Water Waste Processing - February 2015
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Transcript of Water Waste Processing - February 2015
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SOLUTIONS FOR WATER-PROCESS PROFESSIONALS
Food & bev reuse treatments
Remote site data transmission
Active mixing solves problems
INCLUDING:
February 2015www.waterwaste.com
PROJECTS
FROM THE T
EETH OF TE
XAS HEAT
TO MICHIG
ANS FRIGI
D GRIP
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In This Issue
Productivity Perspectives 4
Remote-site data transmission defl ectsregulatory runaround 6Broadband wireless extends municipalitys fi ber-ring multi-
megabit throughput to miles-away treatment sites.
Water-reuse treatment options in food & beverage 12Whys and wherefores, from biological and disinfection treat-
ments to membranes and osmosis.
Active mixing solves rural utilityice-buildup problems 18Someone once said, Water bodies, like human bodies, re-
quire good circulation to function properly.
How is solids-separation controlled inprimary wastewater treatment? 20Primary clarifi ers, air-fl otation units and Imhoff settlers are
amongst equipment options.
News in Brief 22
New Product Spotlight 24
Advertiser Index 24
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SOLUTIONS FOR WATER-PROCESS PROFESSIONALS
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Editorial and Executive Offi ces: 200 Croft Street, Ste 1, Birmingham, AL 35242. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to WATER/WASTE PROCESSING Magazine, PO BOX 2174, Skokie, IL 60076-7874. SUBSCRIPTIONS: Non-qualifi ed domestic subscriptions: one year, $25; two year, $50; single issue, $10. Canadian and foreign surface subscriptions: one year, $45; two year, $80. Air mail subscription: one year, $100; two year, $175. Grand View Media Group, 2013. WATER/WASTE PROCESSING Magazine assumes no responsibility for validity of claims in item reports.
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According to a U.S. Geological Survey
report from last November, the federal sci-
ence agency found that water use dropped
to 355 billion gallons a day in 2010. In 2005,
national water use was 410 billion gallons
per day. A nation of 309 million in 2010
used as much water as 205 million people
45 years ago. California reduced its water
use 17 percent from 2005 to 2010.
In other news, during December last,
Congress unanimously passed the Water
for the World Act and it was immediately
signed by President Obama. In statistics
repeated near ad infinitum by the media, its
noted that nearly 750 million people around
the world dont have access to clean water
and 2.5 billion people dont have access to
a toilet.
The law is said to strengthen and clarify
the 2005 Water for the Poor Act, associated
with the late Senator Paul Simon of Illinois,
who, early recognizing the emergence of
water issues on the global stage, released
the book Tapped Out in 1998, one year
after his Senate retirement.
Recognizing insight
In a recent story in The Southern Il-
linoisan, John Oldfield, chief executive of
WASH Advocates, seemed to put a good
face on the bills lack of funding when he
was quoted as noting its hugely bi-partisan
support. According to the newspaper
story, previous versions of the bill called for
spending as much as $8 billion over the
next five years to meet the acts mandates.
In its present enacted form, only about $2
million is needed over the same period.
The bill will ensure U.S. aid dollars are
devoted to international projects that pro-
vide first-time access to safe drinking water.
Of course, the newspaper account also
points out, the omnibus spending plan
passed by Congress and signed into law
by President Obama last December in-
cludes a $17.5 billion bump for U.S. water
access and sanitation projects, bringing
the minimum U.S. spending levels for such
projects to $382.5 million, though millions
more is spent annually.
Further information on the legislations
details is included in a recent article found
in the High Plains/Midwest AG Journal, and
based on staff and wire reports.
In regards to water infrastructure, the web
site story says, the bill increases funding
in several priority areas, including the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers construction ac-
count, which was increased by $514 billion
above the administrations request, includ-
ing $112 million in additional for the Inland
Waterway Trust Funds projects.
Overall, says the website story, The Army
Corps of Engineers fared well, with a $921
million increase in its Civil Works account
and $47.5 million increase to operations &
maintenance.
The less fortunate
Headed in the opposite direction, ac-
cording to an article by Jack Rasmus on
the website counterpunch, is the EPAs
funding, which in the bill was reduced
another $60 million, having already been
reduced 21 percent below 2010 levels. He
also notes the Clean Water Acts regulatory
scope was shrunk to exempt ponds and
irrigation systems, although this may be a
perfectly reasonable action.
Also included in the omnibus spending
plan is legislation to create 15 manufactur-
ing innovation sites across the U.S. at a
federal government cost of $30 million a
year for the next 10 years.
