstheyengagein.Neithercanbeforgotten.
(e)CulturalchangeImplicitinsomeofthepointsabove,isthatculturesdonotremainfrozen;theyneedto
changeandgrowevenasindividualsdo.WhattheBiblesaysaboutindividuals—‘Donotbe
conformedtotheworld,butbetransformedbytherenewalofyourmind’(Rom12:2)—also
appliestowholecultures.ChangingthewaywethinkisamustforChristians.Itis
unavoidable,anditisdemanded.Wemustnotbeafraid,then,ofchallengingculturalnorms.
Thisistruegenerally,butitisalsotruewhenitcomestothevaluesandattitudesrequired
forwealthcreation.Changecomesatmanylevels:sometimesatthesimpler,narrowerlevel
ofmeretechniques.Onedevelopmentspecialist—himselfaFilipino—inthePhilippines
29
helpinglocalfarmerstoimprovetheircashcropsandaccesstomarketsinsistedthey‘hadto
changeandlearnmoderntechniques’.Traditionsneedtoberespected,butwhenthey
becomeironfetterspreventinghumandevelopment,theyneedtobeoverthrown.Bruce
Olson’sagriculturalandmedicaladvanceswiththestone-ageMotilonesstory(seeearlierin
thisarticle)illustratedhowthiscouldbedonewithoutdestroyingthecultureitself.Without
changethereisnoprogress.
Sometimestheneedforculturalchangecomesatafardeeper,rootworldviewlevelthan
merelytheleveloftechniques.So,forinstance,severalcasestudiesinthePhilippinesand
Cambodiaremarkonthenecessityofoverthrowingthe‘fatalism’entrenchedinaculture.
‘Povertyisinthemind’onedevelopmentexpertnoted.Anotherentrepreneur,reflectingon
hisyearsinBuddhistCambodia,observedthatthepeopletheretendedtobeextremely
creativeandentrepreneurialatthelevelof‘survival’.Thatiswhereitstoppedhowever.Any
hopeorplansforeconomicbettermentbeyondmeresurvivalwerevirtuallynon-existent.
Therecouldbemanyreasonsforthis:aBuddhisticfatalism,Cambodia’srecentandhorrific
internalwars,along-standinginequalitybuiltintosocietysuchthat‘ordinarypeople...felt
theyshouldnothaveaspirationsbeyondtheirrank.’62
Whateverthecause,itseemedclearthatliberationfromthis‘thrivingversusmeresurviving’
mentalitycamefarmorereadilywhentheirfatalisticworldviewwasshakenandreversedby
aChristianworldviewrootedina)acreativeGodwhoruledboththenaturaland
supernaturalworld,b)anall-powerfulGodwholovedthempersonally,andc)aGodwho
hadapersonalplanfortheirlifewhichhewasactivelyimplementingincooperationwith
eachbeliever.Preachingthegospelisapracticaltoolforempoweringnations!
5.2CultureComplicates/EnrichesTheseValuesTheattributeslistedaboveapplytoeveryculture.However,thewaytheyworkoutcanbe
quitedifferentindifferentcultures.Culturebothenrichesandcomplicatestheseuniversal
values;howtheyexpressthemselvescanbedifferentindifferentcultures.Wealthcreators
needtobesensitivetothis.
(a)IntegrityandguanxiForinstance,balancingtherelationship-with-integrityvaluescanlookquitedifferentina
WesterncontextthaninaChinesecontextwhereguanxi(roughlytranslated‘relationships’)
issocentral.Guanxiisalmostuniversallyconsideredavitalcomponentofbusiness
relationshipsinChina.63ButgiventhatGuanxifunctionsbytheinterchangeof‘smallfavors
backandforth,leadingtolargerfavors’,64itcanbeperplexingtocombinethisculturalvalue
withthedemandforintegrity—understoodintheWesttobethesideliningofaffective
relationshipsforthesakeofimpersonal,objectivetaskevaluations.SoNoraHughes,when
workingwithIntelinChinawiththeirstandardof‘zerotoleranceforcorruption’,taught
theirsitemanagersthat‘nothingcouldbereceivedfromavendor,notevenamooncake’.
Soundslikeahigh-mindedinsistenceonintegrity,butitsoutworkingwasdifferent:
30
Ifmydriver’smotherbakedmemooncakesattheAutumnfestivalIcouldnotaccept
thembecausetherewasazerotoleranceforbriberyandthedriverwasavendor.
ButfromtheChinesepointofview,Iwasrude.65
Rude!ThisinterpretationofintegrityrandirectlycountertotheChineseunderstandingof
goodrelationshipsandtranslatedintoadisrespectingofpersons.Nowthatdoesnotsound
veryChristian.
