WATERSHED MANAGEMENT & PLANNING

SEMINAR REPORT

Presented by:

SRIJITH BALAKRISHNAN

ROLL No: 7248

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

T.K.M COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, KOLLAM-691 005

University of Kerala

2011

THANGAL KUNJU MUSALIAR

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Kollam, Kerala

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this seminar paper entitled

WATERSHED MANAGEMENT & PLANNING

is report of seminar presented by

SRIJITH BALAKRISHNAN during the year 2011 in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

award of Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Civil

Engineering of University of Kerala.

Guide:

Dr. J. Sreekumar

Asst. Professor

Dept. of Civil Engg.

T.K.M.C.E, Kollam

Head of the Department:

Prof. Soosan J Panicker

Professor

Dept. of Civil Engg.

T.K.M.C.E, Kollam

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is matter of great pleasure for me to submit this seminar report on “Watershed

Mangement And Planning”, as a part of curriculum for award of “Bachelor of

Technology Civil Engineering” degree of University of Kerala.

I am deeply indebted to my seminar guide Dr. J. Sreekumar, Assistant Professor,

Dept. of Civil Engineering for his constant encouragement and able guidance. I am

also thankful to Prof. Susan J Panicker, Head of Dept, Department of Civil

Engineering, for her valuable support and suggestions.

I take this opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude towards those, who have

helped us in various ways, for preparing my seminar.

ABSTRACT

Watershed management is an emerging concept for the efficient use of rain run-off in

the rural areas of India. The approach to watershed management is participatory in

nature, people friendly, location specific, processed based and geared to cater to the

problems and needs of the rural communities. The principle of watershed

management is the proper management of all the precipitation by way of collection,

storage and efficient utilisation of run-off water and use of groundwater. Watershed

Management requires innovative planning along with input of engineering

advancements to achieve its goals. The Engineering approach of 1980s in Watershed

Management was a failure due to various reasons and hence, it paved the way for the

evolution of integrated and participatory approaches. The paper also explains about

the various engineering and indigenous technologies for preventing runoff of

rainwater. Case studies of two major watershed programmes in state of Kerala are

discussed and steps for better execution and improvement of watershed projects are

suggested.

CONTENTS

Title Page No.

1. INTRODUCTION TO WATERSHEDS 1.1 What is a watershed? 1 1.2 Importance of watershed 2 1.2.1 Geopolitical Boundaries 1.2.2 Hydrology 1.2.3 Geomorphology 1.2.4 Ecology 1.2.5 Resource Management

1.3 How does a watershed function? 4 1.4 Key threats to the existence of watersheds 4 1.4.1 Ecological 1.4.2 Socio-economic 1.4.3 Technical 1.4.4 Institutional

2. INTRODUCTION TO WATERSHED MANAGEMENT 2.1 Defining Watershed Management… 7 2.2 Need & Importance of Watershed Management 7 2.3 Objectives of Watershed Management 8 2.4 Principles of Watershed Management 8

2.4.1 Comprehensiveness 2.4.2 Process and Communication 2.4.3 Integration of Interdisciplinary Science & Knowledge 2.4.4 Monitoring & Adaptive Management 2.4.5 Cooperation & Coordination 2.4.6 Community-based

2.5 Challenges For Watershed Management Projects 9

2.5.1 Impacts of management interventions are difficult to assess

2.5.2 Areas of decision making are not identical with watershed

2.5.3 Watershed management has to face competition and even conflict

3. WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PLANNING 3.1 Drivers in Watershed Management 11 3.1.1 The need for integrated land and water management 3.1.2 The casual link between upstream and downstream

land and water use and downstream impacts 3.1.3 The multiplicity of stake holders 3.1.4 The resource depletion and poverty nexus

3.2 Watershed Model 12 3.3 Watershed Modeling System 13

4. APPROACHES AND TECHNIQUES IN WATERSHED

MANAGEMENT

4.1 Watershed Management Units 14 4.2 Important Watershed Management Approaches 16

4.2.1 Engineering Approach 4.2.2 Integrated and Participatory Approach

4.3 Important Engineering Techniques in Watershed Management

18

4.3.1 Grassland Development 4.3.2 Gully Plugs 4.3.3 Tree Plantation on Hill Slopes Along with Contour

Trenching 4.3.4 Contour Bunding 4.3.5 Water Conservation Structures 4.3.6 Lift Irrigation Schemes

5. MAJOR WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PROJECTS IN

KERALA

5.1 Amachal Model Watershed Project- Case Study in a Midland Region

21

5.1.1 Amachal Watershed 5.1.2 How the project started? 5.1.3 Project activities 5.1.4 Project impacts

5.2 Attappady Hills Watershed Project- Case Study in a Highland Region

24

5.2.1 Attappady Hills 5.2.2 How the project started? 5.2.3 Project activities 5.2.4 Project impacts

CONCLUSIONS 30 REFERENCES 31

1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO WATERSHED

1.1 WHAT IS A WATERSHED? A watershed is an extend or an area that supplies water from rain and melting

snow or ice by surface or subsurface flow to a given drainage system or body of

water, usually stream, river, wetland, lake, or ocean (World Bank 2001). In closed

watersheds the water converges to a single point inside the basin, known as a sink,

which may be a permanent lake, dry lake, or a point where surface water is lost

underground. The watershed includes both the streams and rivers that convey the

water as well as the land surfaces from which water drains into those channels, and is

separated from adjacent basins by a drainage divide. The drainage basin acts as

a funnel by collecting all the water within the area covered by the basin and

channelling it to a single point. Each watershed is separated topographically from

adjacent basins by a geographical barrier such as a ridge, hill or mountain. The

characteristics of that drainage network play a great part in determining how water

moves through the watershed and consequently impacts upon issues such as water

quality and quantity (including flooding) in a given place.

The characteristics of the water flow and its relationship to the watershed are a

product of interactions between land and water (geology, slope, rainfall pattern, soils,

and biota) and its use and management. A watershed is thus the basic unit of water

supply and the basic building block for integrated planning of land and water use.

Size is not a factor in the definition, and watersheds vary from a few hectares to

thousands of square kilometres. Unless a watershed discharges directly into the ocean,

it is physically a part of a larger watershed that does, and may be referred to as sub-

watershed (Black 1991).