Its assumed here that, depending on
what local regions are awarded the funding,
the efforts also could be aimed at process
industries, especially food & beverage,
and not just the manufacture of discrete
products. The hubs support a network of
public-private partnerships involving col-
leges, universities and goods makers to en-
sure the availability of fully trained workers,
which is something the editors have been
hearing an awfully lot about lately.
Go between the lines to glean the bottom lines
Kevin Parker, Editorial [email protected]
By Kevin Parker, Editorial Director
4 February 2015 | Water/Waste Processing | www.waterwaste.com
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Since 1848, the city of Georgetown
has been found about 30 miles north of
Austin, the Texas state capital.
Yet the towns population has almost
doubled, to 52,000, in the last 12 years.
Workers and dependents from major
Austin employers including the state
government and University of Texas, and
high-tech companies, including Dell,
Apple and Intel are among those re-
sponsible for the growth.
All these people need water and sewers
and electricity and roads.
Thats where Georgetown Utility Sys-
tems, a department in the City of George-
towns municipal government, comes
in. The pace of growth makes providing
services a tall order, says Ron Marrow, a
Georgetown transmission and distribution
supervisor.
Its not enough to just keep up with
the citys growing number of citizens,
because that would mean were always
behind the curve, he says. We have to
stay ahead of the growth and that takes
good planning.
Marrow and a team of three have
charge of communications and con-
nectivity across the municipalitys water,
waste and electrical infrastructure. To their
endeavors, they bring to bear a wealth of
experience with the citys infrastructure
and its environment.
Fast look back
For years the utility used the 900 MHz
radio spectrum in monitoring components
in its water, sewage and electrical distri-
bution systems, i.e., using SCADA data
communications with speeds of 9600 bits/
sec. However, Marrow says, the 900 MHz
radio communications werent always
reliable given an approximately 300
square-mile coverage area.
Hot weather was an especial problem.
The area is known for long, hot summers.
Average temperatures often top 100 de-
grees F in July and August. Temperature
highs near 90 degrees F are common well
into October.
A seemingly trivial temperature-related
failure can have significant consequences.
Heat-caused atmospheric changes
can disrupt radio data transmissions,
Marrow says. Whenever it got hotter than
90 degrees F, for example, communica-
tions from a remote wastewater lift station
would fail. Wed send a technician to take
data readings every four hours. If there
was an overflow, the actual environmental
impact might not be all that big, but the
regulatory reporting would be huge, so
wed make sure someone monitored it in
person.
6 February 2015 | Water/Waste Processing | www.waterwaste.com
IT-based automation
Remote-site data transmission deflects regulatory runaroundBroadband wireless extends municipalitys fiber-ring multi-megabit throughput to miles-away treatment sites
The 900 MHz radio spectrum wasn't always reliable when it came to use of SCADA for supervisory control of water distribution systems.
Long, hot summers were an
especial challenge.
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8 February 2015 | Water/Waste Processing | www.waterwaste.com
IT-based automation
Another issue was the star topology of
the 900 MHz radio network. All the remote
radios transmitted back to one central ra-
dio, Marrow says. If that central radio went
down, so would all our communications.
Big step taken
Marrow and his team designed, devel-
oped and deployed a redundant, 1.0 Gbps
fiber ring network for the citys SCADA com-
munications. Its multi-megabit bandwidth
eventually would enable broadband com-
munications that include video surveillance,
voice-over-IP and remote, on-demand WiFi
hotspots for municipal field workers.
In the aftermath of the project, however,
their most immediate concern was cost-ef-
fectively connecting remote water treatment
stations with the new fiber ring.
Installation of in-ground fiber can cost up
to $25,000 per mile. Extending the citys
fiber to its wastewater lift stations, up to
seven miles away, wasnt economically fea-
sible. Instead, broadband wireless would
be used to extend the municipalitys fiber
ring multi-megabit throughput out to the
remote sites.
Alternative options for doing so included
using 1) a commercial cellular network, but
that came with monthly charges; 2) 802.11
WiFi, but that came with limited range; and
3) 802.16e WiMAX, using the 4.9 GHz spec-
trum that the U.S. Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) allocated to public
safety and municipal uses, and which also
allows for mobile connectivity.
While WiMAX over the 4.9 GHz band
delivers the range needed, it requires FCC
licensing, something which isnt done with-
out expert support. This is where Siemens
reengaged with the municipality.