(b)RelationalandtaskinterweavingAndwhilebiblicalwealthcreationwillstressbothtaskandrelationships,thewaytheywill
workoutcanbequitedifferent.WeareremindedofthiswhenSeniorAffiliateProfessorErin
Meyerillustratesthefamiliardistinctionbetweentask-basedandrelational-basedcultures
withacasestudyfromintervieweeReninChina:
InRen’sculture,personaltrustfundamentallyshiftsthewaythetwopartiesconduct
business.Bycontrast,Americanmanagersmakeaconcertedefforttoensurethat
personalrelationshipsdonotcloudthewaytheyapproachbusinessinteractions—in
fact,theyoftendeliberatelyrestrictaffectiveclosenesswithpeopletheydependon
foreconomicresources,suchasbudgetingorfinancing.Afterall,incountrieslikethe
UnitedStatesorSwitzerland,‘businessisbusiness’.IncountrieslikeChinaorBrazil,
‘businessispersonal’.66
(c)OldandnewwithinthesamecultureAfurthercomplexitytoculture’simpactisthatitisalwayschanging.Moreover,withinthe
sameculturecanbedifferingvaluesaccordingtoone’srural-urbanidentityorone’sage
group,andallthesechangingatdifferentrates.NoraHughes’experienceinChinalargely
echoedtheresearchofShuangLiu,totheeffectthat:
LiuexaminedtwoStateOwnedEnterprises(SOEs)andfoundthattherewere
generationaldifferencesbetweenthosewhohadbelongedtotheSOEpriortothe
reformsandthosewhojoinedafterthereformsbegan(S.Liu,2003).Sheexamined
thethemesofhierarchy,familyandequalityandfoundtheywerethesameinboth
generations.However,Bureaucracy,harmony,security,loyaltyandstabilitywere
different.Forthemostparttheyoungergroupfoundbureaucracyawasteoftime,
valuedhigherperformanceratherthanharmony,trustedmoreintheirownabilityin
themarketplacethantheSOEsecuritysystem,waslessloyaltotheSOE,andfeltthat
changewasgood.67
(d)Global/localtogetherWithinchangingculturesoneseestheinterweavingoftheglobalandthelocal.Recentlywe
hadaconversationwithamissionleadertellingusofhisSamoancolleagueraisinghisfamily
intheUnitedStates.ThisSamoanhadbeencontactedbyhistribaleldersbackinSamoa
uponthedeathoftheirchief,askinghimtotakeupthechieftainshipofthetribe.Heagreed,
butononecondition:thathebeabletoremainintheUnitedStates.Thetribeagreed.
Today,theinterweavingofthelocalwiththeglobalisafact.Themodernismixingwiththe
31
traditional,theWestwiththeEastandtheNorthwiththeSouth.Introducingculturalchange
isareality,abenefit,andachallenge.“Culturalpurity”isnolongerthegoldstandarditused
tobeforsomanyanthropologists.
(e)ThreesensitiveissuesButthismixingofculturescommonlyinvolvesthreesensitiveissues:
• communication:directversusindirect
• identity:groupversusindividual• leadership:hierarchicalversusinformal
Someculturesarecomfortablewithextremelydirecttalkaboutweaknesses,failuresand
performancethatneedstochange,interruptionsareaccepted,disagreementsare
welcomed;otherculturesapproachthesesubjectsonlyslowlyandinferentially.Some
researchersidentifythesepreferencecharacteristicofan‘information-oriented’culture
(wherethefocusisonthenon-relationalfactspertinenttoatask)incontrasttoa
‘relationship-oriented’culture(wherewhoisrelatedtowhominwhatwayisakeyfactorin
communicationstyles).68Clearly,thiscontrasthaslargeimplicationsforthecommunications
sonecessarytowealthcreation—negotiationsconductedbetweenbusinessaswellinternal
communicationswithinabusiness.
Aculture’sindividualisticversuscollectivistorientationisalsorelevant:
‘Individualism...pertainstosocietiesinwhichthetiesbetweenindividualsare
loose:everyoneisexpectedtolookafterhimselforherselfandhisorherimmediate
family.’(Hofstede,1991).Itsoppositeiscollectivism,wheregroupmembershipand
cooperationareparamount.69
Hofstedeexplains:
Inacollectivistculture,anemployerneverhiresjustanindividual,butrathera
personwhobelongstoanin-group.Theemployeewillactaccordingtotheinterest
ofthisin-group,whichmaynotalwayscoincidewithhisorherindividualinterest....
Thehiringprocessinacollectivistsocietyalwaystakesthein-groupintoaccount.
Usually,preferenceisgiventohiringrelatives,firstofalloftheemployer.70
ThisstancehelpsexplainoneincidentNoraHughesinitiallyfoundpuzzlingwhilewithIntelin
China:
IhadhiredaFilipinawomanintheODdepartmentandhadtheopportunitytohire
another,whomIknewwasqualified.TheChinesewerenothappywiththatprospect
becausetheyfeltwewouldendupwiththeFilipinosstickingtogethertothe
Chinese’downfall,astheHRmanagerwasalsoaFilipina.71
32
Innavigatingthisrelationalminefield,NoraHugheshadtobalanceseverallegitimatevalues:
thetask-effectivenessforIntelasanorganization,relationshipswithherChineseworkers,
andrespectnotonlyfortherelationshipswithbutthegiftingofherFilipinajob-applicants.
