We almost lost Detroit

8/10/2019 We almost lost Detroit

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WE ALMOST LOSTDETROIT

JOHN G. FULLER

READER'S DIGEST PRESS

Distributed by Thomas Y. Crowell Compa y! "ew Yor#! $%&'


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FOREWORD

"u(lear power is a u )or*i+i * te(h olo*y. It allows oroom )or error. ,er)e(tio must be a(hie+ed i) a((ide ts thata))e(t the *e eral publi( are to be pre+e ted.

W- ALMOST LOST DETROIT is a +aluable additio tothe literature o) the debate swirli * arou d u(lear power.The boo# is well resear(hed it pro+ides )as(i ati * readi *)or a yo e who is i terested i the history o) the u(lear

pro*ram. The author pro+ides a i depth re+iew o) thede+elopme t o) the -ermi li/uid0metal )ast0breeder rea(tor!

usi * the -ermi a((ide t as a +ehi(le to dis(uss thesi* i)i(a (e o) the e tire u(lear power i dustry! both i this(ou try a d abroad. I the (ourse o) this absorbi * story! the(auses a d (o se/ue (es o) a umber o) u(lear a((ide ts aredes(ribed i a ma er that is easily u derstood. -or this is ota 1te(h i(al1 boo# mea t o ly )or the s(ie ti)i( (ommu ity. Itis writte i a )ree )lowi * style that (a be easily )ollowed

by the layma .This boo# deals primarily with the a((ide t at the -ermi

"o. $ li/uid0metal )ast0breeder rea(tor a d the sa)ety


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problems the a((ide t posed. O e result was to set ba(# the

li/uid0metal )ast0breeder pro*ram by ma y years. 2owe+er!the *o+er me t is still promoti * ew desi* s o) theserea(tors )or use i the e3t de(ade! a d the problems e3posedi this boo# will ot disappear. Mea while! the li*ht0water rea(tors that are (urre tly bei * used i this (ou try ha+esa)ety problems o) their ow ! as this boo# demo strates. -or e3ample! a li*ht0water rea(tor (a ot u der*o a low0order

u(lear e3plosio as (a o((ur i a breeder rea(tor. 4ut aloss0o)0(oola t a((ide t i a li*ht0water rea(tor (ould lead toa (ore meltdow . Thus! while the a((ide t se/ue (es aredi))ere t )or the two types o) rea(tors! the e d result! the

possible release o) radioa(ti+e material i to the e +iro me t0is the same.

The de+elopers o) the -ermi breeder rea(tor were +erysi (ere! dili*e t! a d hi*hly /uali)ied i di+iduals to whom the

sa)ety o) the rea(tor was paramou t. E3treme (are was ta#eto i sure a*ai st the possibility o) a serious a((ide to((urri *. The s(ie tists i +ol+ed were most (o )ide t thatthey had (o+ered all possible problem areas. They had builtsa)e*uards o top o) sa)e*uards. Yet i spite o) the

pre(autio s i the desi* a d (o stru(tio o) the -ermirea(tor! a d i spite o) the reassura (es by the s(ie tists that aserious a((ide t (ould ot happe ! o e did o((ur. The results)ar e3(eeded the e3pe(tatio s o) a yo e i +ol+ed with the

pro5e(t. -ortu ately! at the time o) the a((ide t! the rea(tor was operati * at a +ery low power le+el or the (o se/ue (es(ould ha+e bee mu(h worse.

The -ermi a((ide t a d the others des(ribed i this boo# demo strate the )a(t that o matter how mu(h dili*e (e ise3er(ised i the desi* ! (o stru(tio ! a d operatio o) a

u(lear rea(tor thi *s (a a d do *o wro *. Desi* errorso((ur! the u e3pe(ted happe s! huma error is a +ery real possibility.


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The u(lear i dustry i this (ou try today is

e3perie (i * ma y sa)ety0related dilemmas. Se+eral re(e t problems ha+e raised /uestio s about the me(ha i(al i te*rityo) the pipi * systems. Co stru(tio /uality (o trol has ot

bee *ood. Emer*e (y diesel *e erator u its ha+e )ailed)re/ue tly duri * tests. I o e re(e t i sta (e! two out o) three su(h sa)ety u its )ailed duri * a test6 o e be(ause o) a)aulty timer swit(h a d the other be(ause o) water i the )uelta #. I o e i (ide t the hi*h0pressure emer*e (y0(ore0(ooli * system )ailed to operate whe (alled upo be(ausese+eral diodes had bur ed out. I that same i (ide t a )our0)oot0lo * pie(e o) pipe that had bee i ad+erte tly le)t i therea(tor duri * (o stru(tio 5ammed i a +al+e a d pre+e tedit )rom (losi *. I a other! a d o e o) the most seriousa((ide ts to o((ur i a lar*e (ommer(ial power pla t! a )ire ia ele(tri(al (able du(t # o(#ed out umerous ele(tri(al

(ir(uits! ma y o) them redu da t (ir(uits. The emer*e (y0(ore0(ooli *0system was i (apa(itated. I) it had bee eededit would ot ha+e bee a+ailable. These e3amples are listedmerely as a i di(atio o) the type o) problems that (a arise.

It is i teresti * to ote the re(e t shi)t i the u(lear i dustry7s positio about the possibility o) u(lear power

pla t a((ide ts. -or ma y years! the i dustry +i*orouslyde)e ded the u(lear power pro*ram as bei * esse tially ris#0)ree. "u(lear power was (laimed to be per)e(tly sa)e. It wassaid that o serious a((ide ts would e+er happe . Su(h a

positio was o) (ourse e(essary to promote the a((epta (e o) u(lear power by the *e eral publi(. It has ot bee u til 5ust

re(e tly that the propo e ts o) u(lear e er*y ha+e admittedthat a((ide ts (a a d will happe ! a d the publi( should

prepare itsel) )or su(h e+e tualities.

What is )or*otte is that the publi( had a ri*ht to # owthese ris#s years a*o! whe the i itial de(isio s re*ardi * thea((eptability o) u(lear power were bei * made. O ly ow


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are we lear i * that the publi( was deliberately misled a d

de(ei+ed by the )ormer Atomi( E er*y Commissio re*ardi *the possibility o) ma5or u(lear rea(tor a((ide ts a d the pote tial (o se/ue (es o) su(h a((ide ts.

The dis(ussio i this boo# o) the WAS20&89 updatereport o) $%:8 is +ery e li*hte i *. The reader is pro+ided ai si*ht i to the i ter al wor#i *s o) the AEC by the /uoti *o) letters a d memos o) the AEC o))i(ials a d (o sulta tswho were i +ol+ed i the study. What this boo# shows is thatthe estimated (o se/ue (es o) a ma5or a((ide t were so)ri*hte i * the AEC a d u(lear i dustry did ot wa t themre+ealed to the publi(. It was the )ear o) a ad+erse publi(rea(tio that prompted the AEC to suppress the report! a dthis is a *ood e3ample o) the attitude that has pre+ailed i the

u(lear power pro*ram. The publi( has bee deliberatelymisled i to belie+i * that there are o problems with u(lear

power! whereas there are +ery real problems. I additio tothe issue o) rea(tor sa)ety! other problem areas i (ludetra sportatio ! )uel pro(essi *! waste disposal! u(lear material di+ersio ! a d sabota*e.

I more tha se+e years o) wor#i * with the AEC7ssa)ety resear(h pro*ram )or li*ht0water rea(tors! I had ae3(elle t opportu ity ot o ly to be(ome )amiliar with theAEC7s resear(h pro*rams a d sa)ety a alysis methods! butalso to obser+e the basi( u derlyi * philosophy o) the AEC.This attitude was primarily o e o) tryi * to pro+e thate3isti * rea(tors were sa)e rather tha o e o) i depe de tlyassessi * the ade/ua(y o) the sa)ety systems. While ma y o) the s(ie tists wor#i * o the sa)ety resear(h were(o s(ie tious a d tried to poi t out +alid problems re*ardi *rea(tor sa)ety! their /uestio s were lar*ely i* ored. The

de(isio s re*ardi * sa)ety resear(h pro*rams were made bythe AEC i Washi *to ! ot by the s(ie tists i thelaboratories. Worse! ma y o) the ma a*ers i pri+ate i dustry


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that ra the laboratories )or the AEC were more i terested i

#eepi * their (o tra(ts tha they were i doi * the resear(has it should ha+e bee do e. The ma a*ers7 philosophy wasthat the AEC was always ri*ht.

I le)t my 5ob with Aero5et "u(lear Compa y! the AEC7sma5or sa)ety (o tra(tor at the Idaho "atio al E *i eeri *Laboratory! be(ause o) a *rowi * )rustratio with the sa)ety

pro*ram. I be(ame parti(ularly (o (er ed about the way iwhi(h the AEC had (o ti ually misled the publi( about thesa)ety o) u(lear rea(tors. O ly )a+orable results re*ardi *the sa)ety resear(h were reported. I # ew well the lar*e

umber o) u (ertai ties a d problems that were ot )reely publi(i;ed o ly a (o ti ui * pressure )rom (iti;e *roups hasmade these u (ertai ties # ow to the *e eral publi(. A d Iam (o (er ed that the sa)ety systems o the rea(torsoperati * i this (ou try ha+e ot bee tested! a d the

ade/ua(y o) these systems has yet to be pro+e .The AEC! as a *o+er me t a*e (y! had a obli*atio toser+e the publi( i a u biased ma er. It did ot. The ew

"u(lear Re*ulatory Commissio has bee )ormed spe(i)i(allyto re*ulate! a d ot promote! the u(lear i dustry. 4ut a)ter the )irst se+eral mo ths o) operatio ! there does ot appear to

be a truly u biased +iew pre+ale t i the "RC.The publi( has a ri*ht to # ow all the perti e t

i )ormatio re*ardi * ot o ly the sa)ety i +ol+ed i u(lear rea(tors! but all the other related problems. O ly the (a aratio al de(isio re*ardi * the a((eptability o) u(lear power

be made.Carl


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WE ALMOST LOST DETROIT


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ONE

The pho e (all (ame i sometime i the mid0a)ter oo o) Wed esday! O(tober '! $%::. The e3a(t time is ot re(orded!

be(ause it was e+er e tered o))i(ially o the lo* o) thesheri)) o) Mo roe Cou ty! Mi(hi*a . Sheri)) Charles2arri *to ! # ow as 4ud! a la #y ma with a lea ! (ra**y)a(e! re(ei+ed it. A u ide ti)ied +oi(e o the other e d o) theli e spo#e sharply a d brie)ly! sayi * it was Detroit Ediso(alli *0the ma5or utility (ompa y i southeaster Mi(hi*a .There was somethi * wro * at the ew E ri(o -ermi Atomi(,ower ,la t! whi(h Detroit Ediso operated at La*oo a

4ea(h 5ust a ha d)ul o) miles away )rom the tow o) Mo roe.The (ause o) the problem was u (ertai ! but the (aller saidthat the situatio should ot be publi(i;ed! that o publi( alertshould be *i+e . More i )ormatio would )ollow.

Sheri)) 2arri *to hu * up the pho e i his ti y o))i(e!o+er0(rowded by 5ust o e des# a d his radio0(ommu i(atio se/uipme t. 2e we t dire(tly i to the e3t door o))i(e o) the(hie) o) poli(e o) the tow o) Mo roe. 4oth a*reed theywould ot e ter the i )ormatio o the blotter! a d would#eep it to themsel+es. 4oth me # ew that a u(lear power


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pla t (o tai s withi it more pote tial radioa(ti+e )allout tha

do;e s o) 2iroshima0type A0bombs. The -ermi pla t was oe3(eptio 6 It was ew! it was u tried! it was bei * tested. A d both # ew that the ultimate a(tio i (ase o) a ma5or atomi( pla t a((ide t was e+a(uatio . Yet! i) the publi( was *i+ea y hi t o) the problem there (ould be mass pa i(. The twoo))i(ers de(ided to wait it out.