Devising devices
Deploying the municipalitys fiber ring
included installation of scores of Siemens
RUGGEDCOM RS900G Layer 2 switches,
part of Siemens harsh-environment com-
munications portfolio. The RS900G is an
environmentally hardened, fully managed
Ethernet switch that provides dual-fiber
optical Gigabit Ethernet ports with Gigabit
uplink ports, and 128-bit encryption.
In all, Georgetown had more than 200 of the
devices deployed in its fiber network, includ-
ing routers and media converters. It only
made sense to keep all the iMAX components
in the family, too, Marrow says.
Marrows Siemens contacts understood
what was involved in extending the fiber
rings broadband throughput to the remote
sites. WiMAX technology also presented
some line-of-sight challenges in connecting
wastewater lift stations typically placed
in low-lying areas amid Georgetowns
rolling, tree-covered terrain.
We not only needed help securing our
FCC license, we also needed some excel-
lent RF engineering, system design and
integration, Marrow says.
Integrator introduction
For these services, Marrow contacted
Alpha Omega Wireless, an Austin-based
'If wed have an overflow, the actual environmental impact might
not be all that big, but the regulatory reporting would be huge.'
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www.waterwaste.com | Water/Waste Processing | February 2015 9
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systems integrator and Siemens-certified in-
dustrial wireless solution provider. Marrow met
with Joe Wargo, founder and president, and
Kelly Ice, business development manager.
Alpha Omega Wireless compiled require-
ments to define a point-to-multipoint 4.9 GHz
WiMAX solution as well as a comprehensive
deployment and commissioning plan. In ad-
dition, they processed the paperwork needed
for the citys FCC license to use the 4.9 GHz
spectrum.
The solution includes three components, all
with rugged performance features to withstand
harsh weather conditions: the WIN 7249 small
form-factor base station, for 4.9 GHz radio
transmissions; the WIN 5249 outdoor sub-
scriber unit, also for the 4.9 GHz spectrum;
and the RP100 single-port 802.3xx Power-over-
Ethernet (PoE) injector, which powers the other
two devices.
The utility-grade gear works in environments
subject to high electromagnetic interference
(EMI), extreme temperatures and environ-
mental pollutants. Its also been put through
accelerated-stress testing, including highly
accelerated life testing (HALT) and highly ac-
celerated stress screen (HASS), both designed
to find defects before environmental conditions
do. These tests enable Siemens to provide
five-year warranties for the RUGGEDCOM port-
folio of network components.
Today, Georgetown enjoys a reliable, future-
The utility-grade gear used to enable
the remote reporting capabilities has been extensively subjected to accelerated stress
testing.
Previous top: Licensed 4.9 GHz wireless capability augmented the city's mission-critical broadband network.Previous bottom:The challenge was to connect remote water treatment sites with faster, more reliable data transmission.
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ready, high-bandwidth wireless network.
Its developers claim thousands of dollars
in labor cost-savings along with hundreds
of thousands of dollars in cost-avoidance
for just the first deployment phase, which
took just two days.
The base station was installed in one of
the citys outlying, 120-foot water towers. It
delivered a clear line of sight to subscriber
units installed at four water-treatment sta-
tions, the farthest more than five miles away.
What followed was faster
Marrow says he was amazed at the dif-
ference in transmission speeds apparent
when he used his laptop to log into the
4.9 GHz SCADA data stream. It was like
night and day, he says. Before, the data
speeds were so slow. Its like going from
a pipe a quarter-inch wide to one thats
six-inches wide.
Marrow was pleased with the imple-
mentation by Alpha Omega Wireless,
backed by Siemens service and support.
We test all the radio components as
soon as they arrive to ensure each one
works to its specification, says Ice. Then
we follow our proprietary project manage-
ment methodology, which we built on the
rigorous standards of the Project Man-
agement Institute.
The city no longer need dispatch a
technician to hand-log data at wastewater
lift stations whenever outdoor temperature
breaks 90 degrees, as it does more than
30 times a year. That saves thousands of
dollars.
Thats not to mention the technicians
discomfort to be inside an enclosure
gathering the data, while the suns baking
down on you, Marrow says.
10 February 2015 | Water/Waste Processing | www.waterwaste.com
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It pales though in comparison to the
citys avoidance of hundreds of thou-
sands of dollars in capital costs, if it had
pushed fiber out to the remote sites.
Siemens and Alpha Omega Wireless
had the expertise, responsiveness and
consultative approach right for the proj-
ect. They worked well together and the
support was good, he says. Through-
out it all, we felt our backs were covered.
No matter what issue might arise, we
knew both companies would respond
as one.
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electrification value chain from power
generation, transmission and distribu-
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efficient application of electrical energy.