Thehierarchicalversusformalnatureofaculture’sleadershipexpectationsarealso
relevant.Hofstedeexplains:
Insmall-power-distancecountries,thereislimiteddependenceofsubordinateson
bosses,andthereisapreferenceforconsultation....Theemotionaldistance
betweenthemisrelativelysmall:subordinateswillrathereasilyapproachand
contradicttheirbosses....Inlarge-power-distancecountries,thereisconsiderable
dependenceofsubordinatesonbosses....Inthesecasestheemotionaldistance...
islarge;subordinatesareunlikelytoapproachandcontradicttheirbossesdirectly.72
Thisclearlyimpactshowonedoesemployeeworkreviews:thefearfactoronthepartofthe
employeecouldbecripplingifnotapproachedcorrectly.Italsoimpactstheextentandway
onetriestomovetowarda‘flatorganization’.
Culture,then,doesnotnegatetheuniversalityofbiblicalstandards,butitdoesaffecthow
theyareimplemented.
5.3FindingaLocalMentor
Infindingourwayforwardthroughthisculturemaze,findingtherightmentorisatreasure.
Weoftenneedsomeonewhoknowstheculturalsensitivitiesandisalerttocommunication
signalstowhichwe,asforeigners,maybedeaf.Wemustacknowledgeourneedforhelp
here.Humilityandlisteningtoothersareourbestwayforward:‘Thewayoffoolsseems
righttothem,butthewiselistentoadvice’(Prov12:5).
Godhasrichlysupplieduswithsourcesofwisdom,ifwewillbutlisten.InMatthew23:34we
read:‘ThereforeIamsendingyouprophetsandwisemenandteachers.’Similarly,inEzekiel
7:26itiswritten,‘Theywilltrytogetavisionfromtheprophet;theteachingofthelawby
thepriestwillbelost,aswillthecounseloftheelders.’Bothpassagessummarizethe
differentwaysGodguidesus:1)theprophet’svision(Spiritthefocus),2)thepriest’s
teaching(God’sWordthefocus),and3)elders’counsel(common-senseexperiencethe
focus).Ifwewilllistentoallofthese,wewillbemuchbetterequippedtotacklethecultural
challengesinvolvedinaddressingoneofthemanypurposesofGod’sheart:wealthcreation
fortheholistictransformationofpeoplesandnations.
33
Appendix
ConsultationonWealthCreation(CWC):BackgroundandContextTheCWCwasnotjustanevent.TheConsultationheldinThailand,inMarch2017,wasapart
ofaconsultativeprocess,whichinturnispartofbroader,longer,andon-going
conversationsrelatedtoissueslikethechurch,business,poverty,wealthcreation,and
missions.
Therefore,itisimportanttounderstandthebackgroundandcontextofeachCWCreport.
Theyareimportantpiecesofabiggerpuzzle.Tounderstandthepicturethatisemerging,as
weputthepiecestogether,oneneedstoseesomeoftheotherkeypieces.
TheCWCisyetanotheroutcomeofthehistoriccommitmentsadoptedintheLausanne
Covenantof1974.Here,whilecommittingthemselvestotheimportanceofevangelism,
evangelicalsalsoexpressedrepentancefor‘havingsometimesregardedevangelismand
socialconcernasmutuallyexclusive’.Wealthcreationfortheeconomicbettermentofour
worldisoneofthoseneglectedsocialconcerns;anditisthisthattheCWCaddresses.
AllCWCparticipantswerepresentedwithalistofrequiredreading.Thesereadingsall
relatedtotheCWCassignmentofexploringtheRoleofWealthCreationinHolistic
TransformationofPeopleandSocieties.
TheCWCwaspartlyafollowupoftheLausanneGlobalConsultationonProsperityTheology,
PovertyandtheGospelheldinApril2014.Thus,allneededtobefamiliarwiththeAtibaiaStatement:https://www.lausanne.org/content/statement/atibaia-statement(more
informationbelow).
TheLausanneGlobalConsultationonWealthCreationwasincollaborationwithBAMGlobal,andthussomeofitsworkandreportswereincludedintherequiredreading.
‘WhyBotherwithBusinessasMission’,byMatsTunehaghttp://matstunehag.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Why-Bother-with-Business-as-
Mission-v-18-April-2017.pdf
TheexecutivesummariesofthreeBAMThinkTankReports
• BiblicalFoundationsforBusinessasMission
http://bamglobal.org/report-biblical/
• BusinessasMissionandtheendofPoverty
http://bamglobal.org/report-bop/
• BusinessasMissioninHaiti
http://bamglobal.org/report-haiti/
34
CWCislinkedwiththreeotherglobalconsultationsthatdealtwithsimilarissues,held2004,
2009,and2014.
TheLausanneBAMIssueGroup
ThefirstBAMGlobalThinkTankwasheldundertheauspicesofLausanne.TheBusinessas
MissionIssueGroupworkedforayear,addressingissuesrelatingtoGod’spurposesforwork
andbusiness,theroleofbusinesspeopleinchurchandmissions,theneedsoftheworldand
thepotentialresponseofbusiness.ItsummarizeditsfindingsintheBAMManifesto(2004).Hereareafewexcerpts,toillustrateagrowingconsensusamongleadersthatwealth
creatorsarecalledbyGodtoserveinbusiness.