At about the same time! some o e hu dred miles away!Captai 4u(ha a o) the Mi(hi*a State ,oli(e i La si *was alerted by a similar pho e (all! a*ai )rom a DetroitEdiso represe tati+e. The state poli(e are respo sible )or the(i+il de)e se o) the state. 4ut either Captai 4u(ha a or Sheri)) 2arri *to 0 or e+e the u(lear e3perts0# ew all the

possible (o se/ue (es o) a (i+ilia atomi( power pla ta((ide t. I $%::! there were o ly )our (ommer(ial u(lear

power pla ts i the e tire (ou try. There was o e3perie (e

to a(t o .The o ly (ertai ty was that the es(ape o) radioa(ti+e poiso s due to a ma5or rea(tor a((ide t (ould be (atastrophi(.The Atomi( E er*y Commissio 7s >A(e?s@ ow )i*ures werealready a+ailable i a study # ow as WAS20&89. I theworst (ase! )or a relati+ely small rea(tor! the AEC estimated

!899 people (ould be #illed! 8 !999 (ould be i 5ured or stri(#e with radiatio poiso i *! B& billio i propertydama*e (ould o((ur! a d a area the si;e o) ,e syl+a ia(ould be (o tami ated. These )i*ures! howe+er! were alreadyoutmoded. A ew study that estled i the 1O))i(ial =seO ly1 )iles o) the AEC we t )ar beyo d these estimates.

I a y (ase! the o ly a(tio spe(i)ied by the AEC i thee+e t o) su(h a a((ide t was e+a(uatio o) the populatio)rom the surrou di * area. This was ot a sour(e o) (om)ort

to Sheri)) 2arri *to ! Captai 4u(ha a ! or a yo e elserespo sible )or (opi * with the situatio .


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2ardly a yo e i Mo roe Cou ty was *i+i * a y thou*ht that

day to the spa #i * ew E ri(o -ermi Atomi( ,ower ,la t atLa*oo a 4ea(h o the shore o) La#e Erie. The (iti;e ry wasapatheti( about it! e3(ept )or the 5obs it pro+ided a d the ewta3 re+e ues it brou*ht i . E+eryo e li+i * i the (lusteredtow s o) Mo roe! -re (htow ! a d "ewport! surrou di *La*oo a 4ea(h! had *row used to the old (umbersomeDetroit Ediso (oal0)ired pla t ear the la#e. They had (ometo i* ore the almost *rotes/ue pro(essio o) *ia ttra smissio towers that seemed to prome ade a(ross the)latla ds alo *side the Di3ie 2i*hway! li#e s#eleto s o) e ormous s(are(rows dra**i * )estoo s o) hi*h0te siowires.

The ta * a d wild beauty had lo * si (e *o e out o) themarshes a d wetla ds ear La*oo a 4ea(h! o (e smotheredwith lotus a d wild ri(e. The wastes )rom paper mills a d

steel (ompa ies 5oi ed with other sewa*e i the la#e = sa)e0)or0Swimmi * si* s were e+erywhere.Mo roe a d its satellite tow s were u der*oi *

e(o omi( doldrums. O ly a o((asio al )esti+e mus#ratdi er bri*hte ed thi *s up. Le*e d has it that wheMo roe7s )a+orite so ! e eral Custer! had le)t tow o hisway to the disaster at the Little 4i* 2or ! he had admo ishedthe (iti;e s ot to do a ythi * u til he *ot ba(#. Some o) themore dour reside ts today (laim that these i stru(tio s ha+e

bee )ollowed to the letter. About the o ly o((urre (e o) publi( ote that O(tober ' was that 2ubert 2umphrey! o amissio to dedi(ate the Mo roe ,ubli( Library! had arri+ed)i)ty0o e mi utes late at the Custer Mu i(ipal Airport. Aside)rom that! the (ommu ity was listless.

A early mor i * )rost had (o+ered the (or a d

soybea (rops throu*hout the (ou ty! but the (ou tye3te sio a*e t did 7t seem too worried about it! thou*h hewas (o (er ed about the tomatoes a d peppers. Da War er


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o) Ida Or(hards was 7t at all (o (er ed. 1-rost is *ood )or the

apples!1 he said. 1It helps them ripe .1About a hal) hour7s dri+e orth )rom Mo roe wasDetroit. The motor (ity we t about its busi ess putti * (ars!tru(#s! a d tra(tors to*ether! but ot all was happy there.More tha 89!999 Chrysler wor#ers were about to be laid o))holdups a d bur*laries were risi * at a alarmi * rate! up&!999 (ases )rom the pre+ious year. Rou d stea# was selli *at %9 a pou d at ro*er7s! with sirloi *oi * at a dimehi*her. Mo+ie *oers )iled i to see Dr. Fhi+a*o at the = itedArtists Theater! a d The Sou d o) Musi( at the Madiso .

A(ross the Detroit Ri+er! dire(tly south a d east!Wi dsor! O tario! we t about its 5ob o) tur i * out steel!ma(hi ery! a d (hemi(als! as bored Ca adia (ustomso))i(ials wa+ed a e dless pro(essio o) (ars throu*h thetu el to a d )rom Detroit.

-arther out o the wester rim o) the (ir(le! Dearbor !,o tia(! Willow Ru ! Ypsila ti! a d other satellite tow s o) Detroit were e/ually pla(id! dwelli * mai ly o ordi ary

problems o) e+eryday routi e. I these a d other suburbs!housewi+es )looded the shoppi * (e ters! a d +isitors mo+ed

pea(e)ully i a d out o) the 2e ry -ord Museum iree )ield Gilla*e. -ew i a y o) these (ommu ities # ew

mu(h about the E ri(o -ermi Atomi( ,la t! e3(ept that it wassupposed to promise more ele(tri( power throu*h some

u(lear ma*i(. A d! o) (ourse! it also pro+ided 5obs.At '& % "elso Dri+e i Mo roe! barrel0(hested -ra #

uro ! a iro wor#er at the pla t! was prepari * to dri+e hiswi)e to the supermar#et. 2e also wa ted to pi(# up a )i)th o) Ca adia Club a d a si30pa(# o) Miller 2i0Li)e. uro ! witha rou*h! raw +oi(e a d a astou di *ly *ood +o(abulary! has

a (apa(ity to stay (old sober whe dow i * his a)ter0wor# boilerma#ers >a shot o) Ca adia ! a swallow o) beer@. 2e is(hu #y a d solid! with a pleasa t! * arled )a(e. 2e li#es to


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(all himsel) The ,ola(#! li#es to )ollow (urre t e+e ts! li#es

to read boo#s o the e(o omi( a d politi(al s(e e! li#es tosalt away his mo ey.uro had bee o the )irst *a * that u loaded the red

iro ! those bri*ht0ora *e stru(tural steel *irders that (reatedthe )ramewor# o) the -ermi atomi( pla t buildi *s. The*irders had arri+ed by tru(# a d bar*e some te years earlier.A d )rom the time he had )irst pi(#ed up his p eumati(impa(t wre (h >he (alled it a yo0yo@ to bolt the (old0be t

plates! beams! a d the tria *ular *ussets i to pla(e! uroswore by the (ra)tsma ship that we t i to the buildi *. Mosto) his wor#i * days o+er the past te years had bee spe t othe -ermi 5ob. 2e had othi * but praise )or the way it was

put to*ether. 2e e+e had praise a d respe(t )or the 1bluehats10the ma a*eme t e *i eers whose hard hats were(olored blue to disti *uish them )rom the ora *e hats o) the

sub(o tra(tors. There was a sharp disti (tio betwee the blue hats a d the white hats with their +arious stripes o) (olored tapes that desi* ated those o) a laborer >a yellow1H1@! iro wor#er >a pi # stripe@! maso >*ray@! (arpe ter >blue@! a d others.

-or a de(ade! uro had wat(hed the -ermi pla t *row)rom its red0iro s#eleto i to a ew! *leami * white (luster o) buildi *s o the ed*e o) La#e Erie! less tha two miles)rom his home. I betwee the low! s/uat o))i(e se(tio a dthe *au t! loomi * (ra(#er bo3 that housed theturbo*e erators was the shi y white dome o) the u(lear rea(tor buildi *. = der eath the dome was the u(lear rea(tor itsel)! the atomi( )ur a(e that was 5ust ow! iO(tober o) $%::! at the poi t o) heraldi * a hope)ul ew erao) the pea(e)ul atom )or the Detroit area.

I the (ourse o) assi* i * the respo sibilities )or e+a(uati * (ommu ities i (ase o) radiatio (o tami atio !


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pla ers (ould ot )oresee pra(ti(al problems that would

thwart their e))orts. -or the Mi(hi*a State ,oli(e! who borethe respo sibility )or the whole state! the tas# o) e+a(uati *Detroit would be )latly impossible be(ause the automobile(ity had put all its )aith i motor tra sport. It had e+er built asubway or ele+ated tra sit system. Duri * (ommuti * hours!tra))i( was impossible. The streets were always 5ammed. The)reeways were worse i spite o) a imposi * web o) them!i (ludi * the Edsel -ord! the Detroit I dustrial! theSouth)ield! a d the -isher -reeways0the latter bei * I terstate&'! the )our0la e artery that led south to Mo roe a d Toledo!Ohio. Coordi atio with the Ca adia Ci+il De)e se iWi dsor would be )utile. The tu els a d brid*es would he

pa(#ed to (apa(ity.E+e i rural Mo roe Cou ty! there would be 99!999

people i the area )or Sheri)) 2arri *to to worry about! more

tha 9!999 o) them i the tow o) Mo roe itsel). The wi dso) La#e Erie (ould be )i(#le! o)te embra(i * e+ery poi t o) the (ompass o+er a period o) days. I) those shi)ti * wi ds(arried the (olorless! odorless! tasteless radioa(ti+ity!e+a(uatio would be more di))i(ult.

Most +ul erable were the houses s(attered i a two0mileradius arou d the site bou dary. There were about $ 9 o) these arou d ,ort Su li*ht a other $99 or so i la d )romSwa Cree# &' alo * ,oi te Au3 ,eau3 Road! a d '

betwee the -ermi pla t a d Di3ie 2i*hway. A other '99houses0mai ly (otta*es0sprawled alo * the arrow roads o) Sto y ,oi t where -ra # uro li+ed. O (e a resort area! itwas ow (o +erted to year0rou d li+i *. It lay behi d amassi+e ro(#y brea#water that #ept out the surly (hop o) La#eErie. I) it (ame to e+a(uatio ! the reside ts o) Sto y ,oi t had

little (hoi(e. They would ha+e to ma#e their way dire(tlytoward the ,oi te Au3 ,eau3 Road i the dire(tio o) the-ermi rea(tor! a d mo+e pre(ariously alo * the site bou dary


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to whate+er ha+e they (ould )i d )rom the *hostly plume o)

radiatio that mi*ht spri * )rom the rea(tor buildi * i) its(o tai me t shell were bro#e .4a(# i his home o Sto y ,oi t later that a)ter oo !

-ra # uro rela3ed o his o+erstu))ed so)a! obli+ious towhat was ta#i * pla(e less tha two miles away )rom hishome. "or was he alo e i his i* ora (e. The problem wasthat o o e! ot e+e the e *i eers a d operators i the -ermi(o trol room! # ew e3a(tly what was happe i *0aside )romthe )a(t that at 69% that a)ter oo the radiatio alarms hadsou ded! a Class I alert had bee issued! a d the rea(tor

buildi * had bee automati(ally shut o)) )rom the rest o) the(omple3. What was to )ollow was a ybody7s *uess. 4utwhate+er it mi*ht be! it had bee i the ma#i * )or more thaa de(ade.

Some )i)tee years be)ore the radiatio alarms we t o))! the*rou dwor# )or the -ermi pla t had bee laid i Detroit. IDe(ember o) $%'$ Wal#er L. Cisler had 5ust bee amed

preside t o) the Detroit Ediso Compa y! o e o) the most presti*ious a d lar*est utilities i the Midwest.

Cisler was both a idealist a d a pra*matist! a dreamer with +is(eral stre *th a d a abrasi+e ma* etism who seemedto *et thi *s do e. As a idealist! he e3tolled the +irtues o) the huma mi d! (laimi * that it was the *reatest moti+ator o earth aside )rom od. 2e was a Cor ell e *i eeri **raduate o) the (lass o) $% ! a d he had a ha dsome!impassi+e )a(e! with (lassi(! (hiseled )eatures )ramed by(ropped white hair. 2is so(ial (o s(ious ess was re)le(ted ihis o+erseas wor# as a (o sulta t o ele(tri( power )or theMarshall ,la ! a d the A*e (y )or I ter atio al

De+elopme t! plus a hal) a do;e other *o+er me t a*e (ies.2e e *a*ed i s(ores o) (i+i( a(ti+ities i Detroit. 2isdedi(ated ser+i(e to the publi(! howe+er! was tempered by a


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obsessio al passio to ram throu*h pro5e(ts o) his li#i * at

almost a y (ost. Some o) his asso(iates )elt that his positi+ismwas o)te bli d a d o+erpoweri *. 4ut it *ot the desiredresults.