Other terms that are used interchangeably with a watershed are catchment, catchment

area, catchment basin, drainage area, river basin, water basin and drainage basin. In

the technical sense, a watershed refers to a divider that separates one drainage area

from another drainage area. However, in the United States and Canada, the term is

often used to mean a drainage basin or catchment area itself. Watersheds drain into

2

other watersheds in a hierarchical pattern, with smaller sub-drainage basins

combining into larger drainage basins.

Fig 1.1 Hydrological Cycle in a Watershed

(Source: http:/www.waterencyclopedia.com/Hy-La/Hydrologic-Cycle.html)

The hydrological cycle within a watershed is shown in Figure 1.1. It illustrates that

rainfall is the main source of water in a watershed. Water then flows through and out

of the watershed as surface or groundwater flow which is incorporated into biomass,

or is lost through evaporation and transpiration processes while in the watershed.

1.2 IMPORTANCE OF WATERSHED

As discussed, the characteristics of the drainage network play a great part in

determining how water moves through the basin and consequently impacts upon

issues such as water quality and quantity (including flooding) in a given place. But

beyond that, a watershed has a greater role in geopolitics, hydrology, geomorphology,

ecology, resource management, etc.

1.2.1 Geopolitical boundaries

Drainage basins have been historically important for determining territorial

boundaries, particularly in regions where trade by water has been important. For

example, the English crown gave the Hudson's Bay Company a monopoly on the fur

trade in the entire Hudson Bay basin, an area called Rupert's Land. Today,

3

bioregional democracy can include agreements of states in a particular drainage basin

to defend it. One example of this is the Great Lakes Commission.

1.2.2 Hydrology

In hydrology, the watershed is a logical unit of focus for studying the movement of

water within the hydrological cycle, because the majority of water that discharges

from the basin outlet originated as precipitation falling on the basin. A portion of the

water that enters the groundwater system beneath the drainage basin may flow

towards the outlet of another drainage basin because groundwater flow directions do

not always match those of their overlying drainage network. Measurement of the

discharge of water from a basin may be made by a stream gauge located at the basin's

outlet. Rain gauge data is used to measure total precipitation over a watershed, and

there are different ways to interpret that data.

1.2.3 Geomorphology

Watersheds are the principal hydrologic unit considered in fluvial geo-morphology. A

watershed is the source for water and sediment that moves through the river system

and reshapes the channel.

1.2.4 Ecology

Watersheds are important elements to consider in ecology. As water flows over the

ground and along rivers it can pick up nutrients, sediment, and pollutants. Like the

water, they get transported towards the outlet of the basin, and can affect the

ecological processes along the way as well as in the receiving water source. Modern

usage of artificial fertilizers, containing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, has

affected the mouths of watersheds. The minerals will be carried by the watershed to

the mouth and accumulate there, disturbing the natural mineral balance. This can

cause eutrophication where plant growth is accelerated by the additional material.

1.2.5 Resource Management

Watersheds constitute the basis for resource management. Because drainage basins

are coherent entities in a hydrological sense, it has become common to manage water

resources on the basis of individual basins. In the U.S. state of Minnesota,

governmental entities that perform this function are called watershed districts. In New

Zealand, they are called catchment boards. Comparable community groups based in

Ontario, Canada, are called conservation authorities. In North America this function

4

is referred to as watershed management. In Brazil, the National Policy of Water

Resources, regulated by Act n° 9.433 of 1997, establishes the watershed as territorial

division of Brazilian water management.

1.3 HOW DOES A WATERSHED FUNCTION?

A watershed is the area that drains to a common outlet. Five clearly identifiable

functions are exhibited by watersheds, though not necessarily all at the same time

(Black, 2007). Hydrologically, there are three fundamental watershed functions: (1)

collection of the water from rainfall, snowmelt, and storage that becomes runoff, (2)

storage of various amounts and durations, and (3) discharge of water as runoff. In

fact, the first and last of these functions have, long been incorporated in the

commonly-used terms, "catchment" and "watershed"; storage is the inevitable

consequence of water being detained within an area between "catching" and

"shedding."

Ecologically, the watershed functions in two additional ways: (4) it provides diverse

sites and pathways along which vital chemical reactions take place, and (5) it

provides habitat for the flora and fauna that constitute the biological elements of

ecosystems. The latter constitute the more familiar ecological niches.

1.4 KEY THREATS TO THE EXISTENCE OF WATERSHEDS

The problems that affect watersheds are complex and long-term in nature. Watersheds

provide essential livelihoods for their inhabitants, but their natural resources are

finite, often under pressure and at risk of degradation. Degradation caused

by unsustainable exploitation of natural resources is usually the key problem. It leads

to poverty, food insecurity and social conflict. The negative socio-economic

consequences of unsustainable resources use are significant. In a watershed context,

degradation can be described as follows: Watershed degradation is the loss of value

over time, including loss of the productive potential of land and water, accompanied

by significant changes in the hydrological behaviour of a river system which results in

the inferior quality, quantity and timing of the water flow. It is the outcome of the

interaction of physiographic features, climate and poor land use, as well as other

human activities. Watershed degradation accelerates ecological degeneration, reduces

5

economic opportunities and increases social problems (FAO, 1990). Causes and

symptoms of degradation may vary from country to country, but they do have

common traits. These include ecological, socio-economic, technical and institutional

issues, which are often interlinked and typically consist of some of the following

elements:

1.4.1 Ecological

Decreasing amount and quality of water resources

Damages caused by natural disasters (heavy storms, landslides, wildfire, etc.)