• WebelievethatGodhascreatedallmenandwomeninHisimagewiththeabilityto
becreative,creatinggoodthingsforthemselvesandforothers—thisincludes
business.
• WebelieveinfollowinginthefootstepsofJesus,whoconstantlyandconsistentlymet
theneedsofthepeopleheencountered,thusdemonstratingtheloveofGodandthe
ruleofHiskingdom.
• WebelievethattheHolySpiritempowersallmembersoftheBodyofChristtoserve,tomeettherealspiritualandphysicalneedsofothers,demonstratingthekingdomof
God.
• WebelievethatGodhascalledandequippedbusinesspeopletomake
aKingdomdifferenceinandthroughtheirbusinesses.
• WebelievethattheGospelhasthepowertotransformindividuals,communitiesand
societies.Christiansinbusinessshouldthereforebeapartofthisholistic
transformationthroughbusiness.
• Werecognisethefactthatpovertyandunemploymentareoftenrampantinareas
wherethenameofJesusisrarelyheardandunderstood.
• Werecognisethatthereisaneedforjobcreationandformultiplicationof
businessesallovertheworld,aimingatthequadruplebottomline:spiritual,
economical,socialandenvironmentaltransformation.
• Werecognisethefactthatthechurchhasahugeandlargelyuntappedresourcein
theChristianbusinesscommunitytomeetneedsoftheworld—inandthrough
business—andbringglorytoGodinthemarketplaceandbeyond.
• SeealsoBAMManifesto:http://matstunehag.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/BAM-MANIFESTO-2.pdf.
WheatonConsultation
AglobalconsultationonBusinessasIntegralCallingwasheldinWheaton,IllinoisinOctober
2009.Itbroughttogetherleadersfromtherealmsofbusiness,non-profitorganizations,and
Christianministrywiththeologiansandacademicleadersinbusiness,economics,and
missions.ExcerptsfromtheDeclaration:
35
• Lamentations
• Welamentthatthechurchandbusinessitselfhaveundervaluedbusinessasavehicle
forlivingoutChrist’scalling,andhavereliedexcessivelyonnon-profitapproaches
thathaveresultedindependence,waste,andanunnecessarylossofhumandignity.
• CelebrationofFaithandHope
• WecelebratethegrowingmovementofpeopleseekingtobeusedbyGodandto
deploybusinesseconomicactivityforGod’sKingdom.
• Businesscancreatevalue,providethedignityofwork,andtransformcommunitiesby
improvinglivelihoods.
• BusinesscanbeanintegralcallingtoproclaimanddemonstratetheKingdomofGod
byhonoringGod,lovingpeople,andservingtheworld.
• Businesscanalsoprovideapowerfulopportunityforthetransformationofindividuals
toachievetheirfullpotentialforcreativityandproductivityandtoflourishand
experiencealifeofabundanceasenvisionedbytheKingdomofGod.
• BusinesscanbeusedtohelprestoreGod’screationfromitsdegradedstate.
• ItisourdeepconvictionthatbusinessesthatfunctioninalignmentwiththecorevaluesoftheKingdomofGodareplayingandincreasinglyshouldplayanimportantroleinholistictransformationofindividuals,communitiesandsocieties.
• SeealsoWheatonDeclaration:http://matstunehag.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Wheaton-Declaration.pdf.
AtibaiaConsultation
WealthcreationanddistributionwerediscussedaspartoftheLausanneGlobalConsultationonProsperityTheology,PovertyandtheGospelheldinAtibaia,Brazilin2014.Theconsultationaffirmedthatsharingwealthisgoodandbiblical,butwealthdistributionis
toooftenourmainresponsetomeetingpeoples’needs.Itidentifiedtheneedtoseek
increasinglytounderstandhowbusinessescanbringsolutionstoglobalissues,including
povertyandhumantrafficking.Thenotionofsimplicityasauniversalvaluewasalso
challenged,andneededtobeaddressedfurther.
TheAtibaiaStatementisquitelong,buthereareafewexcerptsrelatedtowealthcreation,businessandthepoor.
• Christiansarecallednotonlytogiveandsharegenerously,buttoworkforthe
alleviationofpoverty.Thisshouldincludeofferingalternative,ethicalways,forthe
creationofwealthandthemaintenanceofsocially-responsiblebusinessesthat
empowerthepoorandprovidematerialbenefit,andindividualandcommunal
dignity.Thismustalwaysbedonewiththeunderstandingthatallwealthandall
creationbelongfirstandforemosttoGod.
36
• Weacknowledgethat,intheglobalmarketeconomy,oneofthemosteffectivetools
fortheeliminationofpovertyiseconomicdevelopment,andyetevangelicalshave
oftenfailedtopromotevalue-drivenbusinesssolutionstopoverty.
• Howcanwemoreeffectivelyworkfortheestablishmentofcreative,ethical,and
sustainablebusinessendeavorsinthefightagainstpoverty?
• SeealsoAtibaiaStatement:https://www.lausanne.org/content/statement/atibaia-
statement.
37
Endnotes
1
Editor’sNote:IntheManifesto,‘Church’(withuppercase)and‘church’(withlowercase)areused
intentionally,theformerdenotingtheglobalChurchandthelatterthelocalchurch.