4esides bei * amed preside t o) Detroit Ediso ! Cisler had 5ust deli+ered a )easibility study to the Atomi( E er*yCommissio . It (o (luded that a u(lear power pla t would

ot o ly be pra(ti(al )or pri+ate e terprise! but (ould lead to awhole ew (o (ept o) meeti * e er*y eeds )or a u (ertai)uture.

Cisler had bee wor#i * o the idea )or more tha )our years! )rom the time he had bee appoi ted by the AEC as amember o) a ad+isory *roup. 2e had re(ei+ed a AEC

blessi * to *o ahead with a 5oi t pla betwee Detroit Edisoa d Dow Chemi(al to e3ami e e3a(tly how u(lear power (ould be tamed.

4a(# i $%'$! e3perts belie+ed the )uture o) u(lear power (ould be almost mira(ulous6 A rea(tor (ould be builtthat would ot o ly (reate heat to power ele(tri(al *e erators!

but would produ(e more )issio able )uel tha it used. It would be (alled the breeder rea(tor! whi(h mea t 5ust what it said.

The te(h i/ue i +ol+ed pa(#i * a bla #et o) raw!slu**ish =ra ium0 arou d a rea(tor (ore. This would(apture the e3(ess eutro s that lea#ed out o) the morere)i ed =ra ium0 ' i the (e ter as the )uel we t throu*hthe )issio or splitti * pro(ess. While the heat was remo+ed)rom the (ore to ma#e steam )or ele(tri( power! the lea#i *

eutro s would smash i to the bla #et a d (ha *e the=ra ium0 i to ,luto ium0 %! a able a d super0ele*a t)uel! but o e that was ot without its drawba(#s. As a ew!ma 0made eleme t! pluto ium was ot o ly the sour(e o) the

e3plosio o) the u(lear bomb! but was also perhaps the mostdeadly poiso i the world. O (e (reated! it would ta#e


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8 9!999 years be)ore its radioa(ti+ity would de(ay to a

i o(uous radiatio le+el.4ut the dreams o) Cisler a d other e *i eers a ds(ie tists a(ross the (ou try! wor#i * to bri * about a

bri*hter world i the (losi * days o) $%'$! were ot be t odestru(tio . These were me o) hope! +isio ! e terprise!

brillia (e! a d determi atio . They were be t o tami * this poiso i) they (ould! har essi * it )or the be e)it o) ma #i d.4ut li#e e+eryo e else! they were also )allible.

The Atomi( E er*y Commissio 7s blessi * )or theEdiso 0Dow pla to pro(eed to a 1desi* phase1 (amethrou*h o De(ember $%! $%'$. It (ame o ly o e day be)orethe histori( e+e t that was to be re(orded o the broad! ro(#y)lats o) Idaho! some !999 miles to the west o) Detroit.

That e+e t too# pla(e i o e o) a lo ely (luster o) buildi *s! amo * the )irst ere(ted i the AEC7s "atio al

Rea(tor Testi * Statio ! ot )ar )rom Ar(o! a d o ly )ortymiles away )rom the tow o) Idaho -alls. "ear the desolateatio al mo ume t # ow as the Craters o) the Moo a d

sa dwi(hed betwee the Lost Ri+er ra *e a d 4i* Souther4utte! the site was later to be desi* ated as a Re*istered

"atio al 2istori( La dmar#.2ere! o De(ember 9! $%'$! si3tee te se me ! u der

the dire(tio o) the u(lear pio eer Walter Fi ! waited )or the results o) their wor# o the u(lear power u it # ow asE3perime tal 4reeder Rea(tor "o. $! to be(ome # ow asE4R0I. While they wat(hed! the (o trol rods were *i *erlywithdraw )rom the u(lear (ore by a me(ha i(al o+erheadli #a*e! releasi * the eutro populatio o) its =ra ium0 ')uel rods. The heat )rom the rods (reated steam! a d sudde ly)our ordi ary 990watt li*ht bulbs be*a to *low. Walter Fi

was the )irst to s(rawl his ame o the wall! )ollowed by the)i)tee other s(ie tists a d te(h i(ia s who si* ed i u der


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the impro+ised le*e d6 Ele(tri(ity Was -irst e erated 2ere

-rom Atomi( E er*y o De(ember 9! $%'$.The modest su((ess o) E4R0I was a harbi *er o) hope)or Wal#er Cisler a d his pro5e(t. 4ut there were mar#eddi))ere (es to (o sider. E4R0I was a sputteri * )ire(ra(#er (ompared to the howit;er that a (ommer(ial rea(tor ser+i * a

publi( utility would ha+e to be. E4R0I supplied e ou*hele(tri( li*ht )or o e small buildi *. Cisler7s ew pla t wouldha+e to produ(e some 99!999 #ilowatts o) power to ma#ea y se se at all! e+e as a demo stratio model. A d! at best!it would be barely e ou*h to ha dle :9!999 homes.

There were other (o sideratio s! too. E4R0I sat i asparsely populated area. I) a ythi * we t wro *! its smallsi;e! mi ute power! a d remote ess would (ause a mi imumo) dama*e to property a d people. Cisler7s ew pla t would

be sitti * i the middle o) a teemi * me*alopolis.

To Cisler! there was a other )a(tor i the histori( e+e tat E4R0I. It was a *o+er me t0ow ed rea(tor! whollydesi* ed a d built by the AEC. ,ri+ate i dustry was playi *o ly a supply role i its operatio . Cisler belie+ed de+outly i

pri+ate i dustry! with its i (e ti+es a d its i itiati+e.Ori*i ally! he had dedi(ated his (o sulti * wor# with theAEC 1to speed i dustrial a(ti+ities i the atomi( e er*y )ield!i (ludi * the de+elopme t o) atomi(0ele(tri( power pla ts.12e was aware! as was e+eryo e else! that the wartime)u (tio o) u(lear weapo s (ould be ha dled i o other way but by a e ormous *o+er me t pro*ram. ,ower pla ts!he )elt! were di))ere t.

E+e with the (omi * o) pea(e! there were weapo priorities that had to be )a(ed i the arms ra(e with Russiathere was stri(tly (lassi)ied material to deal with! se(rets to

*uard. Cisler was wary o) *o+er me t mo opoly or e (roa(hme t o e er*y produ(tio . 2owe+er! it seemed to(reate i him the )ire o) Sir alahad i sear(h o) the 2oly


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rail. Armed with the authori;atio )rom the AEC! he set out

o his missio to bri * to*ether a +iable *roup o) utilities thatwould 5oi with him i masteri * the i tri(a(ies o) the ewart. This would also bri * e ou*h pri+ate (apital i to the

pro5e(t! a d demo strate to both the AEC a d the


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outpost +illa*e o) Chal# Ri+er! O tario. Li)e there! i the

(lose0by bedroom +illa*e o) Deep Ri+er! (a be pleasa t )or the s(ie tists a d other wor#ers! e+e i) remote )rom themai stream o) metropolita li+i *. There are the Sta)) 2otels)or +isitors there are also s(hools! (lubs! (hur(hes! a d o emo+ie house. O a hotel bulleti board! the oti(es posted*i+e a (lue to the li)e there6 Curli * Is -u 0Try It ThisWi ter. Trailer )or Sale Suitable )or S owmobile. Wi ter Car i+al -ebruary & to %. A sharp word to those who posted

oti(es domi ates the board6 All "oti(es Must 4e Dated a dWill 4e Remo+ed A)ter $8 days. To whi(h a whimsi(als(ie tist had s(rawled as a posts(ript6 Date Is Missi * )romThis "oti(e.

As World War II drew to a (lose! Chal# Ri+er wassele(ted )rom se+eral alter ate sites )or the Ca adia u(lear e er*y pro5e(t. The reaso s )or its (hoi(e were spe(i)i(ally

spelled out by the Ca adia *o+er me t. The site had to beisolated i (ase o) a e3plosio ! or emissio o) radioa(ti+edust i to the atmosphere. It had to be some dista (e )rom atow or a +illa*e. It had to ha+e a ample supply o) water to(ool the rea(tor.

Chal# Ri+er easily met the re/uireme ts a d the "RHe3perime tal rea(tor was built o De(ember $ ! $%' . WhileWal#er Cisler (o ti ued to (a5ole! persuade! be*! a d(o +i (e his (ollea*ues i the utility i dustry to support his

pla s )or the )uture! the "RH rea(tor at Chal# Ri+er was*oi * throu*h a ormal series o) tests. They were e3perime ts(o du(ted at low power to (ompare the di))ere (e irea(ti+ity >the ability to sustai a (hai rea(tio @ betwee )uelrods that had bee bombarded by a lo * period o) radiatioa d )resh )uel rods that had 5ust bee i stalled i the rea(tor.

The Ca adia "RH rea(tor was also a mid*et (omparedto the o e Cisler7s *roup had i mi d. It was what is # ow asa hea+y0water rea(tor. 2ea+y water is a water mole(ule


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(o tai i * a hydro*e isotope with a mass umber *reater

tha $. It is prese t i atural water about $ part i :!'99 a dis e3tremely e3pe si+e to isolate but a hi*hly e))e(ti+emoderator. The hea+y0water rea(tors are *e erally (o sideredsa)er tha the li*ht0water rea(tors >whi(h use plai ! aturalwater as a (oola t@ o the drawi * boards i the = itedStates. Ca ada pre)erred the )ormer ot o ly )or sa)etyreaso s! but be(ause raw =ra ium ! whi(h it had i

ple ti)ul supply! (ould be used. At the time! hea+y0water rea(tors were (o sidered sa)er tha the breeder rea(tors!whi(h were still i the early e3perime tal sta*e. So sa)e! i)a(t! was the desi* o) the "RH! that it had some i ehu dred de+i(es )or shutti * it dow i a emer*e (y a do ly o e )or starti * it up.

I a y #i d o) rea(tor! the )uel >most o)te ura ium@ ise (ased i metal sheaths that loo# +ery mu(h li#e (urtai

rods. I some rea(tors! the rods are thi(#! a d (hu #s o) )uel!loo#i * ot u li#e bla(#ish Tootsie Rolls! are slipped i to therods. Some )uel rods are thi ! with the metal sheath bo ded to

be(ome part o) them! depe di * o the type o) the rea(tor.The rods are the bu (hed i bu dles! (alled subassemblies.These are pla(ed *eometri(ally i to a (ir(ular or o(ta*o al(o tai er i side the rea(tor +essel! a d pa(#ed li#e a rou dti o) (i*arettes e3(ept )or strate*i( spa(i * betwee the )ueleleme ts. The )uel ma#es up the heart o) the rea(tor the (ore.

At strate*i( poi ts amo * the )uel bu dles! there arese+eral lo * sle der (o trol rods. They are (omposed o) (admium or boro or *raphite or some other material to stopthe u(lear rea(tio . Whe they are plu *ed dow i side the(ore! they dri # up the )lu(tuati * eutro s li#e a blotter a dshut the rea(tor dow . Whe they are li)ted out o) the (ore!

the eutro s )rom the )uel be*i sputteri * >thou*h i +isiblya d sile tly@ li#e a massi+e pa(# o) -ourth o)


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i the )uel bu dles. The splitti * ot o ly *i+es o)) a

e ormous amou t o) heat! but se ds two a d a hal) moreeutro s out o) a atom7s u(leus to repeat the pro(ess.Whate+er #i d o) (oola t is used li*ht water! hea+y

water! or li/uid sodium0it #eeps the )uel )rom melti * )rom itsow heat. The (oola t li/uid bathes the hot )uel rods as it)lows arou d them! (arryi * away their heat! whi(h is theused to *e erate steam. The steam spi s the turbi es thedetails o) steam *e eratio +ary with rea(tor desi* s.