Extensive and rapid deforestation and forest degradation through legal and illegal

exploitation, which can reduce the replenishment of groundwater and increase the

amount of sediment in surface water

Clearing and conversion of forests mainly into agriculture land uses

Increased run-off and erosion

Siltation and sediment discharge declining on the mainstream, through deposits of

sediment in reservoirs and irrigation systems on the tributaries

Reduced biodiversity with known and unforeseeable impacts on ecological

integrity and food production

Intruding salinity impacting agriculture and biodiversity

Increase of soil and water contamination from inappropriate use of chemicals in

all countries

1.4.2 Socio-economic

Rural poverty in the uplands, causing migration to crowded urban centres

Food insecurity

Degradation of land through improper land use and unsustainable farming

reducing productivity and income

Rapid population growth, which increases pressure on natural resources and land

scarcity

Increasing conflicts over land, forest and water resources

Increased competition for resources and resource allocation difficulties

Lack of access to knowledge and decision making powers for women

Poor infrastructure and therefore limited access to markets, health care and

education

Expanding irrigation leading to increased water demands

6

1.4.3 Technical

Poorly planned and executed development activities (roads, housing, mining,

recreation, etc.), impairing streams and polluting the natural environment

Increasing pollution through use of chemicals (pesticides / fertilisers), especially

in the agricultural sector

Changes in river flow regime through the construction of dams for hydropower

generation and irrigation storage

Over abstraction of surface and groundwater, particularly for irrigation

1.4.4 Institutional

Inadequate access and unclear property rights related to land for resource users

Fragmented legal framework and weak law enforcement

Insufficient capacity within administrative systems and service providers

National-level planning procedures and guidelines do not sufficiently reflect

watershed perspectives

Inadequate participation of local stakeholders in planning

Lack of well trained personnel and decision-making mechanisms at the watershed

level

The traditional top-down approach is still prevalent and combined with a lack of

understanding of participatory methods by government officials

Overlapping jurisdictions and conflicting regulations

Insufficient coordination combined with no clear mandate for national or cross

boundary collaboration

Lack of awareness related to the importance of watersheds and their functions at

the local and national level

7

CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION TO WATERSHED MANAGEMENT 2.1 DEFINING WATERSHED MANAGEMENT...

Watershed management is the integrated use of land, vegetation and water in a

geographically discrete drainage area for the benefit of its residents, with the

objective of protecting or conserving the hydrologic services that the watershed

provides and of reducing or avoiding negative downstream or groundwater impacts.

Watershed management approaches need to be adapted to the local situation and to

changes in natural resource use and climate. Features of a watershed that agencies

seek to manage include water supply, water quality, drainage, storm water

runoff, water rights, and the overall planning and utilization of watersheds. Land

owners, land use agencies, storm-water management experts, environmental

specialists, water use purveyors and communities constitute the stakeholders in

watershed management

2.2 NEED & IMPORTANCE OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

The quality of life depends on water. Whether viewed as resource or commodity,

water is the basis of agricultural, municipal, industrial, environmental and aesthetic

well being and has been alternately taken for granted, abused, exploited, worshipped,

and prayed for. Degradation of watersheds in recent decades has brought the long-

term reduction of the quantity and quality of land and water resources. Changes in

watersheds have resulted from a range of natural and anthropogenic factors, including

natural soil erosion, changes in farming systems, over abstraction of water,

overgrazing, deforestation, and pollution. The combination of environmental costs

and socioeconomic impacts has prompted investment in watershed management in

many developing countries. Watershed lands vary greatly in terms of water yield,

natural sensibilities, and the activities that they support both on-site and downstream.

The relationship between proper management and long-term results, including

erosion, flooding, water quality and production, and wildlife habitat is therefore

crucial.

8

2.3 OBJECTIVES OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

Improving the management of land and water, and their interactions and

externalities.

Increasing the intensity and productivity of resource use in the upland area with

the objective of reducing poverty and improving livelihoods.

Improving environmental services and reducing negative externalities for

downstream areas.

Addressing technical, institutional, and policy issues needed to ensure equitable

sharing of benefits among stakeholders and sustainable watershed management

2.4 PRINCIPLES OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

The following are the general principles that are practically followed to reach the

specific goals in a Watershed Management Project

2.4.1 Comprehensiveness

Consider whole drainage basin (headwaters to basin outlet)

Address all significant factors affecting the resource(s)

Use an ecosystem-based approach (address environmental, economic and social

benefits

Recognize diversity of watershed in State

Work across boundaries (land ownership/jurisdictional responsibilities)

2.4.2 Process and Communication

Recognize that process is important as outcome

Use a stake-holder based process (inclusive from beginning to end)

Provide for an on-going iterative process with many opportunities for input

2.4.3 Integration of Interdisciplinary Science and Local Knowledge

Use the best available scientific information

Incorporate local knowledge and common sense approach

Acknowledge watershed assessments as a necessary first step

2.4.4 Monitoring and Adaptive Management

Monitor outcomes (include social and technical components)

Take long-term approach

Adapt management based on monitoring results

Provide for flexibility in the watershed assessment and monitoring approach

9

2.4.5 Cooperation and Coordination

Foster local interest and participation

Promote federal/State/local government/tribal/public/private partnerships

Comply with existing laws

Utilize a combination of voluntary and regulatory approaches

Seek equitable ways to distribute responsibilities and funding

2.4.6 Community-based

Emphasize local initiatives and energy while acknowledging larger public

trust interests

Do not employ a top-down approach

Consider scale dependencies

Recognize beneficial resource utilization

2.5 CHALLENGES FOR WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PROJECTS From an organisational or a managerial point of view, there are some key challenges for

watershed management:

2.5.1 Impacts of management interventions are difficult to assess

Watershed management addresses issues related to very complex ecological

processes. These depend on a large number of physical parameters that vary in space

and time, such as rainfall intensity, soil retention capacity and vegetation types. The

complex interactions between upstream causes and downstream impacts inevitably

mean that the consequences (impacts) of human activities and management

interventions are difficult to monitor, evaluate and quantify. This in turn means that it

is often difficult to identify “best” watershed management practices.

2.5.2 Areas of decision making are not identical with watersheds

Watersheds are drainage units, delineated by topographic features of the landscape.

On the other hand, watershed management is directed at stakeholders and land use

systems that are a part of administrative units, which do not usually coincide with

watersheds. Decisions made by stakeholders are usually made with respect to

administrative units (provinces, districts, communes), or ecological zones, or land

tenure units. Because these locally relevant spatial units often cut across watersheds,

there can be conflicting goals and priorities. Watershed management has to

accommodate this fact.