2
Otherpapersinthisseriesexplorethebiblicalrootsandmeaningofwealthcreation.Thispaperwillsimply
assumebothitslegitimacyandimportance.
3
DonRichardson,‘DoMissionariesDestroyCultures?’inR.D.WinterandS.C.Hawthorne(eds.),Perspectiveson
theWorldChristianMovement,3rd
ed.(Pasadena,CA:Wm.CareyLibrary1999),460-68.
4
GeertHofstede,GertJ.HofstedeandMichaelMinkov,CulturesandOrganizations:SoftwareoftheMind(New
York:McGrawHill,2010),5.AndseeR.WinterandS.Hawthorne,eds.,PerspectivesontheWorldChristian
Movement:aReader,RevisedEdition(Pasadena,CA:WilliamCareyLibrary,1992),C-163(citingtheWillowbank
Report).5
LawrenceHarrisonandSamuelHuntington,eds.,CultureMatters:HowValuesShapeHumanProgress(New
York:BasicBooks,2000),xiii-vi.
6
MarshallSahlins,ApologiestoThucydides:UnderstandingHistoryasCultureandViceVersa(Chicago:
UniversityofChicago,2004),116-21.
7
PeterBerger,TheCapitalistRevolution:FiftyPropositionsAboutProsperity,EqualityandLiberty(Aldershot,
Hants:WildwoodHouse,1987),7.
8
MissiologistAndrewWallsidentifiedthetensionbetweentheembraceofbothheavenandearthasthe
tensionbetweenthegospel’s‘indigenizingprinciple’andits‘pilgrimprinciple’.AndrewF.Walls,TheMissionary
MovementinChristianHistory:StudiesintheTransmissionofFaith(NewYork:Orbis,1996),7-9.9
JamesWilson,AMissionaryVoyage(London:T.Chapman,1799),3-4,xciii-iv.
10
HiramBingham,AResidenceofTwenty-OneYearsintheSandwichIslands:OftheCivil,Religious,andPolitical
HistoryofThoseIslands(Clarendon,VT:TuttlePublishing,2013),Kindleedition,loc.3719-20.11
Walls,MissionaryMovement,106.12
Manyofthebestmissionarieswereawareofthisdanger,andsoughttoavoidit.SoWilliamCareywroteto
hissonFelixwho,from1807,hadbeguntotransferhismissionfocusfromIndiatoBurma:‘Bemeekandgentle
amongthepeople.Cultivatetheutmostcordialitywiththemasyourequals.NeverletEuropeanprideand
superiorityappearattheMissionHouse,Rangoon.’BasilMiller,WilliamCarey:theFatherofModernMissions
(Minneapolis:Bethany,1980),107.
13
BrianStanley,TheBibleandtheFlag(Leicester:Apollos,1990),165-67.14
Walls,MissionaryMovement,110.15
Walls,MissionaryMovement,109.16
TimothyRichard,Forty-FiveYearsinChina:Reminiscences(NewYork:StokesCo.,1916)(ReprintedBiblioLife),
7.Ontherisingconflictbetweena‘churchmission’anda‘kingdomvision’duringthisseconderaofevangelical
missions,seeRalphD.Winter,‘ThreeMissionEras:AndtheLossandRecoveryofKingdomMission,1800–
2000’,inPerspectivesontheWorldChristianMovement:AReader,4th
ed.,ed.RalphD.WinterandStephenC.
Hawthorne(Pasadena,CA:Wm.CareyLibrary,2009),263-78.
17
RalphWinter,‘TheStoryofTwoVeryDifferentMissionariestoChina’,MissionFrontiers(Nov.-Dec.2008):12-
13.
18
BruceOlson,ForThisCrossI’llKillYou(CarolStream,IL:CreationHouse,1973),155.19
Hofstede,CulturesandOrganizations,25.20
MarshallSahlins,‘Hunter-Gatherers:Insightfromagoldenaffluentage’,PacificEcologist,Winter(2009):3-8,
3(thearticleisanabridgementfromhis1972bookStoneAgeEconomics).21
Sahlins2009:5.
22
AllquotationsabovetakenfromDavidKaplan,‘TheDarkerSideofthe‘OriginalAffluentSociety’,Journalof
AnthropologicalResearch,Vol.56,No.3(Autumn,2000):301-24,305-7,310,314:http://kk.org/mt-
files/reCCearch-mt/kaplan-darker.pdf.23
RalphKuykendall,TheHawaiianKingdom:1778-1854,FoundationandTransformation,vol.I.(Honolulu,
UniversityofHawaiiPressKuykendall,1938),179-81.
38
24
BruceOlson,BruchkoandtheMotiloneMiracle:HowBruceOlsonBroughtaStoneAgeTribeintothe21st
Century(LakeMary,FL.:CharismaHouse,2006),53.25
Olson,BruchkoandtheMotiloneMiracle,38,16-17.26
Olson,BruchkoandtheMotiloneMiracle,181-83.27
Kaplan,‘TheDarkerSideofthe“OriginalAffluentSociety”’,315-17.