4ei * e3perime tal! the "RH rea(tor at Chal# Ri+er wasot desi* ed )or *e erati * ele(tri( power. It was moderated

by hea+y water! whi(h mea t that it used this rare a de3pe si+e substa (e to slow dow the eutro s so they wouldha+e a better (ha (e o) hitti * more atoms! thus e abli * it touse the atural =ra ium0 as )uel.

I the "RH (o trol room o De(ember $ ! $%' ! were a

do;e or so me ! i (ludi * the pro5e(t head! resear(h physi(ists! a health physi(ist! operati * superi te de ts! a drea(tor operators. At about three that a)ter oo ! they were setto (omme (e the routi e e3perime ts o) the day. Theatmosphere was rela3ed! a d be(ause the e3perime ts were

bei * (o du(ted at low power! there was little or othi * toworry about. Da *er i (reases i proportio to the amou t o)

power (reated. O e small (o (er was that a spe(ial sa)ety(ir(uit was ot i operatio at the time! but si (e it was# ow ! allowa (es would be made )or this duri * the routi e.


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poi t o it would be impossible to predi(t what would

happe .At the (o trol pa el! the super+isor o) the operatio washorri)ied whe he saw red war i * li*hts sudde ly )lash othe pa el board. 2e *rabbed the pho e! yelled to the operator i the baseme t to stop what he was doi *! the rushed dowto the baseme t! lea+i * his assista t i (har*e o) the pa el.

I the baseme t! he was relie+ed to )i d that ot all the+al+es were ope . 2e (losed the +al+es immediately! a d wassure the (o trol rods had retur ed to their proper positio .

2e (he(#ed the air pressure! a d it was *ood. =p i the(o trol room the red war i * li*hts we t o))! i di(ati * thatthe (o trol rods were where they should be.

What he did ot # ow! or did a yo e else at the time!was that i some i e3pli(able way the rods had 5ammed! a dhad dropped dow 5ust )ar e ou*h to tur o)) the war i *

li*hts! but ot )ar e ou*h to (ho#e o)) the rea(ti+ity whi(hwas risi * rapidly.Whe the super+isor reali;ed what was happe i *! he

*rabbed the baseme t pho e to (all the (o trol room!i te di * to order his assista t to push butto s umbered 8a d to stop the rea(ti+ity. I stead! he said6 1,ush umber 8a d umber $.1

=p at the (o trol pa el! i order to rea(h the two butto s!the assista t had to put the pho e dow . The mome t he didso! the super+isor i the baseme t reali;ed he had (alled outthe wro * umbers. 2e yelled i to the pho e but o o eheard him. The rea(tor be*a to ru out o) (o trol01abo+e(riti(al1 i the parla (e o) the u(lear e *i eer.

It too# o ly twe ty se(o ds to reali;e this. Mea while!the power o) the "RH rea(tor was doubli * e+ery two

se(o ds. 4y that time! the rea(tor was o its way to a )uelmeltdow . -our ba #s o) (o trol rods had bee raised whethe assista t had pushed butto umber $. 2e immediately


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too# the pres(ribed sa)ety measure6 2e s(rammed the rea(tor!

trippi * it so that all the (o trol rods would slide sa)ely ba(# i to pla(e.4ut! be(ause o) a la(# o) air pressure the (o trol rods

were ot )or(ed ba(# i to pla(e. The *al+a ometer! whi(hmeasures the ele(tri( (urre t! i di(ated that the power le+elwas still (limbi *! o its way to disaster. The assista t at the(o trols s(reamed o+er the pho e )or the super+isor to dosomethi * about the air pressure! so that the (o trol rodswould drop a d stop the (hai rea(tio . There was o way todo this. The (ombi atio o) errors had s owballed i to au (orre(table situatio .

E3a(tly )orty0)our se(o ds a)ter the a((ide tal pushi *o) butto umber $! a pla t physi(ist reali;ed that the o lythi * le)t to do was to dump the hea+y water )rom the rea(tor!a d thus (ut o)) the )issio pro(ess. There were thousa ds o)

barrels o) hea+y water i the rea(tor0ea(h barrel worth moretha a Cadilla(. 4ut it was the o ly optio . The physi(istrea(hed o+er a d slammed the dump swit(h.

It too# se+eral se(o ds to see what would happe . The power seemed to drop! but almost immediately a other ha;ardloomed up6 The whole sealed rea(tor +essel mi*ht (ollapse)rom the +a(uum )ormed by the dumpi *. The operatio washalted! the (autiously resumed. A si*h o) relie) we t upwhe the i strume ts we t ba(# to ormal! about thirtyse(o ds a)ter the dumpi * had be*u .

4ut the disaster was )ar )rom o+er. Someo e loo#edthrou*h a ope baseme t door! a d saw to s o) water rushi * out o) the rea(tor! )loodi * the baseme t area. Thesuper+isor a d his assista t rushed with a bu(#et! (are)ullyha dled at a dista (e! to ta#e a sample. A /ui(# test showed it

to be ordi ary li*ht water! but hi*hly radioa(ti+e.The ! )our mi utes a)ter butto umber $ had beea((ide tally pushed! a dull rumble was heard. The hu*e! )our0


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to lid o the rea(tor +essel! (alled a *asholder! rose i the

air. A spurt o) water *ushed out throu*h the top o) the rea(tor!spilli * o+er the buildi * )loor. Radiatio alarms we t o))!a d the se sor ear the steam )a showed lethal doses o) radiatio es(api *.

-rom a earby buildi *! a )ra ti( pho e (all (ame i toreport that the readi *s i the atmosphere i that +i(i ity were)ar abo+e s(ale. The (aller re/uested what was (alled aemer*e (y stay0i pro(edure. A sire sou ded! alerti * all

perso el to pro(eed to the earest buildi *! (lose allwi dows a d doors! a d to use the telepho e o ly i aemer*e (y.

With radioa(ti+e (o tami atio risi * rapidly by the(o trol room door0 ot yet deadly! but a war i * *as mas#swere issued to the (rew at the (o trol pa el. 4ut (riti(al a dur*e t dis(ussio s were impossible throu*h the mas#s! a d

the (rew was )or(ed to retreat to a other! less (o tami ated buildi *.At 68' ,.M. the pro5e(t dire(tor a d the radiatio

ha;ards (o trol dire(tor *a+e the order to e+a(uate the e tirei stallatio ! i (ludi * buildi *s a d *rou ds. All but theesse tial (rew )ollowed the prepared pro(edure6 hurryi * ia orderly ma er to the *ates! holdi * a ha d#er(hie) o+er the ose a d mouth.

Mea while! the rea(tor (rew! remo+i * *as mas#s o ly)or the purpose o) dis(ussio ! stood by helplessly as moretha a millio *allo s o) hi*hly radioa(ti+e water )looded the

baseme t o) the rea(tor buildi *. I) they tried to stop thewater! the deadly melted )uel i the rea(tor mi*ht (at(h )irea d ma#e the situatio e+e more disastrous. The )loodedwater (o tai ed te times the amou t o) lo *0li)e

radioa(ti+ity that there was i the e tire world i $%89. 4ut*radually! i se+eral hours! the rea(tor tamed dow .


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4e(ause o) the small si;e o) the rea(tor a d its remote

lo(atio away )rom (ities! the dama*e was mi imal. The pai )ul pro(ess o) de(o tami atio was be*u (autiously thee3t day6 s(rubbi * e+ery s/uare i (h o) sur)a(e i the ei*ht0

story0hi*h "RH buildi * by mop a d spo *e soa#ed ideter*e t burial o) all the soiled (lea i * materials thedo i * o) hot! sweaty plasti( suits a d S(ott0,a# respirator mas#s the hurried (o stru(tio o) a pipeli e to a sa dy +alleyo+er a mile away to dump the millio *allo s o) radioa(ti+ewater so that it would 7t (o tami ate the earby OttawaRi+er. The swolle a d melted )uel0a lethal sour(e o) radiatio )rom the melted ura ium0had to be #ept (ool by(o e(ti * water hoses to ea(h rod.

The amou t o) radiatio that ea(h ma would re(ei+eduri * the de(o tami atio 5ob had to be ratio ed (are)ully.Radiatio doses are (umulati+e the time o) e3posure must be

limited. S#illed operators were spared i the early (lea 0upsta*es to pre+e t them )rom absorbi * so mu(h radiatio theywould be u a+ailable later. ,erso el )rom other departme tswere soli(ited )or the ris#y 5ob a d trai ed o a spe(ial mo(#0up o) the rea(tor. The simple 5ob o) remo+i * o e )la *e a di serti * a diaphra*m i the (oola t pipes too# twe ty me !(lad i )ull prote(ti+e suits a d *as mas#s! a d wor#i * i(are)ully pla ed relays. The radiatio at this lo(atio was sohot that o ly mome ts (ould be spe t there.

There was e+ide (e o) a hydro*e 0o3y*e e3plosioi side the rea(tor! alo * with the melted ura ium that hadriddled a d s(arred the *uts o) the (ore. 4ut the *e eral(o se sus was that Chal# Ri+er a d the me wor#i * o the

"RH rea(tor were lu(#y. There was o e3plosio outside therea(tor. The ura ium melti * was (o tai ed.

As the melted )uel a d bro#e steel were )i ally ba**ed!a d dra**ed away )or burial! there was measurable relie) ithe (ommu ity o) Chal# Ri+er. Espe(ially whe a post0


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mortem re+iew re+ealed that i) o e more (o trol rod had

5ammed! the i (rease i the )issio produ(ts released i to theair (ould ha+e wiped out the bedroom +illa*e o) Deep Ri+er a d beyo d.

-rom the a((ide t (ame lesso s )or the e tirei ter atio al u(lear (ommu ity. O e de)e(t leads to a other0a d a other. O e huma error does the same. Most areu predi(table. This s owballi * throws o)) all the (are)ully(al(ulated e *i eeri * probability studies as to the (ha (es o) a ma5or a((ide t. Most si *le errors mi*ht be (o trolled. It isthe errors (ompou di * the errors that o (omputer (a)oresee. Murphy7s Law6 1I) a ythi * (a *o wro *! itwill.10the bu*aboo o) all e *i eers would be stal#i * the

u(lear e er*y )ield! as e+erywhere else.The awesome (o se/ue (es o) a )ull0s(ale u(lear power

pla t a((ide t automati(ally dema d that the desi* !

(o stru(tio ! e/uipme t! a d the me behi d it all must bei )allible. The Chal# Ri+er a((ide t produ(ed a ma5or /uestio 6 Was i )allibility possibleJ

With a u tested breeder rea(tor! twe ty times more power)ul tha a y that had bee built be)ore! situated i themiddle o) a hu*e populatio (e ter! this was the /uestio thatWal#er Cisler a d his s#illed team o) e *i eers at La*oo a4ea(h would ha+e to a swer.


27/297

TWO

Li#e e+erybody else i the busi ess! Wal#er Cisler was pai )ully aware o) the lesso s to be lear ed )rom the Chal# Ri+er a((ide t. 2e would ha+e to #eep i mi d that the

breeder rea(tor his *roup was pla i * was ot o ly moreda *erous a d se siti+e tha the Ca adia hea+y0water rea(tor! but so ma y times more power)ul that the(o se/ue (es o) a a((ide t (ould be ma y orders o) ma* itude more disastrous.

4ut problem0sol+i * was a built0i (hara(teristi( o) thedy ami( Cisler! a d he be*a *atheri * me arou d him whowere (o )ide t that they (ould (o /uer a y sort o) sa)ety

problem. To a((omplish this they would ha+e to e3ami ee+ery possibility o) a a((ide t i i )i ite detail. They wouldha+e to measure a y (o (ei+able (ombi atio where thi *smi*ht *o wro *! a d ma#e sure the desi* o) the rea(tor would pro+ide )or it. E+e the most )ar)et(hed possibilitieswould be (o sidered a d the mea s o) prote(ti * a*ai stthem )lawlessly wor#ed out.

All throu*h $%' a d i to $%'8! the pla s mo+ed slowly.It was o easy 5ob to *ather a sta)) that would ha+e to meetthe (riterio o) i )allibility! but the *roup that 5oi ed Cisler i


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his pro5e(t shared (ommo moti+atio s. They # ew well the

*rowi * eed )or ew sour(es o) power a d e er*y0lo * be)ore the publi( e+er *a+e a y thou*ht to the situatio . A das me o) e terprise! they were (o )ide t a d determi ed thatthey (ould best meet this eed throu*h the (o (ept o) the

u(lear breeder! the u i/ue ma(hi e that (ould ma#e its ow)uel.