10

2.5.3 Watershed management has to face competition and even conflict

More often than not, there is disagreement between upstream and downstream

stakeholders and administrative units at various levels. Often downstream

stakeholders set goals for management intervention measures which have to be

implemented upstream, but which are potentially incompatible with needs and

priorities of the upstream water users. This often expresses itself as economic,

political or cultural. Such upstream-downstream disputes are less obvious in small

watersheds, where the same community shares both upstream and downstream

resources. In larger watersheds or river basins, economic and political power is

almost always concentrated in the lowlands and downstream regions. This can lead to

a unilateral downstream dominated approach, with low levels of consultation with

upstream and upland stakeholders.

11

CHAPTER 3: WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PLANNING

Before carrying out the watershed management project, it is necessary to study the

hydraulic and hydrologic characteristics of the watershed. The type of the approach

for the management completely depends upon these upstream and downstream

characteristics of the watershed. The methodologies and approaches for the

management are then planned according to the characteristics of the watershed. A

watershed model is often used to explain the process and benefits of a watershed

management project in an area to the stakeholders. Nowadays, Watershed Modelling

System, a computer based technique is used to plan the processes. Remote Sensing

and GIS data can be easily incorporated in WMS to find out solutions for extremely

complex problems.

3.1 DRIVERS IN WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

The key characteristics of a watershed that drive management approaches are:

3.1.1 The need for integrated land and water management

Land use, vegetative cover, soils, and water interact throughout the watershed, so that

management approaches must consistently address them together. Therefore,

typically, watershed management programs adopt integrate resource management

approaches.

3.1.2 The causal link between upstream land and water use and downstream

impacts

Upstream land and water management inevitably has impacts on the downstream

environment, not only on the quantity and quality of water flows and on the operation

of downstream assets, such as reservoirs and irrigation schemes, but also on other

“environmental services,” such as water quality, biodiversity, carbon sequestration,

natural disaster vulnerability reduction, amenity values and, reduced localized flash

flooding. Because of the direction of these effects—from upstream to downstream—

watershed management programs are typically oriented toward problem solving in

upland areas.

3.1.3 The multiplicity of stakeholders

Watersheds provide many important services to an extensive range of stakeholders,

and changes in land and water management and in watershed hydrology will directly

12

or indirectly affect many or all of them (Kerr 2002b). Many people use upper and

lower reaches for multiple purposes, and a plethora of public and private agencies are

typically involved: organizations dealing with agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry,

water, irrigation, rural development, physical planning, land tenure; local

governments; community institutions, NGOs, and so forth. This institutional density

creates a management challenge and requires watershed management approaches to

create broad and inclusive institutional platforms.

3.1.4. The resource depletion and poverty nexus

Upland areas of developing countries are typically more fragile and less productive

environments where natural resource management and rural poverty are commonly

linked. With frequently extensive land use practices and a more fragile resource base,

uplands are vulnerable to overexploitation and depletion of natural resources (water,

vegetation, forests, and soils). With land degradation, agricultural productivity

declines, often aggravating the poverty problem. As a result, improving the

management of natural resources in upland areas and influencing downstream

impacts requires attention to the problems of the population of the poor upland areas,

particularly poverty reduction and local institutional development (World Bank,

2001). Thus, watershed management programs generally have to focus on the farming

systems of the poor in upland areas in order to achieve poverty reduction and

conservation objectives simultaneously.

3.2 WATERSHED MODEL

A watershed model is a three-dimensional representation of land that drains to a

single river, stream, lake, or ocean. A watershed model is used as a tool to educate

people about their watershed and why they should care about them. Watershed

models help people make a connection between land use and water quality by

demonstrating how we treat our land impacts the body of water to which the land

drains. Understanding the watershed concept is crucial in helping people make the

connection between their actions in preventing pollution on land and the health of

their local waterway.

Creating a watershed model is one way of educating children and adults about

watersheds. It visually demonstrates the watershed concept and it helps show other

difficulties to understand concepts such as non-point source pollution, the importance

13

of wetlands, the connection of storm drains to local streams, groundwater recharge,

and the reason for having forested riparian areas. In short, watershed models help

demonstrate the effects of storm water runoff and reveal their role in preventing

pollution of the rivers and streams.

3.3 WATERSHED MODELLING SYSTEM

The Watershed Modelling System (WMS) is a comprehensive graphical modelling

environment for all phases of watershed hydrology and hydraulics developed by US

Army Corps of Engineers. WMS includes powerful tools to automate modelling

processes such as automated basin delineation, geometric parameter calculations, GIS

overlay computations (CN, rainfall depth, roughness coefficients, etc.), cross-section

extraction from terrain data, etc. WMS supports hydrologic modelling and hydraulic

modelling. All modelling is handled by a GIS-based data processing framework that

makes the task of watershed modelling and mapping much easier WMS offers state of

the art tools to perform automated basin delineation and to compute important basin

parameters such as area, slope and runoff distances. With its management of

coordinate systems, WMS is capable of displaying and overlaying data in real world

coordinates. The program also provides many display tools for viewing terrain

surfaces and exporting images for reports and presentations. The program’s modular

design enables the user to select modules in custom combinations, allowing the user

to choose only those hydrologic modelling capabilities that are required.

The Watershed Modelling System can be effectively used in the study of the various

watershed parameters before devising the methodologies and approaches for

watershed development and management of a particular area. WMS can cut down the

efforts for data collection as it can be incorporated to GIS and the tediousness in

complex calculations involving several numbers of parameters and factors related to

the watershed can be easily done.

14

CHAPTER 4: APPROACHES AND TECHNIQUES IN

WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

4.1 WATERSHED MANAGEMENT UNITS

As discussed, every watershed differs from one another in every aspect. Hence the

approaches, methodologies and techniques used in each watershed vary significantly.

The selection of an approach has the major stake in the project’s success. For the ease

of working out the project, each area can be divided into several watershed

management units. According to the extent of area, watershed management units can

be classified as follows (Table 4.1).

Watersheds are broken down into smaller geographic units called ‘sub watersheds’.