28
DouglasWilson,‘WesternMission-establishedChurchesandMinistryinMali’sCollectivistEconomy’,inJohn
CheongandEloiseMeneses,eds.,ChristianMissionsandEconomicSystems:aCriticalSurveyoftheCultural
andReligiousDimensionsofEconomies(Pasadena,CA:WilliamCareyLibrary,2015),Kindleedition,loc.3048-
51(italicsadded).29
‘CrossroadsWorkinMali’,CrossroadsInternational,availableat:
https://www.cintl.org/sslpage.aspx?pid=296.EventhemoreoptimisticWorldBankarticleof2013pointsout
Mali’spoorperformancecomparedtotherestofAfrica:inMali,‘Accesstoserviceshasimprovedsubstantially
…butisstillwellbelowSub-SaharanAfricaaverages’,andeducationallyit‘remainedwellbelowAfrican
standards.’(R.Swinkel,‘PovertyinMaliinthe2000’saSuccessStory?’(May2013).Availableat:https://www.
researchgate.net/publication/265054447_POVERTY_IN_MALI_IN_THE_2000'S_A_SUCCESS_STORY.
30
Wilson,‘WesternMission’,loc.3054-57,citingMaranz,AfricanFriends,2.31
DavidMaranz,AfricanFriendsandEconomicMatters(Dallas:SILInternational,2001),2.32
NotallinourconsultationagreedthatthisIsaiahportionwasrelevant,suggestingitwasusedoutofcontext.
Thiswriter,however,judgedthatthoughitwasindeedusedforanotherpurposebyIsaiah,theuseinthis
paperisstillrelevantasthebaseprinciplestillstands,nomatterhowitisapplied:thata)economicreality
mustberecognizedandb)thatunderstandingtheseeconomicrealitiescancomefromGodhimself.
33
RobertAndolina,‘Thevaluesofwater:DevelopmentculturesandindigenousculturesinhighlandEcuador’,
inLatinAmericanResearchReview47,(2012)no.2:3-26,5-6,12.34
PatrickV.Kirch,ASharkGoingInlandisMyChief(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2012),125.35
JonathanK.Osorio,DismemberingLāhui:AHistoryoftheHawaiianNationto1887(Honolulu:Universityof
Hawai’iPress,2002),150.Ontheprimacyof‘birth-orderstatus’,seeKirch,ASharkGoingIndland,228-29.36
GeorgeKanahele,KūKanaka,StandTall:ASearchforHawaiianValues(Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,
1992),42-43.Kanahelenoted,‘Chiefswhoweredefeatedinbattle...couldlosetheirmanaandposition....
Thus,anunmistakableandruthlessefficiencyenteredintothewayHawaiiansofolddealtwiththeworldofthe
sacred.’Kanahele,KūKanaka,42-43.37
See‘Whatisentrepreneurship?’BusinessNewsDaily,url:http://www.businessnewsdaily.com/2642-
entrepreneurship.htmlandhttp://www.businessnewsdaily.com/7275-entrepreneurship-defined.html
38
Andolina,‘Thevaluesofwater’,16-17.
39
Seehttp://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/ecuador-diversity-migration.Thissitealsoexplains,‘Likemany
countriesinLatinAmerica,Ecuadorinthe1970sexperiencedeconomicgrowthandimprovedlivingconditions.
Butintheearly1980s,oilpricescollapsed,causingadebtcrisis,anincreaseininflation,andadramatic
decreaseinwages.Thecrisis,Ecuador'sfirstsince1960,wasparticularlyonerousonsubsistencefarmers,
thousandsofwhomoptedtoemigrateasaresult.’CentralAmericarevealsasimilarmigrationpattern.10%of
Guatemala’grossdomesticproductcomesfromthe$7.1billionannuallyremittedtoGuatemalabyitsmigrants
mostlylivingintheU.S.SeeMaryO’Grady,‘CentralAmericatoObama:GoodRiddance’,WallStreetJournal,
Jan.23,2017,url:http://www.wsj.com/articles/central-america-to-obama-good-riddance-1485122975.
40
EvenDr.Bushnell,nogreatfriendtothemissionaries,writesoftheircoming:‘AlreadythisShelteredHaven
[Honolulu]wasgainingareputationasthemostdebauchedplacebetweenCantonandValparaiso....
Hawaiiansneededhelp,iftheyweretosurvive….In1819,neitherinHawai’inorinanyotherpartofthegreat
world,nooneknew,orbothered,orcaredaboutthedyingoftheHawaiianpeople.Then,justintime,from
acrosstheseas,thehelperscame.’O.Bushnell,TheGiftsofCivilization:GermsandGenocideinHawaii
(Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,1993),264-5.