They had pride i both their +isio a d (ra)tsma ship!a d they were ot without +a ity. They also had the e(essaryi (e ti+e. Most importa t! there was a (halle *e here! a d i) the /uestio o) sa)ety (ould be sol+ed! meeti * the (halle *ewould ot o ly e+e tually bri * pro)it! but imme se be e)its)or so(iety as well. Althou*h there was still o o))i(ial*o+er me t sa (tio )or pri+ate i dustry to *o ahead with a

u(lear power pro*ram! Cisler a d his team were ma#i * surethey would be ready )or it whe it (ame.

Whe Eise hower si* ed the ame ded Atomi( E er*yA(t i to law at the e d o) Au*ust! $%'8! it was the si* al tomo+e )ull speed ahead. -or the )irst time! atomi( )a(ilities(ould be ow ed by pri+ate (ompa ies. Cisler had already*athered B .' millio )or the basi( resear(h o the rea(tor!mu(h o) the resear(h already ha+i * re(ei+ed ta(it appro+al)rom the AEC throu*h a i dustrial (ommittee set up by the(ommissio some years be)ore.

-urther impetus )or Cisler7s pro5e(t was ,reside tEise hower7s appoi tme t o) Lewis Strauss! a i +estme t

ba #er who had lo * bee a(ti+e i *o+er me t a))airs! as theew (hairma o) the Atomi( E er*y Commissio . Strauss

was a stro * supporter o) *etti * u(lear power out o) theAEC a d i to the pri+ate se(tor. 2e was a brittle a d(o tro+ersial )i*ure! but li#e Cisler he had the (apa(ity )or

bulldo;i * a pro5e(t throu*h to the )i ish.O e o) the )irst problems )or Strauss to determi e waswhi(h type o) rea(tor was pra(ti(al )or pri+ate i dustry. I


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additio to the breeder! the type o) rea(tor that Admiral

Ri(#o+er was su((ess)ully de+elopi * )or submari es alsoseemed lo*i(al. It was (alled the li*ht0water rea(tor. The basi( pri (iple was the same )or both6 the splitti * o) atomsi the ura ium (ore to produ(e heat! whi(h i tur would

produ(e steam to tur the *e erators. 4ut o ly the breeder (ould (apture the e3(ess eutro s to (reate ew )uel! a d thisis what made it so appeali * to the ima*i atio . = der Strauss7s pla ! publi( utilities would be e (oura*ed to *oahead with both. The li*ht0water rea(tor! bei * more

predi(table a d less ris#y! would be ta#i * the lead i popularity amo * those utilities who )eared the u (ertai !u tested! u e3plored /uir#s o) the breeder.

4oth types o) rea(tors had sa)ety problems. The )uel i ali*ht0water rea(tor (a ot )orm a (riti(al mass. 4ut the hi*h

pressures e(essary )or the li*ht0water rea(tor made it sub5e(t

to (riti(al )ailures. -or e3ample! the e))e(t o) lo *0termradiatio o the metals o) the )uel rods was u predi(table. Or u der a((ide t (o ditio s! the molte (ore (ould )all i to thewater. The '!999K- (ore (ould the (ause a +iole t steame3plosio a d brea(h the (o tai me t! spewi * radioa(ti+ity.There was also the possibility o) earth/ua#e! sabota*e! or huma error.

The breeder rea(tor had spe(ial problems. 4esides produ(i * pluto ium! its (ore (ould tur i to a (riti(al mass.It also was (ooled by li/uid sodium! a thi(# +is(ous )luid thatis sub5e(t to spe(ial ris#s. I (o ta(t with water or air! thesodium (ould e3plode a d )lash i to )ire. I (ase o) disaster!e+e ts would o((ur o e thousa d times )aster tha with theli*ht0water models.

Cisler was (o )ide t all these problems (ould be sol+ed.

2e de(ided to )or*e ahead with his pla s )or the breeder rea(tor! while other utilities i other parts o) the (ou try*e erally )a+ored the idea o) the li*ht0water rea(tor. O) ma5or


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importa (e was the o))er o) *o+er me tal aid. All the utilities

i +ol+ed i de+elopi * either type o) rea(tor would bere(ei+i * (o siderable help. Desi* resear(h would be made)reely a+ailable! a d ura ium )uel would be )ur ished at a)ra(tio o) the (ost that the AEC spe t to produ(e it. A dsi (e the pluto ium produ(ed by the breeder (ould be sold

ba(# to the *o+er me t! as the rea(tor (o ti ued to produ(emore )uel tha it (o sumed! the breeder rea(tor prese ted amore attra(ti+e lo *0ra *e pi(ture.

It was so appeali * that more blue0(hip utilities 5oi ed iwith Cisler7s breeder pro5e(t. Dow Chemi(al! howe+er!withdrew to (o (e trate o the (hemi(al aspe(ts o) the

u(lear )ield. At a later date! -ord a d e eral Motors 5oi edi ! too. The ew (o sortium was amed the Atomi( ,ower De+elopme t Asso(iates! with Wal#er Cisler as preside t.They would be )a(i * e dless meeti *s with the AEC as they

be*a to e3plore the pote tial o) tami * the mer(urial atom.The pro5e(t sta)) was as aware o) sa)ety as a yo e else!a d they would ha+e to be (o sideri * both ma5or a d mi or da *ers o) a breeder rea(tor. The possibility o) a ru awaymeltdow is the most (riti(al problem that a y rea(tor!

breeder or otherwise! must )a(e. Whe u(lear )uel! usuallyura ium! melts li#e a (a dle i to a wa3y! drippy mass! it (a

be(ome u predi(table. It mi*ht melt dow throu*h the bottomo) the rea(tor +essel i what e *i eers (all the 1Chi aSy drome1 the molte mass o) ura ium headi * dowthrou*h the earth toward Chi a. I) it )orms i to a thi(# mass!it is possible )or it to (ause either a (hemi(al or a small

u(lear e3plosio that mi*ht brea(h the (o tai me t buildi *.I tur ! this (ould release a sile t! odorless! tasteless!(olorless (loud o) radioa(ti+e *ases a d parti(les i to the

atmosphere. The resulti * plume (ould (o tami ate! #ill! a di 5ure as mu(h or more tha do;e s! s(ores! or hu dreds o) 2iroshima0type bombs0depe di * upo the si;e o) the rea(tor


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a d the amou t o) )issio produ(ts built up i the )uel as it

be(omes depleted. "o s(ie tist! e+e the stro *est supporter o) u(lear power! disa*reed that! i) the u thi #able happe ed! therewould be a massi+e a d u pre(ede ted (atastrophe.

"o e o) the me i the AEC or pri+ate i dustry too# thisrespo sibility li*htly. They were as (o (er ed as a yo eabout their homes! their )amilies! a d their duty to the publi(.

Whe Cisler7s sta)) met with AEC o))i(ials at the DetroitEdiso o))i(es o "o+ember $9! $%'8! i a *uarded! (lassi)iedmeeti *! the sa)ety issue was o e+eryo e7s mi d. ,rese t wasWalter Fi ! )ather o) the E4R0I whi(h had produ(ed the )irstto#e atomi( ele(tri(al power! a d 2a s 4ethe! the "obellaureate a d physi(ist )rom Cor ell! who was a(ti * as a(o sulta t )or Cisler7s *roup.

The E4R0I was o) (riti(al importa (e to Cisler7s pro5e(t!

be(ause it was a Ti #er0Toy model o) what would later be built at La*oo a 4ea(h. The e ri(hed =ra ium0 ' )uelwould be almost the same )or both rea(tors. I) a ru awaymeltdow should de+elop! a d the )uel should reassembleitsel) at the bottom o) the rea(tor! it was e tirely possible )or a breeder rea(tor li#e E4R0$! or the breeder pla ed )or Mi(hi*a ! to tur itsel) i to a mass similar to that o) a u(lear

bomb! ot with the same e3plosi+e power! but still asi* i)i(a t (o tami atio pote tial i) the (o tai me t were

brea(hed.There were +arious ames )or this (o ditio . Some

(alled it a 1superprompt (riti(al power e3(ursio .1 Othersmerely re)erred to it as 1prompt (riti(al.1 Whate+er it was(alled! it (ould (reate a (hai rea(tio that mi*ht spi out o) (o trol! a d the othi * (ould be do e to stop it. The ma5or

(o se/ue (e would +ery li#ely be a brea(h o) (o tai me t!a d the spreadi * o) radioa(ti+e )allout.


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Fi a d 4ethe a*reed about what would happe i) the

(e tral se(tio o) the rea(tor (ore were to melt a d ru dowthe tubes! a d both made it (lear that this (ould be adisastrous e+e t. I) the )uel rods melted or warped! o o e(ould predi(t what #i d o) (o )i*uratio mi*ht result. I) itwere (ompa(t! Fi )elt! it (ould 1disassemble the ma(hi e.1I plai la *ua*e! this mea t a u(lear e3plosio .

Althou*h these possibilities were )ra #ly admitted! theme at the meeti * were (o )ide t that e *i eeri * # ow0how (ould ma#e sure that this u thi #able possibility would

e+er happe . 4ut the breeder! they )elt! was the ultimatea swer to sa+i * the world )rom a pe di * e er*y (risis.They were (o +i (ed that their s#ills (ould (o /uer theda *ers a d bri * the be e)its. Cisler was passio ate i his

belie)s. 1The breeder rea(tor!1 he said to his (ollea*ues!1would (o ti uously produ(e amou ts o) )issio able material

i e3(ess o) that (o sumed. Thus breeder rea(tors wouldau*me t rather tha (o sume the world7s supply o) )issio able materials.1

The ma5or /uestio be)ore these leadi * physi(ists a de *i eers was e+er /uite )ully a swered at the meeti *6 Wasit sa)e to pla(e a de+elopme tal breeder rea(tor hal)way

betwee Detroit a d Toledo! withi thirty miles o) ea(h (ity!i the heart o) a area embra(i * a populatio o) o+er )our millio J

I spite o) the (o tro+ersy that was to *row o+er the years!the s(ie tists who met at Detroit Ediso o that "o+ember day i $%'8 were both i spired a d determi ed to put the )ast0)lyi * eutro s o) =ra ium0 ' to wor# )or the be e)it o) so(iety. Althou*h their (riti(s were sayi * that they were

ma#i * a u a((eptable +alue 5ud*me t )or the publi(! theywere dedi(ated to the tas# o) buildi * a rea(tor that would otthreate their )amilies! themsel+es! or the populatio . Their


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)ore# owled*e o) the pote tial da *ers a d their s#ill i

deali * with them would be their prote(ti+e armor.Shortly a)ter the meeti *! Wal#er Cisler a ou (ed that*rou d brea#i * )or the ew )ast0breeder would de)i itelyta#e pla(e withi the e3t )i+e years. 4ut Cisler7s optimismwas ot shared by a other *roup absolutely e(essary )or the

buildi * o) the rea(tor6 the i sura (e i dustry. With the pote tial )or a (atastrophe (reated by a y sort o) rea(tor!whether it be )ast0breeder or li*ht0water! it would be sui(ideto be*i operatio s without i sura (e.

The i sura (e me were (hary a d timid. They loo#ed atthe u(lear power pla ts o the drawi * boards! Cisler7samo * them! with a )ishy eye. The pote tial da *er to the

publi( appeared so i (redibly *reat that ot a si *le i sura (e(ompa y was i terested i ta#i * the *amble! ot e+eLloyd7s o) Lo do ! the *reatest o) ris# ta#ers.

Chal# Ri+er had pro+e that a((ide ts (ould happe .There was still o realisti( estimate as to e3a(tly how ma y people would be #illed! maimed! or (ome dow withleu#emia i) a 1e er*y release1 hit a populated area. Toi sure e ri(hed ura ium or pluto ium (ould hardly be de)i edas a (o +e tio al ris#. As the most to3i( substa (e # ow toma ! it has bee estimated that e+e $ 9!999!999th o) aou (e o) pluto ium (ould bri * o (a (er i) i haled. A dwhat worried the i surers most were the pla s bei * )ormed

by the AEC that (alled )or the (reatio o) se+eral hu dredthousa d pou ds o) pluto ium by the e d o) the (e tury! allo) it possessi * a ha;ardous li)e spa o) a mi imum o) 8 9!999 years.