Sub watersheds typically have a drainage area of 2 to 15 square miles with boundaries

that include the land area draining to a point at or below the confluence of the second

order streams and almost always within the limits of the third order stream, while

management unit size vary among geographic regions and also as a function of slope,

soils and degree of urbanization, this general definition provides a consistent and

uniform basis for defining individual sub watershed boundaries within a larger

Table 4.1 Watershed Management Units and their Characteristics Watershed

Management Unit

Typical area (km2)

Influence of impervious

cover

Primary planning authority

Management focus

Micro-watershed 0.05-0.50 Very Strong Property

owner(local)

Best Management Practice and site

design

Sub-watershed

1-10 Strong Local Government

Stream Classification and Management

Watershed 10-100 Moderate Local or

Multiple local governments

Watershed based zoning

Sub-basin

100-1000 Weak Local, regional,

or state Basin Planning

Basin

1000-10000 Very weak

State, multistate, or

federal Basin Planning

15

watershed. The terms ‘watershed’ and ‘sub watershed’ are not interchangeable.

Watershed I used when referring to broader management issues across an entire

watershed, while the term ‘sub watershed’ is used to refer assessment level studies

and specific projects within the smaller sub watershed units.

Fig. 4.1 Watershed Management Units

There are other important management units to consider when developing a

watershed plan. The largest watershed management unit is the basin. A basin drains to

major receiving water such as a large river, estuary or lake. Basin drainage areas

typically exceed several thousand square miles and often include major portions of a

single state or even a group of states. Within each basin are a group of sub basins that

extend over several hundred square miles. Sub basins are a mosaic of many diverse

land uses, including forest, agriculture, range, and urban areas. Sub basins are

composed of a group of watersheds. Within sub watersheds are catchments, which are

the smallest units in a watershed. A catchment is defined as the area that drains an

individual development site to its first intersection with a stream.

16

4.2 IMPORTANT WATERSHED MANAGEMENT APPROACHES

4.2.1 Engineering Approach

The first generation of watershed management projects in developing countries in the

1970s and 1980s applied a soil and water planning approach to watersheds that

emphasized engineering works aimed at specific on-site and downstream physical

outcomes. Less attention was paid to the needs of upstream populations or to their

ownership of program actions. As a result, investment costs were high and not always

well justified, and the assets and benefits created often had a limited life. The concept

of watershed management focused mainly on the management of land, water and

biomass resources in medium or large river valleys, aimed at scaling down rapid

runoff and excessive soil erosion and to decelerate the rate of siltation of reservoirs

and limit the incidence of potentially damaging flash flooding in river courses (Paul,

1997). By the end of the 1980s, the comparative failure of this “engineering-led”

approach was clear, and a major rethinking of watershed management approaches

was undertaken by national and international agencies.

4.2.2 Integrated Watershed Management Approach

At present, the overall objectives of watershed development and management

programmes take the watershed as the hydrological unit, and aim to adopt suitable

measures for soil and water conservation, provide adequate water for agriculture,

domestic use and improve the livelihoods of the inhabitants. Integrated watershed

management is an effective means for the conservation and development of land and

water resources. As an interdisciplinary approach, it integrates the socio-cultural and

economic as well as the biophysical and technological aspects of development. An

over-riding concern of integrated watershed development is the improvement of the

livelihoods of local communities on a sustainable basis. This requires balancing their

economic needs and expectations with environmental concerns so as to avert

degradation of the natural resource base, in particular soil and water components.

Governments and development institutions are increasingly recognizing that full

community participation is essential for sustainable watershed development. With

growing local participation, indigenous knowledge is now significantly influencing

the planning, design, and implementation of watershed development programmes.

17

Long-term changes and development are more likely to be adopted if communities

have a say in the decision-making process. Sustainability also increases if local

resources are more efficiently utilized and the use of or need for external inputs is

minimized. Watershed management today, is practiced as a means to increase rain fed

agricultural production, conserve natural resources and reduce poverty in the world’s

semi-arid tropical regions in South Asia and Sub–Saharan Africa, which are

characterized by low agricultural productivity, severe natural resource degradation,

and high level of poverty (Kerr, 2002).

Participation by farmers is essential for the planning of sustainable management of

land and water resources. Farmers are closer to the real problems, and therefore they

are aware of factors that experts may overlook, and their objectives are more realistic

for economic development (Stocking, 1996).

For the sustainability of watersheds, apart from technology and policies for resource

use, better organizational mechanisms and processes (through which actors can come

together to make decisions) are essential. The geohydrological boundaries and

administrative boundaries are generally different in watersheds and hence, for

sustaining effective participation, management strategies should be flexible to allow

the users to identify boundaries at which they prefer to organize themselves.

There are three ways in which participation is associated with watershed management

(Johnson and Westermann, 2000),

Participatory watershed management:

Stakeholders participate in development processes and decisions. Relevant

stakeholders jointly discuss and decide about watershed planning and set priorities for

taking up development tasks, such as trying out a technology or methodology in a

new location.

Participatory research on watershed management:

Researchers and other stakeholders work together in the process of developing new

technologies or institutions for watershed management. Although research is the

focus, all stakeholders participate in the process and decisions are made jointly.

18

Research on participatory watershed management:

Researchers collect materials from various projects applying participatory watershed

methods and carry out analyses in order to understand issues, such as collective action

and how stakeholders negotiate and implement natural resources management. This

research may or may not be participatory and therefore may or may not involve other

stakeholders.

4.3 IMPORTANT ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES IN WATERSHED

MANAGEMENT

The importance of engineering can never be neglected in a watershed management

project, irrespective of the approach used for planning and execution of the project. In

modern methodologies, both planning process and engineering solutions have equal

roles. Engineering techniques assist in creating an optimised solution for many

complex problems occurring in management of watershed. Engineering structures are

widely used in various goals of watershed management like soil conservation, water

conservation (quantity and quality), flood control, slope stabilization, etc. The

important among them are as follows:

4.3.1 Grassland Development

At the upstream areas of a watershed which is very undulating and sloppy, Grassland

development is an effective measure. This comes under Farmer participatory

approaches for watershed development Traditional agriculture on hill slopes is totally

stopped and the barren hill slopes are converted into grasslands. Grasslands help in

soil and water conservation. During heavy rainfall grass acts as a shock absorber and

checks the velocity of rain drops. This ultimately reduces the chances of soil erosion.