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Highly accelerated life testing
(HALT) and highly acceler-
ated stress screen (HASS) are
both designed to find defects
before environmental condi-
tions do.
-
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In a food & beverage facility, water is for
make-up of cooling towers and boilers,
and for equipment washing and production
input. Water provision may involve connec-
tion to a municipal system; extraction from
the local natural water supply, such as a
ground well; or reclamation from process-
facility wastewater via reuse treatment,
lowering freshwater requirements.
Water resources were taken for granted
for decades, but now are seen critical for
companies, communities and govern-
ments, as issues of environmental sustain-
ability, both globally and in local context,
come to the fore.
Only 2.5 percent of the worlds water
is fresh, and much of that is trapped in
glaciers and snowfields. One estimate says
only about 1 percent of this freshwater is
accessible, i.e., available for everyday
use. In another estimate, if current trends
continue, global freshwater demand will
exceed supply by a staggering 40 percent
in 2030.
By reducing source-water requirements,
any food & beverage company lessens its
environmental impact. Many companies
also realize substantial cost savings from
water-related investments.
Other benefits of water reuse include
1) enhanced sustainability practices; 2)
more appropriate water-quality standards
for food & beverage processes; and 3)
mitigated business risk through lessened
dependency on external water sources.
Water reuse is growing around the world.
Read further to understand more about its
deployment, including issues bearing on
investment decisions.
Terms & definitions
Wastewater is typically discharged into a
collection network, to be treated by publicly
owned treatment works (POTW) or under
the national pollutant discharge elimination
system (NPDES).
In the U.S., publicly owned facilities
are the business of local governments or
municipalities, and treat domestic sewage,
not industrial wastewater. Some industrial
facilities are permitted to discharge water
to public treatment works if they follow
pretreatment processes such as for solids
removal, biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD) reduction and pH adjustment.
Public treatment works are sensitive to
industrial discharge due to potential impact
on facility operations. Many require corpo-
rations to pull permits for discharge and
charge significant fees. In addition, fines
and other penalties can be imposed for
discharge permit violations.
The discharge of water into a river, lake,
creek or other body of water falls under the
purview of the national pollutant discharge
elimination system, a division of the EPA,
already mentioned. Companies looking to
discharge wastewater through the national
discharge system need water more heavily
treated than if discharged to public treat-
ment works.
As a government-regulated system,
12 February 2015 | Water/Waste Processing | www.waterwaste.com
Filtration & membranes
Water-reuse treatment options in food & beverageWhys and wherefores, from biological and disinfection treatments to membranes and osmosis
Reclamation from process-
facility wastewater via reuse
treatment lowers freshwater
requirements.
Table 1
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strict permit requirements govern this type
discharge.
In fact, these standards often are more
stringent than those imposed for reuse. Vio-
lations of discharge requirements can result
in EPA-issued punitive fi nes and consent
decrees, which subject plants to routine
inspections to ensure standards compli-
ance. Should mandated provisions not
be followed, a company could also fi nd
itself paying for environmental damage
remediation.
Whether discharging wastewater
through POTW or NPDES, a company
should consider its full cost of wastewater
disposal when evaluating treatment and
reuse.
The technology of reuse
Commercial technologies for waste-
water treatment in reuse applications
include 1) conventional treatment to re-
move solids, and adjust pH and chlorine
levels, or 2) advanced processes that
fi lter and oxidize water, delivering higher
quality. These methods are more fl ex-
ible as to the how and where of recycled
water use.
Conventional solid waste removal can
include use of screens, dissolved-air
fl otation and primary clarifi ers, fi lters,
biological treatment via conventionally-
activated sludge, chlorination and pH
adjustment, reducing solids and Bio-
chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). It pro-
vides minimal disinfection and, for some
reuse applications, such as turf irrigation,
conventional treatment may be all that is
needed.
Advanced technologies can remove
contaminants that conventional treat-
ments cant and are applied based on
specifi c needs, including the following:
microfi ltration or ultrafi ltration
membranes for solids and bacteria
removal
sequencing-batch or membrane-
bioreactors for biological nutrient
removal
reverse osmosis for removal of dis-
solved organics or salts
oxidation and disinfection to remove
www.waterwaste.com | Water/Waste Processing | February 2015 13
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14 February 2015 | Water/Waste Processing | www.waterwaste.com
Filtration & membranes
trace contaminants and pathogens
adsorption or ozone-enhanced
biological active filtration to remove
dissolved organics and contaminants
These advanced treatments can be
roughly categorized as either "biological" or
"disinfection."