The i sura (e me were realists. A d they were isomewhat o) a s/uee;e. They did ot wa t the *o+er me t to

ta#e o+er the i sura (e )u (tio i this ew! )ast0mo+i *i dustry. Yet they had o )irm data o whi(h to estimate theris# they would ha+e to assume.


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It was be(omi * a serious roadblo(#. Westi *house

Ele(tri(! whi(h be(ame part o) the elaborate (o *lomerate!)latly stated that it would ot be able to *o ahead with the(o stru(tio o) a y atomi( power pla ts u less it (ould *et

prote(tio a*ai st the e ormous losses that would result )roma ma5or u(lear a((ide t. Westi *house was 5oi ed by CoEdiso ! the "ew Yor# utility! whi(h stated that it would otthi # o) operati * its pla ed ew li*ht0water rea(tor i) therewas o i sura (e a+ailable.

Char*ed with the stra *e a d (o )li(ti * respo sibilityo) both re*ulati * a d promoti * the )led*li * u(lear i dustry! the 5oi t Committee o Atomi( E er*y o) Co *ressa d the AEC were aware that! u less a(tio was ta#e to

pro+ide i sura (e prote(tio ! o atomi( pla ts whate+er would be built or operated. Some proposals were bei * madewhereby the *o+er me t mi*ht suppleme t whate+er to#e

amou t the i sura (e i dustry was willi * to ris#. O e idea ithe wi d was a proposal by Co *ressma Mel+i ,ri(e a dSe ator Cli to A derso )or a pla whereby the ma3imum(o+era*e would total o ly B':9 millio . O) this total thei dustry was re/uired to obtai as mu(h i sura (e as the

pri+ate i sura (e pool would pro+ide a d the )ederal*o+er me t would pro+ide the rest o) the i sura (e up to ama3imum amou t o) B'99 millio . Si (e the pri+atei sura (e (ompa ies were willi * to put up o ly B:' millioa drop i the bu(#et (ompared to the dama*es that mi*htresult )rom a meltdow 0the )ederal *o+er me t7s share wasB8%' millio . Criti(s o) the proposal poi ted out that! ot o lywould the publi( ta3payer be payi * )or pri+ate i dustry7si sura (e! but that the (eili * limit mi*ht lea+e thousa ds o) +i(tims u i dem i)ied.

Cisler reali;ed that all the e *i eeri * # ow0how he(ould muster (ould ot *et arou d this obsta(le. 2e be*a pushi * 1war0ris# i sura (e1 )rom the *o+er me t despite his


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sta d a*ai st *o+er me t e (roa(hme t. 2e had ot yet made

a )ormal proposal to the AEC to build the rea(tor. 2owe+er!the resear(h a d de+elopme t wor# had mo+ed ahead slowly but persiste tly! a d the )ormal appli(atio would ot be )ar o)).

A *ood ma y s(ie tists did ot share Cisler7s (o )ide (e ithe )easibility o) buildi * a (ommer(ial breeder rea(tor i ahea+ily populated area. Amo * them was Dr. eor*e L. Well!a )ormer resear(h asso(iate o) the late Dr. E ri(o -ermi atColumbia0the ma )or whom Cisler7s rea(tor would be amed.

eor*e Weil had bee a member o) the team o) s(ie tists thathad brou*ht about the )irst sustai ed u(lear (hai rea(tiou der eath Sta** Stadium i Chi(a*o )or the wartimeMa hatta ,ro5e(t. 2e had re(e tly resi* ed as the (hie) o) the rea(tor bra (h o) the di+isio o) resear(h )or the AEC!

a d be(ome a pri+ate (o sulta t to (ompa ies i terested i*oi * i to atomi( e er*y u der the ew *o+er me ti (e ti+es )or so doi *.

I April! $%''! se+eral mo ths a)ter the se(ret meeti * atDetroit Ediso ! Well was as#ed (o )ide tially by o e o) his(lie ts! a lar*e utility (ompa y! whether it should 5oi i withWal#er Cisler7s pio eeri * e))ort. Weil *a+e the /uestioserious thou*ht. 2is lo * e3perie (e! )rom the )irst splitti *o) the atom at Sta** Stadium to his hi*h respo sibilities withthe AEC! had (arried him throu*h a pai )ul pro(ess o) ree3ami atio ! a d he had be(ome spe(i)i(ally (o (er edwith what was happe i * i the *rowth o) radioa(ti+e

poiso s. 2e was ot at all happy about it.Whe he had started wor#i * with the Ma hatta ,ro5e(t

duri * World War II! radium had bee the o ly sour(e o) the

poiso s. The e tire amou t i the world totaled a mere $!999(uries o) radium. The thi est (hip o) radium is deadly. It


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must be #ept i a thi(# lead (o tai er a d ha dled by remote

(o trol.4ut with the u(lear power pla ts bei * pla ed )or the)uture! it would be possible )or a si *le u(lear power pla t to(o tai radioa(ti+e materials e/ual to 9 billio (uries o) radium. With )uture pro5e(tio s showi * hu dreds o) lar*e

u(lear pla ts a(ross the (ou try o+er the e3t )i)ty years!Weil be*a as#i * himsel)6 1What #i d o) sword o) Damo(leswill be ha *i * o+er our heads ow a d i the )utureJ1

4e(ause o) this! Well (ould ot *o alo * with the idea o) his (lie t 5oi i * the Cisler power pla t (o sortium. O April

:! $%''! he wrote a letter to them that said61 it is my opi io that the time is ot ow ripe )or the

(o stru(tio o) lar*e s(ale de+elopme tal )ast0breeder rea(tors Nthe word )ast re)erred to the hi*h0speed eutro s .The opi io is based o the )ollowi * (o sideratio s6

1$. The te(h olo*y o) the )ast0breeder rea(tors is i theearly sta*es o) de+elopme t.

1 . There are ma y di))i(ult te(h i(al a d e *i eeri * problems whi(h must be sol+ed be)ore (ommer(ially )easible)ast0breeder rea(tors (a be (o stru(ted.

1 . The solutio o) these problems will i +ol+e a lo *a d (ostly pro*ram.1

4ut there was also a other +ery pra(ti(al a d subtlethou*ht u derlyi * Weil7s thi #i *6 I) there were to be o lyo e ma5or u(lear pla t a((ide t >a d e+e the AEC woulda*ree that this was e tirely possible@! the publi( outra*ewould be so *reat be(ause o) the (atastrophi( loss o) li)e a di 5uries! that it would immediately spell the e d o) u(lear

power. Thus! the billio s o) dollars i +ested would be wipedout0to say othi * o) the estimated billio s o) dollars dama*e


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(aused by the a((ide t. Was this pre(arious s(a))old a

)i a (ially sou d plat)orm to build o JWeil7s letter we t o to say that o ly small! pilot0s(alerea(tors should be attempted the (ha (e o) su((ess o) the-ermi rea(tor was small i deed. 4e(ause he was thi #i * iterms o) his (lie t7s be e)it0ris# outloo#! his re(omme datiowas based purely o (old! pro)it0a d0loss pra(ti(ality. 2is(lie t a*reed! a d de(li ed to 5oi i the pro5e(t.

I the mo ths that )ollowed the )irst (lassi)ied meeti * aboutthe Cisler pla s! Al)red Amorosi was amed te(h i(aldire(tor o) the pro5e(t. 2is s(ie ti)i( desi* a d resear(h team

be*a e3ami i * e+ery possible doubt about the sa)ety o) the)ast breeder. They were )ortu ate to ha+e the e3perime talrea(tor E4R0I out i Idaho -alls as a pilot pla t. They would

be depe di * o it to pro+ide test i )ormatio about the

sa)ety o) their pro5e(t.Althou*h the E4R0I was o) su(h low power that it (ouldi o way a(t as a realisti( bluepri t )or the )ull power (ommer(ial rea(tor (o templated by the Detroit Ediso*roup! it (ould )ur ish a *rou d )or e3perime ts to )ore(aststability a d (he(# wea# esses. Alo * with other e3perime tal rea(tors at the AEC test statio i Idaho -alls!the E4R0I also (ould supply i )ormatio o what mi*hthappe i) there were a meltdow o) the (ommer(ial rea(tor7s(ore.

Amorosi a d his sta)) dire(ted their atte tio to twospe(ial da *er areas i the desi* o) the breeder rea(tor. O e(o (er ed the ability o) the rea(tor to de(rease i rea(ti+ity asits temperature rose a importa t sa)ety (o (er whe deali *with split0se(o d timi *. -or ma3imum sa)ety! the rea(tor

should ha+e what is (alled a 1 e*ati+e temperature(oe))i(ie t1 to help (o trol a y sudde power sur*e by#eepi * the power a d temperature dow .


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A other subtle (hara(teristi( that (ould spell the

di))ere (e betwee sa)ety a d disaster was what was termedthe 1Doppler e))e(t.1 I) this was e*ati+e! it was desirable! be(ause it slowed dow the )issio i *. I) it was positi+e! itwas da *erous! be(ause it (ould i (rease a already ris#y

power sur*e. The (o trol o) a rea(tor was o)te as deli(ate astryi * to ad5ust the hot water i a hotel shower at brea#)asttime.

4oth o) these problems were (are)ully e3ami ed iWashi *to o


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o its desi* J Or! i) the E4R0I was showi * the da *erous

1positi+e temperature (oe))i(ie t!1 why should they e3pe(tthe lar*er (ommer(ial rea(tor ot to ha+e itJ What wouldhappe to the stability o) the rea(tor a)ter pluto ium was)ormedJ What i) e3(essi+e )uel was loaded i to the rea(torJWhat e))e(t would the hot li/uid sodium rushi * throu*h therea(tor ha+e o these sa)ety (he(#sJ "o e o) the DetroitEdiso theories had bee (he(#ed e3perime tally. 2ow (ouldthis be do e sa)elyJ

Amorosi a d the Detroit *roup (o te ded at the meeti *that all this (ould be do e a)ter the rea(tor had bee built atLa*oo a 4ea(h. 4ut se+eral members o) the Ad+isoryCommittee did ot thi # that was proper or sa)e.

The results o) the


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thi #er! a d he spe t lo * wee#s a aly;i * 5ust what ha;ards

the )ast0breeder mi*ht de+elop.M(Carthy7s sa)ety studies were i )i itely (omple3 a de3a(ti *. Amo * other thi *s! he was (o (er ed about the

possibility o) 1a e3plosi+e e er*y release1 o((urri * i the(ore! whi(h o) (ourse would be a blood(urdli * e+e t o) u # ow proportio s. 1Si (e the (o (e tratio a d amou t o) )issio able material i a )ast power rea(tor is su))i(ie t to

produ(e a umber o) (riti(al masses i) arra *ed (ompa(tly!1he wrote i a (ooperati+e study with a AEC physi(ist! 1a

umber o) i +esti*atio s ha+e bee made to (o sider theredistributio a d reassembly problem.1

M(Carthy was tal#i * about the e ormous da *er o) the)uel i the rea(tor melti * i mi(rose(o ds! a d rearra *i *itsel) i to a u predi(table shape that (ould e3plode! brea(hthe (o tai me t! a d spew the massi+e amou ts o)

radioa(ti+e poiso s i to the air. Cal(ulatio s up to this timehad show that a se+ere meltdow a((ide t i a (ommer(ial0si;ed u(lear breeder pla t (ould (reate a e3plosio e/ual toa thousa d or more pou ds o) T"T. M(Carthy7s a alysisi di(ated that there were ma y u # ow s! )ew a swers to(riti(al /uestio s! ma y problems u sol+ed! a d +ery littlee3perime tal i )ormatio i other importa t areas. Spea#i *o) the u # ow area o) the e3plosio possibility i a lar*e

u(lear pla t! M(Carthy7s paper (o (luded6 1The possibilitythat o ly a portio o) su(h a rea(tor melts! u der*oes arelati+ely mild e3plosio whi(h a(ts to (ompress other partso) the (ore e3tremely rapidly! thus i sti*ati * a mu(h lar*er e er*y release Ne3plosio ! eeds )urther i +esti*atio .1

M(Carthy had oted that the area o) meltdowi +esti*atio remai ed o e o) the (e tral problems i )ast0

breeder sa)ety studies. So mu(h (ould o((ur so /ui(#ly that area(tor (ould be destroyed be)ore the (o trol system wouldha+e time to rea(t. 2e also re(o* i;ed that ma y o) the


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(al(ulatio s re*ardi * the ew li/uid sodium (oola t! so

e(essary to pre+e t a a((ide t! were imper)e(t.These were the sorts o) problems that the e *i eers a ds(ie tists wor#i * with Cisler were )a(i *. 4ut M(Carthy hadthe (o )ide (e that he a d his )ellow (rew members (ouldo+er(ome them. It was a (halle *e! a d M(Carthy re+eled iit. 2e a d other sta)) members made )re/ue t trips to thesprawli *! lo ely AEC statio at Idaho -alls to (he(# outtheir (al(ulatio s i a series o) mo(#0ups o the E4R0I

breeder a d other small0s(ale rea(tors i the area.Mea while! the i sura (e (ompa ies remai ed

u (o +i (ed that a (ommer(ial u(lear rea(tor ear a lar*e populatio (e ter was a i surable ris#. The e tire pooledi sura (e i dustry was ot willi * to o))er a y measurable#i d o) prote(tio beyo d the B:' millio to#e (o+era*e.A d what was to happe with the E4R0I rea(tor i Idaho

-alls i "o+ember o) $%'' did little to *i+e the i sura (e(ompa ies (o )ide (e.