The runoff can be completely prevented and can accelerate the infiltration of water

into the soil. This can lead to the formation of ‘zero-runoff’ watersheds. Thus

grassland development helps in soil and water conservation. The cultivation of grass

yields fodder for cattle. Dairy development is also possible if grasslands are excessive

and this can yield good economic returns for the stakeholders. Again studies have

proved that grassland development can increase the levels of groundwater.

19

4.3.2 Gully Plugs

Gully plug is one of the simple methods of soil and water conservation. These are

small structures constructed with rubble masonry or concrete put in series one below

the other from top to bottom of the depression (Fig 4.2). Gullies are formed due to

erosion of top soil by the flow of rain water. In course of time, a gully assumes a big

shape and erosion goes on increasing. To prevent erosion, barriers or plugs of

different types of material are put across the gully, at certain intervals. This is a cost

effective method which can prevent the direct runoff of water. This also helps in

generation of biomass over the hill slopes which can further act as infiltration

agencies.

Fig 4.2 Gully Plug

4.3.3 Tree Plantation on Hill Slopes Along With Contour Trenching

Soil erosion is the most serious problem in sloppy barren hills. Along the spurs of the

hill it is not possible to construct any type of engineering structures. In this area the

erosion is usually sheet erosion, where a thin layer of top soil is lost during rain. To

avoid this phenomenon, the area can be converted into lush green grassland. Along

with grass, the velocity of flowing water can be checked by small trenches in

staggered manner. Grassland and trenches have helped in soil and water conservation.

When water starts flowing along the fields, grass and trenches become obstruction for

it. Due to the obstruction to the flowing water, velocity reduces and water is collected

in the trenches. This allows infiltration of water into the soil. Thus grassland

development with trenches along the hill slope helps in soil and water conservation.

For trenching, first step is to mark contours on the slopes. The next step is to mark

trenches along the contours. Then trenches can be dug along the contours. Width,

length and depth can be decided depending upon depth of soil at that place. Spacing

of trench row will depend upon slope of land. As slope increases distance between

20

two rows will be less and vice versa. Along the slopes grassland can be developed

with the help of villagers themselves. Trees which will satisfy basic needs of a village

will be planted along the downstream side of the trench. Water stored in the trench for

a few days and recharge in the soil which ultimately benefit the trees and ground

water level. Protection of the area with social fencing helps in natural regeneration of

the local grass and trees.

4.3.4 Contour Bunding

Contour bunding is one of the simple methods of soil and water conservation.

Bunding is an embankment of earth. It plays an important role in soil and water

conservation in the field with medium slope. In between two contours agriculture can

be practised. Along bunds trees which fix nitrogen in to the soil are planted with grass

along the bunds. Contour bunding helps in soil and water conservation. When there is

rainfall, contour bund acts as a barrier to the water flow and checks the velocity. This

reduces chances of soil erosion. When water starts flowing along the fields, bund

becomes obstruction for it. Due to the obstruction velocity reduces and water

percolates behind the bunds. This allows infiltration of water into the soil. Thus

bunding on the fields with moderate slopes helps in soil and water conservation.

4.3.5 Water Conservation Structures

Water conservation is important from the agricultural point of view. For stable

agriculture, storage of water is an essential part of the watershed development.

Targeted food production can be had only if crop water relationship is fulfilled at

appropriate time. Water conservation works are basically small dams with height not

exceeding 3-5 metres. The object of water conservation structures is to create a

barrier to the flow of water and to impound water against this barrier and make use of

it through the wells on the downstream side. The use of such structures is to provide

water for drinking, domestic use and agriculture etc. Water conservation structures

can be divided into certain groups as under:

Earthen water conservation works

Masonry water conservation works with or without gates

Underground dam as a water conservation works.

Timber crib water conservation works.

21

4.3.6 Lift Irrigation Schemes

Input of water is important from the agricultural point of view. Some times in some

places water can't be provided to the fields as the level of the field is higher than that

the source of water. In this case water is required to be lifted at a convenient higher

spot from which it can be supplied to the fields under command. For lifting of water

some energy is required for pump operation. It may be electric power or diesel. There

are many methods of lift irrigation schemes depending upon the type of mechanism to

lift the water. In old days water was lifted with the help of a person or a pair of

bullocks which was mainly for an individual need. But nowadays, schemes for large

areas and group of farmers are necessary. Water can be lifted from wells, rivers,

irrigation tanks etc. and conveyed through pipes made of cement, steel, PVC etc. The

results of the lift irrigation scheme are:

Increase in food production and thereby increase in income level as the land turns

into irrigated land

Prevention of drought and sufficient drinking water

Stabilised agriculture as water is available whenever it is required

22

CHAPTER 5: MAJOR WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PROJECTS IN KERALA The idea of watershed management is a relatively recent phenomenon in Kerala. As

an experiment, the government of Kerala introduced two model watershed projects

with people's participation. The Amachal model watershed project in Trivandrum

district was directly implemented by the government of Kerala under the Western

Ghats Development Programme (WGDP) with the concept of ‘Participatory

Watershed based Integrated Development for Resource Management’

(PAWIDREM). The second project was the Attappady watershed project, in Palakkad

district, implemented by the government of Kerala through an autonomous

institution: the Attappady Hill Area Development Society (AHADS), with a vision of

‘ecological restoration of wasteland in Attappady and development of replicable

models of participative eco-restoration, so as to prevent further degradation and

promote sustainable methods of livelihood for the local people (with special emphasis

on tribal population) in harmony with the resource base’. In both watersheds, project

activities were carried out through user associations.

5.1 AMACHAL MODEL WATERSHED PROJECT- CASE STUDY IN A

MIDLAND REGION

5.1.1 Amachal Watershed Amachal watershed lies in Trivandrum District, the administrative capital of Kerala

(between 8° 28’57” and 8° 29’44”north, 77° 6’26” and 77° 7’16” east). The area has a

humid tropical climate with an average rainfall of 1500mm/year and average mean

temperature of 26.5°C. There are two distinct monsoons: the southwest monsoon

from June to September and the northeast monsoon from October to December. The

watershed is characterized by moderately sloping to steep hills intervened by very

gently sloping to gently sloping valleys. This watershed experiences severe water

scarcity during the dry period from January to May. Agriculture is the main source of

income.