Biological treatment further includes two
subcategories: sequencing batch reactor
(SBR) and membrane bioreactor (MBR).
In general, sequence-batching needs less
capital investment, but a membrane biore-
actor can cost less to operate.
Both combine biological treatment with
membrane filtration to 1) provide a high
quality effluent and 2) meet stringent nutri-
ent limits for phosphorus and nitrogen.
For a more detailed comparison of SBR to
MBR, refer to Table 1.
Kinds of disinfection
Disinfection treatment comes in three
types: chlorine, ultraviolet (UV) and ozone.
The most basic is chlorine disinfection.
Here, water is filtered with hypochlorite
to generate chlorine residual to inactivate
pathogens such as bacteria.
UV technologies are chemical-free
and need less contact time than chlorine
disinfection. In these systems, water is
channeled through a reactor that emits
UV light at low wavelengths to destroy the
DNA structures of microorganisms, includ-
ing bacteria, viruses, yeasts and molds.
Virtually any liquid can be used with this
technology, so it is often found in beverage-
processing plants.
However, UV is sensitive to water clarity.
Higher clarity water requires less energy
to treat, and as a result, pretreatment of
wastewater is common in systems where
UV disinfection is used.
Ozone and advanced oxidation process-
es (AOP) are powerful oxidation treatment
technologies that generate hydroxyl radi-
cals, the strongest oxidant used in water
treatment. AOP is an ideal disinfection
approach to treat recalcitrant contaminants
not removed by other technologies. AOP
and ozone technologies are commonly
coupled with other filtration technologies.
Table 2 outlines a cost-benefit analysis of
common disinfection technologies.
Membranes & osmosis
In addition to biological and disinfection
techniques, other advanced treatments are
used either separately or in conjunction to
fulfill wastewater discharge requirements.
Membrane filtration, including microfiltra-
tion and ultrafiltration, is for suspended-sol-
ids removal in food & beverage processing.
The technologies remove some pathogens,
viruses and bacteria. See the table below
for a breakdown of filtration types.
Multiple treatment options are avail-
able for specific needs a variety of
conventional and advanced treatment
processes can be configured for any
facility and tailored to be fit-for-purpose
depending on the application.
Choose equipment that results in
long-term benefits A plants total
water and wastewater costs are signifi-
cant and will continue to rise. Employ-
ing the correct reuse technologies can
result in both hard and soft savings for
your organization, including reduc-
tion in supply risk and environmental
benefits.
Collect the necessary information
to start the process Now that youve
decided to start reusing water, the first
step is to define some objectives. Con-
sider both financial and environmental
goals.
THE REUSE TAKEAWAY
Types of Filtration
Table 2
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In reverse osmosis, salts and many dissolved organics are
removed through a Reverse osmosis is used for highest-quality
reuse water, such as high-pressure boiler feedwater or for low
salt and contaminant levels. Reverse osmosis is expensive and
generates a concentrate brine wastestream that must be man-
aged via proper disposal.
Treating water is only the first step to ensuring wastewater is
recycled and reused efficiently and effectively within a plant. It is
important for organizations to also consider the transportation
and storage costs of water reuse.
Pumps and pressures
Treatment and pumping systems are primary energy con-
sumers within a water or wastewater loop. Sizing a system
appropriately and selecting equipment to meet requirements is
critical to life-cycle energy savings.
Pumps both transport and boost pressure in a system.
Water is moved from one spot to another for treatment, storage
purposes or use. Pressure boosting is needed for treatments,
including reverse osmosis, where water moves through a
membrane at specific pressures. Many reuse applications, such
as irrigation and equipment washing, also require pressure-
boosting.
Pumps and piping impact considerably the energy con-
sumed over a systems lifecycle. Pumps should be selected
to operate at their best efficiency point (BEP) and plumbing
engineered to minimize friction loss. Xylem estimates that a wa-
ter reuse system with improperly sized piping and pumps can
increase energy consumption by 200 to 300 percent.
Write In 109
With increasing droughts and
water-related anomalies, water
reuse must be front and center
for food & beverage plants bent
on sustainability and a secure
water supply. It speaks also to a
greater focus on social respon-
sibility and water stewardship. In
part, due to public indices such
as the Dow Jones Sustainability
Index, companies are investing
more heavily in sustainability
than ever before and are better
managing their water use.
Another driver of water reuse
is health and safety mandates.
Food & beverage operations
must comply with the FDA, as
well as EPA and other relevant
regulatory bodies. Standards put
in place by these organizations to
regulate wastewater quality vary,
but apply in some form to all
plants, regardless of size. For ex-
ample, in 2012, the EPA released
a document outlining state and
federal water reuse guidelines for
all industries, including food and
beverage processing.