O e o) the problems the AEC s(ie tists had worried aboutearlier was the sudde (ha *es i )uel temperature at E4R0I.A de(isio was made to ru some tests a d )i d out what was(ausi * the situatio .

The (e tral (ore o) the E4R0I was shaped li#e ahe3a*o . ,a(#ed ti*htly i to it were some two hu dredstai less steel tubes (alled (laddi *. They loo#ed +ery mu(hli#e (urtai rods! less tha hal) a i (h i diameter. I sideea(h were two pellets that loo#ed li#e mi iature Tootsie Rollswhi(h were made o) hi*hly e ri(hed =ra ium0 '. Arou dthe (e tral he3a*o (ore were sta(#ed the thi(#er rods o) what was (alled the i er bla #et. These were made o) raw

=ra ium0 . They were bombarded by the lea#i * eutro s)rom the (ore a d (o +erted i to pluto ium.


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I a outer (ir(le arou d both the (ore a d the i er

bla #et was a air0(ooled outer bla #et o) =ra ium0 bri(#s. Dow throu*h this wall o) bri(#s ra the (o trol rods!twel+e o) them. Whe they were withdraw out o) the pile!the splitti * o) the atoms would be*i i) i serted all the waydow ! the splitti * stopped. As a )urther sa)ety measure! thee tire outer bla #et (ould be dropped dow out o) the )issioa(tio ! pro+idi * )or a emer*e (y shutdow o) the rea(tor.

The E4R0I rea(tor would be started at +ery low powerP 5ust a )ew watts. The the power would be i (reased. Spe(iali strume ts were atta(hed to #ey parts o) the rea(tor me(ha ism to #eep tra(# o) the temperatures. They were*oi * to be allowed to rise to o+er %99K-.! ot too ma yde*rees u der the melti * poi t o) the )uel. It would be atri(#y operatio . The (o trol room sta)) would ha+e to bealert. A d it was most esse tial that the operator at the (o trol

be ready )or a e3tremely rapid shutdow at e3a(tly the ri*htmome t. 2owe+er! there was a e3perie (ed! # owled*eablesta)) o ha d! a d there was little (o (er about their (apa(ityto ha dle the situatio .

The e3perime t be*a ormally at the +ery low0power le+el o) $$ watts0barely e/ual to the smallest o) li*ht bulbs.The motor0dri+e (o trol rods were slowly withdraw out o) the (ore! a d the )issio rea(ti+ity i (reased up to '9 watts.

As the power le+el mo+ed up to '99 watts! there were(o )usi * temperature readi *s amo * the spe(ial a dsta dard i strume ts. It be(ame appare t that the rea(tor mi*ht be o its way to a e3(ursio 0a sudde rapid rise i the

power le+el.The pla s! (are)ully laid out i ad+a (e! had prepared )or

this sort o) emer*e (y. The s(ie tist i (har*e was to *i+e a

+erbal (omma d to the operator at the (o trol pa el. 2e! itur ! was to immediately trip the )ast0a(tio (o trol rods. The


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slower! motor0dri+e rods (ould ot ha dle the shutdow i

time.With the temperature a d power ow de)i itely risi *out o) (o trol! the head s(ie tist *a+e the (omma d )or theoperator to trip the )ast (o trol rods. They were deali * owwith a o e0se(o d leeway. 4y mista#e! the operator hit the

butto )or the slower! motor0dri+e (o trol rods.The power (o ti ued to rise! doubli * e+ery two0te ths

o) a se(o d. The (hie) s(ie tist the reali;ed what hadhappe ed. 2e rea(hed o+er a d hit the rapid shuto)) butto .The sa)ety rods respo ded but the power be*a i (reasi *a*ai . The i strume ts we t o)) s(ale.

Qui(#ly! the s(ram butto was pushed! whi(h droppedthe =ra ium0 outer bla #et to redu(e the )issiorea(ti+ity. 4ut withi )i)tee mi utes! radioa(ti+ity wasre*istered i a (ooli * system some dista (e )rom the rea(tor!

a d i the +e tilatio e3haust du(ts.The buildi * was immediately e+a(uated. A health0 physi(s team mo+ed i . They )ou d low0le+el (o tami atio by radioa(ti+e )issio *ases! but )ortu ately o o e was hurt.

"early hal) o) the (ore o) the small rea(tor had melted!)oami * a d )rothi * as it did so. The temperatures hadrea(hed o+er 999K-.0mu(h more tha the melti * poi t o) the )uel a d stai less steel (laddi *. The li/uid sodium(oola t had boiled o+er! pushi * the ura ium outward )romthe (e ter o) the (ore a d blo(#i * (oola t (ha els. ,artlymelted rods dropped i to a molte mass below the (ore!)ormi * what is # ow as a eute(ti( mi3ture. The mass)i ally (hilled a d )ro;e. -ortu ately! it did ot tur itsel) i toa (riti(al mass0a e+e t that would ha+e made a e3plosio astro * possibility.

Whe the E4R0I (rew be*a li(#i * its wou ds a)ter thee3(ursio ! they made se+eral dis(o+eries. O e was that a*reat ma y /uestio s about the u sa)e (hara(teristi(s o) the


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breeder rea(tor remai ed u a swered. A other was that! with

the power o) the rea(tor doubli * e+ery te th o) a se(o d!there was o mar*i )or error. Still a other was that the )uelrods had probably bowed out o) shape be)ore the a((ide t!a d had bee the ma5or (ause o) it.

4ut it was also ob+ious that! re*ardless o) s#ill a d# ow0how! there had bee both huma a d materialde)i(ie (ies. A d i) it had ot bee )or the emer*e (ydroppi * o) the bla #et >the bla #et 1(up!1 it was (alled@! therea(tor would ha+e bee o e0hal) se(o d away )rom either a

u(lear ru away or a 1meltdow (rash0dow .1 I this(o ditio ! the molte (e ter o) the (ore would )ree;e i ati*htly (ompa(t mass! )ollowed by the upper part o) the (ore(rashi * dow o it. The possibility o) a low0order u(lear e3plosio i su(h a (ase was real.

The E4R0I a((ide t had serious impli(atio s )or Cisler7s

team. I) the (ore o) the E4R0I had bee pluto ium! there waslittle /uestio i the mi ds o) e3perts that a disaster (ouldha+e o((urred! e+e at the remote Idaho lo(atio . I) the E4R0Ihad bee o) the lar*er (ommer(ial si;e! the results o) thea((ide t would (ertai ly ha+e bee mu(h more se+ere.

4e(ause this rea(tor was (riti(al to the desi* o) theDetroit rea(tor! there were omi ous impli(atio s )or the)uture. It was ob+ious )rom the a((ide t that huma error (ould ot be ruled out. Yet with a (ommer(ial rea(tor i a

populated area! it somehow had to be. The words )rom the(are)ully prepared s(ie ti)i( study o) the a((ide t by MITs(ie tist T.


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Se+eral members o) the 5oi t Committee o Atomi(

E er*y were most disturbed! be(ause! li#e the -ermi pro5e(tat La*oo a 4ea(h! the E4R0I was a breeder rea(tor. It (ouldwell re)le(t the type o) problem that mi*ht ha+e to be )a(edwith (ommer(ial rea(tors i the ear )uture.

The a((ide t was also sharply disturbi * to the i sura (e(ompa ies. They would ultimately be the o es to determi ewhether a y rea(tors would be built or ot0u less the*o+er me t (ame throu*h with the ta3payer0)i a (edi sura (e. The idea o) 1war0ris#1 i sura (e seemed totallyout o) (hara(ter with a pea(etime +e ture. Yet there seemedto be o other way out. The a((ide t also pu (tuated the ideathat i) a (ommer(ial rea(tor was so de+astati *ly threate i *as to re/uire war0ris# i sura (e! with dama*es e/ual to or *reater tha the ra+a*es o) war! the ris#s would seem to betoo e ormous to (o template.

2e ry You *! a +i(e0preside t o) Liberty MutualI sura (e Compa y! was parti(ularly +e3ed by the situatio . "o o e as yet had (ome up with a y realisti( )i*ures about thehi*hest amou t o) dama*es that mi*ht be le+eled o the

publi( throu*h a ma5or u(lear a((ide t. To You *! the(atastrophe ha;ard appeared to be ma y times as *reat asa ythi * pre+iously # ow i i dustry. A d he +oi(ed his)ears to the 5oi t Committee o Atomi( E er*y6 1We ha+eheard estimates o) (atastrophe ru i * ot merely i tomillio s or te s o) millio s but i to hu dreds o) millio s a d

billio s o) dollars. It is a reaso able /uestio as to whether aha;ard o) this ma* itude should be permitted! i) it a(tuallye3ists. Ob+iously there is o pri (iple o) i sura (e that (a

be applied to a si *le lo(atio where the pote tial lossapproa(hes su(h astro omi(al proportio s.1 The he added6

1E+e i) i sura (e (ould be )ou d! there is a serious questionwhether the amount of damage to persons and property


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would be worth the possible benefit accruing from atomic

development. 1 NItali(s added.

So the a**i * /uestio was6 I) u(lear power pla ts weresa)e! why would 7t the i sura (e (ompa ies ba(# them upJOr as a other (riti( put it6 1I) the i sura (e (ompa ies do 7t

belie+e the AEC7s promise that there is little (ha (e o) aa((ide t! why should the people li+i * i the same re*io

belie+e itJ1I) this attitude were to pre+ail! Cisler7s dream would

e+er (ome true. 4ut either he or the AEC or the(o *ressio al


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THREE

4y the )irst wee# i


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e3pe(ted ha;ards. The philosophy laid dow by Cisler was to

desi* the pla t so that o (redible mal)u (tio or a((ide t(ould release a y o) the deadly radioa(ti+e )issio produ(ts)rom the rea(tor. -urther! i) the i (redible should happe !there must be o way that the ti*htly sealed (o tai me t

buildi * (ould be brea(hed by a e3plosio or a dreadedsodium0air rea(tio that (ould eat up all the o3y*e a d(ollapse the buildi *.

The sa)ety ha;ards se(tio o) the li(e se appli(atio was prepared with meti(ulous (are by Cisler7s sta)). E+ery(o (ei+able type o) a((ide t was spelled out i detail! a d theways o) (o trolli * it assessed. O e possibility (o (er ed asur*e o) rea(ti+ity o) the (hai rea(tio duri * the operatioor duri * the loadi * o) the )uel. A other was the )astreassembly o) the material i the (ore duri * a meltdowwhe the u (o trolled )uel would pile up da *erously. Either

(ould lead to a u(lear ru away or e3plosio .These possible a((ide ts were di+ided betwee thosewhi(h were (o sidered 1(redible!1 a d those whi(h werethou*ht to be 1hypotheti(al.1 The 1hypotheti(al1 *roup wasde)i ed as bei * so improbable that they were i (redible. Ieither (lassi)i(atio ! the li(e se appli(atio e3ami ed su(h

possibilities as primary sodium system lea#s >bri *i * )irea d e3plosio o (o ta(t with air or water@! loss o) pla tele(tri( supply >with the loss o) (oola t a d a ru awaymeltdow @! the droppi * o) a (ore subassembly duri *re)ueli * >a other u (o trolled meltdow possibility@! the)ailure o) the sa)ety rods to )all >a other ru away situatio @!a d the ultimate meltdow a((ide t o e that the (o tai me tshell )ailed to hold.