41
Kirch,ASharkGoingInland,17.42
See,forinstance,KirchandSahlinsonthe‘comingofthewhalersgavethe‘lower’socialsphereof
commonerexchangeaconsiderablestimulus.’PatrickKirchandMarshallSahlins,Anahulu:TheAnthropologyof
HistoryintheKingdomofHawaii,vol.1.(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1992),108.Seetoothe
observationoflong-servingmissionaryBondofKohalain1860,aftersteppinginattherequestofthe
governmentasalandsurveyortoensurethattheland,aftertheGreatMahele,fairlywenttothecommoners:
39
‘ForthefirsttenyearsofourMissionarylife,Iborethebruntofalltheirbattleswiththeirchiefishoppressors,
andtheywerelegion.Ineverforsookthemeanestofthemall,tillthebattleforfreedomhadbeenfoughtand
won....Thegrossoppressionslikewisepracticedbylandlordsuponthepeople,snatchingtheirfoodfromtheir
mouthsandseizingindiscriminatelyandalmostwithimpunityanythingandeverythingpossessedbythose
underthem,these...havegone.’EthelDamon,FatherBondofKohala:AChronicleofaPioneerLifeinHawaii
(Honolulu:TheFriend,1927),156,160.
43
KirchandSahlinsnotethatfromtheearly1850s,thechiefs’prosperitybegantobewipedout,eventhough
inthelandreform(theMahele)of1848‘thekingandthechiefswerethebigwinners’,while‘thecommoners
gotlessthanonepercent.’KirchandSahlins,Anahulu,9.TheHaolereceivednothing.44
ThisisnottodenytheHaole’spoliticalpower;notonlywereHaoleselectedtothelegislaturebutitwasthey
whomadeuptheking’scabinet.However,itwasthekinghimselfwhofreelychosehisadvisers,anddismissed
them.KingKamehamehaVflexedhispoliticalmuscleswhen,contrarytothewishesofmosthaole,hein1864
abolishedtheexistentmore-democraticconstitution,settinginitsplaceoneaccordinghimasmonarchfar
morepower.EvenDr.JonathanOsorio,whoarguesthatdespiteallappearancesthe‘realpower’waswiththe
haole,admits:‘Theking[KamehamehaV]in1864,though,wasquitepowerfulandthecabinet,including
Wyllie,wasdeferentialtohiswill....TheevidentinabilityoftheHawaiianizedhaoletodeterminetheoutcome
ofthe[constitutional]convention...reflectedtheiractualweaknessinconfrontingadeterminedandeffective
monarch...[possessing]thesupportandloyaltyofthekanaka[native-bornHawaiian]citizens.’Osorio,
DismemberingLāhui,129-30.45
KirchandSahlins,Anahulu,57-8.46
Thepopulationnotonlydeclined,itplummeted.Westerndiseasesintroduced—including,significantly,
venerealdisease—toaculturewithfewsexualinhibitions,(TheanthropologistMarshallSahlins,nofriendto
puritanicalmissionaries,commentsinhisIslandsofHistoryonthesexualizationofHawaiian,commentingon
their‘preoccupationwithsex’andnoting,‘Sexwaseverything:rank,power,wealth,land,andthesecurityof
allthese.’MarshallSahlins,IslandsofHistory(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1987),10,26)in
combinationwithHawaii’sfamilialstructureledtoadisastrousplummetingpopulation.Conservatively
reckoned,thepopulationofHawaiiwasc.300,000in1778,andbythetimeofitsfirstofficialcensusin1832,it
hadalreadyshrunkto130,313.OswaldBushnell,TheGiftsofCivilization:GermsandGenocideinHawaii
(Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,1993)266.By1853thisnumberhadfallenyetfurtherto171,015;by
1890thefigurewasamere37,656.SumnerLaCroixandJamesRoumasset,‘TheEvolutionofPrivateProperty
inNineteenth-CenturyHawaii’,TheJournalofEconomicHistory,vol.50,no.4(Dec.1990):829-52.47
Thecombinationofcustomaryrestrictionsonchildbearingandasuddenriseofthedeathratefrom
introduceddiseases...immediatelysetoffadownwardcycle....[D]elayedmarriageorpostponementof
settlingdown...wereamongawholepanoplyofcustomarypracticesthatinhibitedchildbearingandrearing,
includingabortion,infanticide,celibacy,andcontraception....[T]hefamilystructurefellinuponitself.’Kirch
andSahlins,Anahulu,200-03.48
KirchandSahlinswrite:‘Thechiefsystemwasdecadent,inaclassicway....[T]hechiefsfinallymanagedto
disaffectthecommonpeoplewhomtheyhadobligedtobearthecosts.Bythemid-1850s,thechiefswere
finishedasarulingclass.Theforcedlaborsystemfinallydidtheminbyempoweringaparasiticthrongof
konohiki[undermanagers],thusimpoverishingandalienatingtheproducingpeople….[T]herulingchiefs,their
wealthandauthoritythusundermined,couldnotthenwithstandtheHaole[whiteforeigners]....[L]ocal
chiefstriedtomakeagoofranching....Butthechiefsfounditevenmoreadvantageoustolease—orafterthe
Mahele,tosell—grazinglandstoHaole,whoweredevelopingherds,tenandtwentytimesthesizeofali’i
cattleholdings.’KirchandSahlins,Anahulu,112-14,134.49
KirchandSahlinsexplainthe‘productionforuse’mentalitybycitinganold-timerHawaiian’sobservationof
1871that,‘IfthenativeHawaiianissuppliedwithfoodandclothing,heissatisfied...theheavenisabove,the
earthisbelow....Thereisnoneedofseekingfurther.’Theyexplainthisas‘workingtoaclassicpatternof
productionforuse.’KirchandSahlins,Anahulu,29-30.Itwasnotlaziness—theunwillingnesstoputinthework
necessarytoreachone’saspirations—butratheranexpressionofsimplifiedandratcheteddownaspirations.