Xylem, Inc.
www.xyleminc.com
Write In 201
Reuse treatments found in the food & beverage industry may be biological, as with use of a batch reactor or bioreactor, or may involve disinfection, using chlorine, UV or ozone based technologies.
Possible Treatment
Processes
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16 February 2015 | Water/Waste Processing | www.waterwaste.com
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Write In 111
-
It seemed like every year after its potable
storage tank was constructed way back in
1972, the town of Lyons, Michigan, faced
icing problems, town officials admit.
With a population of nearly 800 men,
women and children, rural Lyons, found
near the center of the state, today over-
comes winter ice cake problems without
lifting or lowering its tank-water levels,
ensuring residents have full-strength water
pressure and fire-protection flow.
Ice-cake problems start with the fact that
leaving water quiescent in potable water-
storage tanks can lead to thermal strati-
fication, biofilms, excessive disinfection
byproducts and disinfectant residual loss.
Winter-ice formation in distribution-system
reservoirs also is challenging for water utili-
ties in colder climates.
With active mixing, stratification is
forestalled because inflow water circulates
throughout the entire tank, as water is
pulled in the tank bottom, where the dens-
est layers are, and transported directly to
the top of the tank.
Common enough situation
Thick ice layers often form on storage
tanks surfaces during prolonged subfreez-
ing weather. Steel tank seams can expand
during ice formation, causing water leak-
age or structural damage. Interaction of
ice chunks with inflows and outflows may
further damage tanks.
According to Susan Craft, a department
of public works superintendent, at one
point ice damage took out the cathodic
protection of Lyons tank. During the course
of renovating that single pedestal tank,
Craft consulted with Dixon Engineering of
Lake Odessa, Michigan on whether a more
definitive solution might be available.
The outcome was that today Lyons has
a GridBee GS-12 mixer from Dickinson,
North Dakota-based Medora Corp. for its
potable water tank. Craft reports that from
that point on, ice buildup in the tank was
a thing of the past, and furthermore, do-
ing year-round active mixing significantly
improved chlorine residuals.
Passive mixing so 'old school'
Most potable water storage tanks were
specified before circulation and mixing
water-quality benefits were fully appreci-
ated. Tanks were specified with excess stor-
age capacity for fire protection, adequate
water pressure and in anticipation of future
growth. Daily usage was relatively small in
relation to this excess capacity, again limit-
ing the benefits of passive mixing. Another
limitation of passive mixing is that tanks
have single-pipe influent-effluent designs,
with the ingress-egress point typically
located at the tank base.
Insufficient mixing allows water to ther-
mally stratify within a tank. During freezing
weather, temperatures in the lower portion
18 February 2015 | Water/Waste Processing | www.waterwaste.com
Mixing & blending
Active mixing solves rural utility ice-buildup problemsSomeone once said, Water bodies, like human bodies, require good circulation to function properly.
In Lyons, the 100,000-gallon capacity tower was "too small to lower the level much during the winter" and risk compromising fire-flow capacity. As a result, ice cake became the reality.
Stratification is forestalled
because inflow water circulates
through the entire tank, moving
what's at the bottom to the top.
-
www.waterwaste.com | Water/Waste Processing | February 2015 19
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Write In 112
of the water column are warmest. Groundwater, typically sourced
at about 11 degrees C, as infl uent water, is the primary source of
heat. When infl uent volumes are low, infl uent water temperature
declines quickly to 3-5 degrees C. The most recently introduced
water stays in the lower portion of the water column because
water density is greatest at about 4 degrees C. Water tempera-
tures in the tank decline with increasing elevation until ice forms
wall-to-wall on the surface. Subsurface ice continues to form,
often reaching thicknesses of one to two feet.
In Lyons, the tanks 100,000-gallon capacity further limited
passive mixing. Our tower was too small to lower the level
much during the winter, says Craft, and because we use the
height of the water for pressure, we need to keep it as full as
possible. Plus, lowering water levels compromises fi re-fl ow
capacity. As a result, ice cake became the reality.
Overcoming horizontal layers
Active mixing is based on the simple fact that water in potable
water-storage tanks naturally forms thin horizontal layers. The
heaviest or densest layer is at the bottom, and each layer above
it is progressively lighter.
An active mixer moves infl ow water throughout the entire
water body.
The Gridbee GS-12 sets on the tank fl oor and pulls water
in at a point from one to two inches off the tank fl oor. In other
words, it pulls in water from the very bottom of the tank, where
the densest layers are, and transports it to the top of the tank.