4e(ause there was o e3perie (e to wor# o re*ardi *

ma y o) the possible ways a ru away meltdow mi*ht *o!mu(h o) the theory had to depe d o *uesswor#. It was li#etryi * to predi(t how the lo*s i a )irepla(e mi*ht )all as they


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bur ed. O e o) the most )eared (o ditio s would be that o) a

se(o dary a((ide t a)ter the )irst part o) the meltdow had(hilled a d )ro;e . The sli*htest disturba (e o) a pile o) melted )uel (ould (ause u predi(table ha+o(. Yet the writteappli(atio was )or(ed to ote that 1 o e3perime tal data1were a+ailable o this.

4e(ause o) the importa (e o) the (o tai me t shellPthelast barrier betwee a meltdow a d the publi(Pthe pla s )or its (o stru(tio were elaborate. 2a s 4ethe had (al(ulatedthat the (o tai me t would ha+e to sta d the )or(e o) a

u(lear e3plosio e/ual to that o) )i+e hu dred pou ds o) T"T! althou*h there were other u(lear s(ie tists who(laimed the e3plosio (ould be mu(h *reater. Somei depe de t studies i di(ated it (ould be up to twe ty timesthat )or(e.

Two -ermi (o sulta ts studied what mi*ht theoreti(ally

happe to a (o tai me t buildi * that would ha+e to hold a blast e/ual to )i+e hu dred pou ds o) T"T. They (al(ulatedthat the blast wa+e would de)orm the wall perma e tly! butthat the steel a d (o (rete would #eep the de)ormatio swithi tolerable limits. They estimated that the operati *)loor would (ra(#! but ot e da *er the (o tai me t +essel.They were u (ertai whether the materials i side the rea(tor itsel)! i (ludi * the sodium pipi * a d the rea(tor +essel!would )ra(ture a d )orm missiles. 2owe+er! i) su(h missileswere )ormed! the s(ie tists did ot thi # they would brea# throu*h the (o tai me t walls.

The missile problem had to be (o sidered )rom bothi side a d out o) the bi* rea(tor dome. The +elo(ity o) ator ado had e+er bee measured! but it was # ow that it(ould hurl hu*e ob5e(ts with deadly power. It was thou*ht

that a '0)oot telepho e pole wei*hi * $!:99 pou ds! *oi *$'9 miles a hour! (ould be slammed a*ai st a u(lear power pla t buildi * by a tor ado! a d that the (o tai me t shell


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should be desi* ed to withsta d this. Whe it was dis(o+ered

that it was pra(ti(ally impossible to desi* )or su(h a(o ti *e (y! the (riteria were rela3ed so that the shell wouldo ly ha+e to prote(t a*ai st a )our0i (h by twel+e0i (hwoode pla #.

O e e3terior ha;ard that still ha *s o+er e+ery u(lear pla t is the possibility o) hea+y moder air(ra)t )alli * i to it.4e(ause the probabilities would be so small! this )a(tor was*e erally dismissed. Other (o sideratio s were earth/ua#esa d )loods whi(h would be e/ually da *erous.

Armed with the writte appli(atio ! estimates! a d bluepri ts! the me o) the -ermi pro5e(t met to prese t their (ase to the Ad+isory Committee o Rea(tor Sa)e*uards iearly


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Would the desi* o) the (o tai me t buildi * really hold the

radioa(ti+e debris sa)elyJ Could e3perime ts be (arried out atLa*oo a 4ea(h be)ore a )ull0power operatio ! without thee3perime ts themsel+es bei * too mu(h o) a sa)ety ris#JCould e+e the start0up tests at low power be (o du(tedsa)elyJ 2ow sa)e would the -ermi rea(tor be a)ter substa tialamou ts o) pluto ium had built up i the (ore bla #et! whereit would be bredJ

These were ot easy /uestio s. 4ut they were +ital as )ar as the publi( was (o (er ed. O e+erybody7s mi d was theE4R0I a((ide t. Walter Fi tal#ed about it at the meeti *!a d showed pi(tures o) the melted! twisted (ore. There wasstill a bi* /uestio mar# as to why the a((ide t had happe ed.The destru(tio o) this rea(tor (ore had made ma y tests )or the -ermi pla t impossible to (arry out. A ew E4R0II was

bei * (o stru(ted! but this would be (ompleted too late to

ser+e as a model i) the -ermi pla t was already u der (o stru(tio ! as Cisler hoped it would be. 4ut also! either the E4R0I or the E4R0II (ould really test what wouldhappe to the bi**er (ommer(ial rea(tor o (e it we t i tooperatio . Other pla s )or ade/uate (he(#i * out o) the -ermidesi* were either too premature to be o) use! or simplyi ade/uate.

O e su**estio was that a )ew )uel rods o) e ri(hed=ra ium0 ' (ould be assembled with a =ra ium0

bla #et arou d them! the pla(ed i a pot o) li/uid sodiuma d brou*ht to a meltdow (o ditio )or testi *. 4ut e+e asimple assembly li#e this would ta#e well o+er a year to(reate. Elaborate sa)ety pre(autio s would be eeded! e+ewith the smallest (olle(tio o) e ri(hed ura ium.

Cisler7s *roup! pushi * )or appro+al! poi ted out that the

"a+al Ord a (e Laboratory had estimated that the desi*would hold a e3plosio o) )i+e hu dred pou ds o) T"T.Some o) the ar*ume ts )or appro+al! howe+er! seemed wea#


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i the li*ht o) publi( sa)ety i the Detroit area. The start0up

test pro*ram at the La*oo a 4ea(h site was *oi * to be reliedo to (he(# out whether or ot a u predi(table sur*e o) power or temperature would be a. (hara(teristi( o) the ew-ermi rea(tor. The Cisler team ar*ued that! si (e the testswould be at a low0power le+el! there would be less (ha (e o) ru away meltdow . The *e eral attitude o) the Ad+isoryCommittee had bee that there should be o (ha (ewhatsoe+er o) a ru away meltdow .

A other poi t that was dis(ussed had omi ousimpli(atio s. The (riti(al testi * o) the rea(tor would be(arried out o ly whe the wi d dire(tio was )a+orable )or 1mi imum populatio e3posure1 i the e+e t o) a radiatioa((ide t. This implied a su**estio o) i se(urity i thesa)e*uards that were supposed to be so airti*ht. 4ut beyo dthat! the wi d dire(tio o the Ohio shore o) La#e Erie was

otoriously )i(#le. A d re*ardless o) the wi d dire(tio ! therewould be a (o siderable umber o) people e3posed!espe(ially the se+eral hu dred homes i the Sto y ,oi t area.

Le)t u a swered was what would happe to the stabilityo) the -ermi rea(tor a)ter the pluto ium had built up! a da)ter the thi rods o) )uel had bee battered by (o sta tradiatio . Also le)t up i the air was what would happe i) the)uel melted! a d the rea(tor was still u able to be #ept u der (o trol. The se(o dary aspe(ts o) a a((ide t were o)temore terri)yi * tha the a((ide t itsel).

Cisler a d the -ermi *roup le)t the meeti * i a mist o) u (ertai ty! as the Ad+isory Committee (o ti ued ie3e(uti+e sessio . The latter *roup was )a(i * a rather awesome respo sibility to the publi(. 4ut as a i depe de tarm o) the AEC it was also )a(ed with the poli(y dire(ti+e

)rom Chairma Lewis Strauss to push hard )or thede+elopme t o) (ommer(ial atomi( power. This (o )li(t wasmou ti * (o sta tly! as other utilities be*a (autiously to *et


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i o the tempti * ew sour(e o) e er*y. The a omaly lay i

the (o ti ui * positio o) the AEC a d the


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It would ta#e u til the )ollowi * year $%'& be)ore the

o))i(ial )i*ures o both studies would be released.4y the e d o) the third day! the Ad+isory Committee oRea(tor Sa)e*uards )i ally rea(hed a de(isio . Ro*ersM(Cullou*h! the (hairma ! sat dow o


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-ermi. The E4R0I a((ide t had bee withi a hal)0se(o d o)

disaster. I) a ythi * li#e that happe ed i the Detroit areawith the lar*er -ermi rea(tor! almost (ertai ly the )uture o) atomi( power pla ts would be (ut o)) be)ore they (ould *eto)) the *rou d.

M(Cullou*h also oted that pro+isio s would ha+e to bemade to #eep the )uel eleme ts o) the -ermi rea(tor )rom

bowi * out o) shape! as had happe ed i the E4R0I. A y timethe thi rods beari * the )uel mo+ed i to a more (ompa(tshape! the splitti * o) the atoms (ould i te si)y a d be*i toru away.

There would also ha+e to be assura (e that a y start0uptests slated )or the -ermi site would be (he(#ed out iad+a (e! i a u populated area. = less a 1 e*ati+etemperature (oe))i(ie t10 eeded to wipe out a sudde sur*e o)

power was a+ailable to pre+e t a meltdow ! o (ha (es (ould

be ta#e . The whole pre0testi * pro*ram should be )ully+eri)ied to ma#e sure that there (ould be o meltdow 1u der a y (o (ei+able (ir(umsta (es o) (o trol mal0operatio !1 asM(Cullou*h put it i his letter.

2e (o ti ued by (omme ti * that the Ad+isoryCommittee as a whole 1was ot satis)ied with the e+ide (e

prese ted that o (redible super(riti(ality a((ide t resulti *)rom meltdow (ould brea(h the (o tai er. It is )elt that amore e3te si+e theoreti(al a d e3perime tal pro*ram toe3ami e all the possibilities eeds to be established a d

pursued +i*orously. . . .1Most importa t! M(Cullou*h poi ted out! were 1mo(#0

up e3perime ts! to i sure sub(riti(al distributio o) melted)uel! a d to assure that )ree )all o) (ore parts (a otreassemble a (riti(al mass sudde ly.1 I other words! i) the

)uel melted a d sudde ly dripped i to a thi(# mass at the bottom o) the (ore! a e3plosio (ould result that would beu predi(table. >Some studies ha+e oted that the )uel (ould


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be(ome (ompa(ted a deadly (o ditio 0as it bashed i to the

other metals i the (ore to (ause o e e3plosio ! whi(h i tur(ould (ause a other o e mu(h lar*er tha the )irst. A smallmeltdow or small e3plosio would ot e(essarily spell thee d o) the da *er.@

M(Cullou*h (o *ratulated Cisler7s *roup )or its pio eeri * e))ort to ad+a (e u(lear power! but (o (luded61The Committee does ot )eel that the steps to be ta#eshould be so bold as to ris# the health a d sa)ety o) the

publi(.1The letter boiled dow to three thi *s. -irst! the pla ed

-ermi rea(tor would probably be a threat to publi( sa)ety.Se(o d! there was 7t e ou*h e3perime tal i )ormatio toma#e it sa)e. Third! the situatio (ould ot be (orre(ted itime )or the s(hedule proposed by Cisler.

The mome t it was re(ei+ed by Strauss! the letter was

mar#ed 1Admi istrati+ely Co )ide tial.1 -or three wee#s!either the publi( or the 5oi t Committee o Atomi( E er*yheard a ythi * )urther about whether the (o stru(tio permit)or the -ermi pla t had bee appro+ed or tur ed dow . ,la s)or the -ermi rea(tor seemed to be )loati * i limbo. "o(o stru(tio permit had bee issued! but either was therea y word o) re5e(tio .

O


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problems (ould be sol+ed be)ore a operati * permit would

be issued. Mea while! Strauss re5e(ted o+er or Williams7sre/uest to ma#e the sa)ety report publi(.Se ator A derso #ept pressi *. 2e se t a tele*ram to

o+er or Williams! telli * him ot to ta#e 1 o1 )or aa swer. 1Is the State o) Mi(hi*a *oi * t

We almost lost Detroit

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