‘Productionforuse’aimsmerelyforsubsistenceneeds,incontrastto‘productionforexchange’,whichaimsfor
generationofsurplus(tobeusedtheninexchange).SeePaulRobbins,ed.,EncyclopediaofEnvironmentand
Society,s.v.‘Commodification’,(LosAngeles:SagePublications,2007).
40
50
DavidBronkema‘FlyingBlind?ChristianNGOsandPoliticalEconomy’,inJamesCheongandEloiseMeneses,
eds.,ChristianMissionandEconomicSystems(Pasadena:WilliamCareyLibrary,2015),Kindleedition,loc.
4423-24.
51
Bronkema,‘FlyingBlind?”,loc.4423-25.Emphasisadded.
52
PaulPolak,OutofPoverty:WhatWorksWhenTraditionalApproachesFail(SanFrancisco:Berrett-Koehler
Publishers,2008),21.
53
Polak,OutofPoverty,34-41.54
SeeLawrenceE.Harrison,UnderdevelopmentisaStateofMind:TheLatinAmericanCase(Boston:Madison
Books,1985),andseeHernanddeSoto,TheMysteryofCapital:WhyCapitalismTriumphsintheWestandFails
EverywhereElse(NewYork:BasicBooks,2000).55
SamuelP.Huntington,‘CulturesCount’,inCultureMatters:HowValuesShapeHumanProgress,eds.
LawrenceE.HarrisonandSamuelP.Huntington(NewYork:BasicBooks,2000),xiii-vi.
56
RushworthKidder,‘MoralCourage,DigitalDistrust:EthicsinaTroubledWorld,’CenterforBusinessEthics,
February7,2005,url:http://www.bentley.edu/sites/www.bentley.edu.centers/files/centers/cbe/kidder-
monograph.pdf.
57
Theinterviewandreview-of-case-studieswasrelevantbutnotwide-ranging.Thatisanumberofthe
practitioner-participantsinthe2017ChiangMaiconsultationwerepersonallyinterviewed.Additionally,
numerouscasestudiesintheBusinessasMissionnetworkwereread.
58
Thesourceofthisquoteiskeptdeliberatelyanonymous.
59
‘Profit–Definition.’BD–BusinessDictionary,http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/profit.html.
60
TheapostlePaulwriteshere,‘Nowhewhosuppliesseedtothesowerandbreadforfoodwillalsosupplyand
increaseyourstoreofseedandwillenlargetheharvestofyourrighteousness.’Implicitinthisverseisthe
assumptionthatthepurposeofGod’sprovisionofseedis‘surplus’;thatis,thattheharvestwhichhehas
blessedisnotalltobeconsumedasbreadbutsomeistobe‘extra’,reservedforfuturesowing.61
RichardGestland,Cross-CulturalBusinessBehavior,rev.ed.(Copenhagen:CopenhagenBusinessSchool
Press,2012).
62
Hofstede,CulturesandOrganizations,63.63
Languatics,‘WanttoCapitalizeonChina?YouBetterHaveGoodQuanxi.’Forbes,March15,2012,url:
https://www.forbes.com/sites/languatica/2012/03/15/want-to-capitalize-on-china-you-better-have-good-
guanxi/#77a258db53ca;AnthonyGohandMatthewSullivan,‘TheMostMisunderstoodConceptinChina,’
BusinessInsider,Feb.24,2011,url:http://www.businessinsider.com/the-most-misunderstood-business-
concept-in-china-2011-2?IR=T.
64
NoraHughes,‘ChineseSocialNetworks:GuanxiandWesternManagement’,DepthPapers,(paperpresented
asbackgroundresearchtoPhD),2007,FieldingUniversity,15.
65
NoraHughes,emailmessagetoauthor,March22,2017.
66
ErinMeyer,TheCultureMap:BreakingThroughtheCulturalBoundariesofGlobalBusiness(NewYork:
PublicAffairs,2014),170.
67
NoraHughes,‘ChineseSocialNetworks’,4,citingShuangLiu,CultureswithinCulture:Unityanddiversityof
twogenerationsofemployeesinstate-ownedenterprises,HumanRelations,56(4),2003,387-417.68
AlanM.Rugman,TheOxfordHandbookofInternationalBusiness,2nd
ed.(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,
2009),510;JenniferChandlerandJohnGraham,‘Relationship-OrientedCultures,Corruption,andInternational
MarketingSuccess’,JournalofBusinessEthics,February2010,doi:10.1007/s10551-009-0152-7,url:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225723011_Relationship-Oriented_Cultures_Corruption_and_
International_Marketing_Success.
69
ChandlerandGraham,‘Relationship-OrientedCultures’.
70
Hofstede,CulturesandOrganizations,119-20.71
Hughes,‘ChineseSocialNetworks’,15.
72
Hofstede,CulturesandOrganizations,61.