Soon, temperatures are nearly identical throughout the tank and
ice cannot form.
Craft says Lyons uses the mixer year-around to combat prob-
lems from water stratifi cation. Pulling water right off the tank fl oor
ensures the most effi cient mixing of important boundary layers
without disturbing the sediment providing uniform distribu-
tion of disinfectant and uniform water age, as well as preventing
stratifi cation.
According to Craft, I was able
to keep the tank full during the
winter with no icing problems.
And chlorine residual levels are
more consistent. I was having
differing chlorine residuals before
I started mixing, but now its
been evened out in the system.
One sample I pull from a dead-
end has maintained a real even
residual.
Keeping these chlorine residu-
al levels consistent requires less
treatment, which reduces costs.
And improving water quality is,
of course, the ultimate goal for
Lyons and its residents.
Medora Corp., Dickinson,
North Dakota, whose brands
include GridBee and Solar-
Bee, provides mixing, THM
removal and disinfectant boosting
solutions to solve diffi cult prob-
lems in potable water treatment
and storage. GridBee GS-12
mixers are certifi ed to ANSI/NSF
Standard 61, including low-lead
certifi cation, by NSF, UL, CSA or
other qualifying agency. For more
information, call 866-437-8076.
Medora Corp.
www.medoraco.com
Write In 202
Use of an active mixer ensures uniform water temperatures within the tank.
-
Solids including those suspended,
settle-able or floatable are non-liquid or
fluid substances separated from clarified
wastewater in primary treatment.
Suspended solids are those small, solid
particles that remain so in water, as a col-
loid, or due to the motion of the water.
Settle-able solids are particles that will
settle within a reasonable length of time
assuming little movement. The weight by
volume of settle-able solids is greater than
water.
Floatable solids do so because their
weight by volume is less than that of water.
Primary wastewater treatments that
remove these solids in process containers
include primary clarifiers, air-flotation units
and cone-shape Imhoff settlers. While effec-
tive solids separation supersedes control
of pH and flow or other factors, generic
controls for each process container are
described in the following.
Primary clarifiers
The primary clarifiers most important
function is removing as much settle-able
and suspended material as possible. Unless
removed, organic settle-able solids can
cause a high demand for oxygen (BOD) in
subsequent biological treatment in the plant
or receiving waters.
Many factors influence the settling char-
acteristics of a given clarifier. Most common
include: temperature variation, short circuits,
detention time, weir-overflow rate, surface-
loading rate and solids loading. Three of
these factors are discussed below.
1. Temperature: In general, as water
temperature increases, the settling rate of
particles increases; as temperature decreas-
es, so does the settling rate.
2. Short circuits: As wastewater enters the
settling tank, it should be evenly dispersed
through the entire cross-section of the tank.
It should flow at the same velocity in all
areas toward the discharge end. If veloc-
ity is greater in some sections than others,
short-circuiting may occur.
Short-circuiting also may be caused by
turbulence or density-layer stratification
following from temperature or salinity varia-
tion. Temperature layers can cause short-
circuiting.
3. Detention time: Wastewater should
remain in the clarifier long enough to allow
sufficient solid-particle settling time. If the
tank is too small for the flow quantity and
the particle settling rate, too many particles
will be carried out with the effluent of the
clarifier.
20 February 2015 | Water/Waste Processing | www.waterwaste.com
Wastewater Dan
How is solids-separation controlled in primary wastewater treatment?Primary clarifiers, air-flotation units and Imhoff settlers are amongst equipment options
By Daniel Theobald
Air flotation units
The objective of flotation thickening
is to separate solids from the liquid
phase by matching air bubbles to
particles of suspended solids. Four
general methods of flotation are com-
mon, as follows:
1. Dispersed air flotation where
bubbles are generated by mixers or
diffused aerators.
2. Biological flotation where gases
formed by biological activity are used
to float solids.
3. Dissolved air, vacuum flotation
where water is aerated at atmo-
spheric pressure and released under a
vacuum.
4. Dissolved air, pressure flotation
where air is put into solution under
pressure and released at atmospheric
pressure.
The performance of dissolved air-
flotation units depends on; type of
sludge, age of the feed sludge, solids
and hydraulic loadings, air-to-solids
(A/S) ratio, recycle rate, and sludge-
blanker depth.
Operational guidelines are affected
by dissolved air flotation unit sizes.