5.1.2 How project started?

The watershed committee was formed on 25-07-2002 in the Amachal watershed for

the implementation of the participatory watershed project. The committee consists of

23

53 members with the president of the Kattakada Grama Panchayat as its chairman and

the Panchayat member representing Amachal ward (administrative ward with the

largest area in the watershed) as its convener. Of the 53 members, 38 members are

from the 19 household groups (HG1 to HG19) of this watershed. These groups are

formed from 510 houses with 20-25 houses in each group. One male member and one

female member represent each household group. Panchayat members of the other

three administrative wards, District Panchayat member, Block Panchayat member,

members of the people’s institutions in the watershed, Government representatives

are the other members of the watershed committee.

Fig. 5.1 Organizational Setup of Amachal Watershed Project

The watershed committee is empowered to take decisions on all aspects of

organization and implementation of project activities in the watershed. After the

awareness campaign, the community formulated their priorities as listed in the

following order: (1) awareness generation and training, (2) literacy and community

learning, (3) soil and water conservation, (4) agriculture and allied activities, (5)

income generation activities, (6) infrastructure development. Participatory rural

appraisal and resource–mapping exercises were conducted in the watershed with the

assistance of field experts from NGOs.

5.1.3 Project Activities

Revival of the village pond, construction of contour bunds using loose boulders,

construction of an irrigation canal, and digging percolation pits, are the major

24

activities done under irrigation and soil conservation in the first phase of the

development. The second phase wasn’t completed due to insufficient funds.

5.1.4 Project Impacts

As per the financial statements of the work done by the watershed committee of 01-

03-’04, the committee could provide employment for 8200 local labourers. Men and

women were given equal wages for unskilled labour. Increased job opportunities have

enhanced the livelihood of the watershed community. At present the project is

stopped due to lack of support from the government and local politicians. Though the

village pond is revived, the rehabilitation of the canal was not completed. They lost

paddy crops of about 50,000m2. There is no coordination between the line

departments and the watershed committee. Though the watershed community is

highly aware of the concept of watershed, local politicians and the government

officials are unaware of the resource management. The watershed committee

members revealed that a village pond in this watershed was revived using local labour

and indigenous techniques in consultation with experienced farmers with 40% of the

cost that was estimated by the government officers. Local politicians and the other

members of the Grama panchayat do not support this project since their

administrative wards are not included in the project area. The watershed boundary

does not coincide with the administrative boundary of the wards. People living

beyond the watershed boundary in the same wards were excluded from project

benefits. Local politicians do not want a participatory project to succeed. If people are

strengthening themselves to implement development projects, then what will be the

role of politicians?

5.2 ATTAPPADY HILLS WATERSHED PROJECT- CASE STUDY IN A

HIGHLAND REGION

5.2.1 Attappady Hills

Attappady is located in the northeastern part of Palakkad District, in the western ghat

region of Kerala. It has an area of 745 (km)2 spread over three panachayats namely

Agali, Pudur and Sholayur; which is included in the manipulation zone of the Nilgiri

Biosphere Reserve by the Department of Environment, government of India

(CWRDM, 1994). According to the National Wasteland Development Board,

25

Palakkad is one of the districts in Kerala with the highest proportion of wastelands

relative to its geographical area, most of which extends over Attappady. Over

exploitation and improper management of natural resources coupled with faulty land

use practices turned Attappady into a degraded zone of the Western Ghat region.

There has been drastic change in the Attappady ecosystem during the recent past, due

to deforestation and migration. The hills of Attappady were once the forest land of

Kerala. At present it is on the verge of extreme degradation. Massive encroachment

over forest and cultivated lands, introduction of unsustainable cropping systems, and

excessive grazing inflicted heavy damage on the ecosystem and the livelihood support

systems of the people. Due to deforestation of the catchments, perennial rivers dried

up, springs disappeared and water quality worsened considerably, leading to series of

diseases and ill health of the tribal people along with starvation. Extensive felling of

trees and the tillage along the slopes with bullock carts led to increased soil erosion,

runoff and depletion of groundwater. Along with this even more unsustainable

practices such as brick making using the thin topsoil became a regular practice in

Eastern Attappady (Karat, 2003).

5.2.2 How the project started?

The Attappady Hill Area Development Society (AHADS) was formed in 1995 for the

implementation of the Attappady Wasteland Comprehensive Environmental

Conservation Project for the eco-restoration of Attappady hills. It is an autonomous

organization working under the Department of Rural Development, Government of

Kerala. The duration of the project was 8 years from 1996-2004, which was extended

for another five years. There are 160 hamlets in this watershed with 20-30 houses in

each hamlet. The density of population in this watershed is only 88 per km2 against

state’s average 819 per (km)2. The entire population in this region lives below the

poverty line. The watershed is divided into 15 sub-watersheds and a multi-

disciplinary team was formed under five team leaders for the implementation of the

project. Detailed studies were carried out in 5 sub-watersheds. The project was

financed by the Japanese Bank for International Co-operation (JBIC), with a total

budget of 4.4 million Euros (INR 219 crores); consisting of a loan component of 3.5

million Euros (INR 176 crores) from JBIC and 0.8 million Euros (INR 42 crores)

from the state government.

26

The eco-restoration activities were planned and implemented using a participatory

approach on a watershed basis. The area has two major river basins, namely Bhavani

and Bharatapuzha. The Bhavani River has four sub-basins and Bharatapuzha River

has one. These five sub- basins of the two rivers were treated as the main watersheds

and it was again sub-divided into 15 watersheds and 146 micro watersheds without

considering the state administrative boundaries (IRMA, 2004). The region has two

distinct climatic patterns. Physiographically, the area is characterized by an

undulating steep to very steep topography with elevation ranging from 450-2300m.

The type of soil varies from loamy sand to sandy loam in upper reaches and clayey

loam to clay in the valley region. Erratic rainfall along with poor soil moisture

retention has rendered these lands erosive leading to desertification.

Fig 5.2 Organizational setup of Attappady Hills Watershed Project

Unlike the traditional system of top-down planning undertaken at the upper echelons

of the organization, in the functional set up of AHADS, five distinct interlinked levels

of project planning and management were adopted for the implementation of the

project. The organizational set up is presented in Figure 4.3. They are:

27

1. Perspective planning at the project level through AHADS

2. Watershed level through the Development Units (DU)

3. Micro-watershed level through User Associations (UA), Local Action Group(LAG)

an operational unit works under UA in the sub micro watershed level

4. Tribal hamlet level through Ooru Vikasana Samithi (OVS)

5. Forest conservation and forestation through Joint Forest Management

Committee (JFMC)

User Association (UA) is a registered organization representing the total population

of the respective micro watershed. It includes both the tribal and non tribal people.

The main responsibility of a UA is to implement the activities with respect to micro

plans prepared by AHADS with people’s participation. UAs were found to be too big

to attend to the details of the needs of the area of which it was composed. Therefore

Local Action Groups (LAG) were organized for the project implementation at local

level as a representative body of all the beneficiaries within an area of 0.5-1.0 km2 in

a micro watershed. This group is responsible for the coordination of various activities

to be undertaken on these lands including the employment of labour. Ooru Vikasana

Samiti (OVS) is an un-registered organization at each tribal hamlet to address the

common issues of these marginalized communities. In 160 of the 188 tribal hamlets

OVS have been formed. To ensure women participation, among the nine elected

members of each hamlet, five of them should be women. Joint Forest Management

Committee (JFMC) is an unregistered organization formed for the reforestation of

degraded forest land located near human inhabitations. All adults in the

neighbourhood were eligible to become members in JFMC. At present 29 JFMCs

were formed.

5.2.3 Project Activities As the majority of the people are illiterate and also as a result of virtual failure of

previous government projects and resultant socio-economic conditions of people,

apathy and callousness towards developmental projects had developed among the

people. Hence, AHADS spent about 2-3 years in the initial stage on organizing

beneficiary associations at grass root level and capacity building to administer the

project implementation and accounting and documenting project impacts. Various

participatory measures were undertaken towards facilitating integration of

28

technological packages of practices under different field conditions. These includes,

participatory rural appraisal techniques, group meetings, environmental literacy

campaign, training programmes to elected members from UG, LAG, OVS, JFMC in

group dynamics, maintenance of accounts, conflict resolution for the smooth handling

of execution of works and to help them maintain transparency.

Water is the most crucial resource in this region. Soil and water conservation

development works have played a major role in the implementation of the project.

The various works implemented through UAs include percolation ponds, contour

trenches, check dams, gully plugs, sub-surface dikes, diversion weirs, contour bunds

and terracing. Through the sustainable agro-forestry system, prime importance was

given to the promotion of multipurpose tree species to fit the diverse agro-climatic

zones of the area.

The tree species includes horticultural crops, mainly cashew, mango and other fruit

species and silvi-cultural species such as neem, silver oak, casuarinas etc. (Karun et

al.

2005). Planting was done through JFMCs in different development units. PRA was

conducted to prioritize the need of the forest dependant community. Treated areas

were fenced with barbed wire and adequate fire protection measures were provided

by making fire lines to prevent grazing and forest fire. Along with the eco-restoration

programme, medicinal plants were promoted in the degraded lands in the area through

OVS. Considering the mal-nutrition and sickle cell disease among the tribal people

due to the change in food habits, agricultural activities were promoting nutrient

gardens in the tribal hamlets. Both nutrient gardens and medicinal plants would

strengthen the livelihood of the tribal people. In order to make the project sustainable,

income generation activities such like broom making, coir pith compost, vermin

compost, local nurseries to cater for the huge requirement of the planting material,

were also started. Training sessions on various participatory programmes, need for

conservation of nature etc. were conducted with resource persons from relevant

disciplines. Along with these activities, the construction of roads and houses was

taken up in the development units.

29

5.2.4 Project Impacts

As per the report on October 2004, AHADS provided 1.4 million man days of

employment. Total expenditure was 0.94 million Euros which is around 30% of the

total budget. Increase in availability of water, which is a visual impact for the

illiterate society had a very positive impact on the project after 4 years of physical

implementation. Many streams and springs were regenerated; those farmers who were

reluctant to give their land for physical implementation of the structures started giving

land for conservation activities. Abandon of land by the settlers from agriculture have

been considerably reduced. People started cultivation their own land. Income

generation activities based on locally produced agricultural products gained

substantial momentum.

Fig 5.4a (in 1994) Fig 5.4b (In 2011)

30

CONCLUSIONS

The following conclusions can be obtained while analysing the literatures about the

various watershed management projects.

i. Watershed Management is an effective method for integrating soil and water

conservation, social harmony and employment opportunities

ii. Watershed Management is the fundamental tool that can be used for resource

based sustainable development in rural areas.

iii. For a Watershed Management project to be successful, the active participation

from various stakeholders is inevitable. Failure of projects in 1980s and 1990s

were a failure because of the lack of participation of the local people. Hence

Participatory Watershed Management Approach is the best tool available.

iv. Politics and Watershed Management should never be mixed up. The project in

Amachal Watershed Area in Trivandrum was a failure because of this reason.

Political and watershed boundaries may differ. So many Projects were left in

midway to satisfy political interests. Hence movements like Bioregionalism can

help people to think beyond these political interests.

v. Planning and Organization in a decentralized level enjoys equal importance with

engineering techniques in a Watershed Management Project. Integrating these

three can give the best results. Local knowledge should also be considered to

obtain cost effective results.

31

REFERENCES 1. Vishnudas S. (2006). Sustainable Watershed Management: Illusion or Reality? A

Case of Kerala State in India. Eburon Academic Publishers, ISBN-10: 90-5972-154-3, Delft, The Netherlands

2. World Bank, (2007). ‘Watershed Management Approaches, Policies and

Operation: Lessons for Scaling Up’. A report by the Energy, Transport and Water Department, World Bank, Washington D.C

3. Black, P. E. (1997). ‘Watershed Functions’. Journal of American Water Resource

Association, 33, 1-11

4. Kaushik, P. K, Pandey, B. K, Tripathi, Y. C, (2007). Participatory Approach to Watershed Management in India. Rain Forest Research Institute, Deovan