-
Performance can be optimized by con-
trolling the air-to-solids ratio, recycle rate
and blanket thickness as variables. These
control variables are affected by solids and
hydraulic loading rates. Controls should
prevent solids or hydraulic loading from
becoming excessive.
Performance is optimized by conditions
such as those described in the following.
Air-to-solids ratio: An optimum ratio
should be established and maintained.
It is affected by the quantity of air intro-
duced and dissolved into the recycle or
waste-stream, which is in turn critical to
fl otation thickener operation. Enough air
has to be added and dissolved to fl oat
the sludge solids. The most effective way
to do this is introducing air into a pressur-
ized retention tank along with the waste-
stream to be thickened, or along with a
portion of the thickener effl uent stream.
Air also can be dissolved in primary or
secondary effl uent.
Recycle rate and sludge blanket: Both
the rate of effl uent recycle and the thick-
ness of the sludge blanket are opera-
tional controls available to optimize DAF
performance.
Note on Imhoff tanks
Imhoff tanks are rarely constructed to-
day. Your plant may incorporate an Imhoff
tank only if it came online many years
ago, perhaps in the 1980s. Cone-shape
Imhoff settler tanks are unique because
the Imhoff tank combines sedimenta-
tion and sludge digestion in the same
process unit.
If you have specifi c solids separation or
other wastewater queries, please submit a
question by visiting www.ProcessingMag-
azine.com/Ask-the-Wastewater-Expert.
Known in the industry as Wastewater
Dan, Daniel L. Theobald, proprietor of
Environmental Services, is a professional
wastewater and safety consultant/trainer. He
has more than 24 years of hands-on indus-
try experience operating many variants of
wastewater treatment processing units and
is eager to share with others his knowledge
about water conservation. (www.Conserve-
On-Water.com).
www.waterwaste.com | Water/Waste Processing | February 2015 21
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Write In 113
-
Experts call for review of US drinking water standards
The U.S. EPA should review its standards
on secondary drinking water contaminants,
according to a paper published in the
American Chemical Society journal Envi-
ronmental Science and Technology.
Authors Andrea Dietrich, professor of civil
and environmental engineering at Virginia
Tech, and Gary A. Burlingame, director
of the Philadelphia Water Department's
Bureau of Laboratory Services, said that
a variety of factors could change con-
sumer perceptions of drinking water quality,
including California's drought conditions,
the increase in hydraulic fracturing and
the country's aging infrastructure of rusty,
degrading pipes.
Dietrich and Burlingame argued that
these and other developments mean that
a critical review and rethink is needed con-
cerning the EPA's secondary standards in
order to maintain consumers' confidence in
tap water as well as in its sensory quality.
These "secondary maximum contaminant
levels" cover substances including alumi-
num, chloride, copper, fluoride, foaming
agents, iron, manganese, silver, sulfate,
total dissolved solids and zinc, as well as
the water's color, odor, pH and corrosivity.
Research by Dietrich and Burlingame
suggests that the current standards for
chloride, copper, iron and manganese
are too high to minimize sensory effects.
Furthermore, they said, the standards
for corrosivity and foaming agents "may
be outdated" and the standard for odor
"requires rethinking as the test does not
correlate with consumer complaints."
Episodes that negatively impact consum-
er confidence and perception of tap water
still occur and may increase, yet second-
ary maximum contaminant levels are not
monitored or enforced nationally. As a
result, there is no systematic collection and
interpretation of consumer feedback.
"Research is necessary to develop stan-
dardized procedures for the collection of
consumer feedback on aesthetic, cosmetic
and technical concerns at individual com-
munity water systems and centralized in
a national database," Dietrich and Burlin-
game said.
Adherence to the EPA's secondary
standards can help maintain production
of palatable water along with consumers'
confidence in their water providers, the
researchers concluded.
Arkansas city agrees to cut sewage discharges
The city of Fort Smith, Arkansas, has
agreed to upgrade its sewer collection and
treatment system to reduce discharges of
raw sewage into local waterways, the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
announced.
Under a consent decree with the EPA
and the U.S. Department of Justice, Fort
Smith will spend $255 million, plus the cost
of routine operation and maintenance, to
improve its sewer system. This comes after
more than 2,000 discharges of untreated
sewage from its municipal sewage system
over the past 10 years, resulting in more
than 119 million gallons of raw sewage
flowing into local waterways, including the
Arkansas River.
The city will carry out a full assessment
of its sewer system to identify defects and
places where stormwater may be entering
the system. It will also repair all sewer pipe
segments and manholes that are likely
to fail within the next 10 years, develop
projects to improve the performance of
sewers and implement a program to clean
the system of debris such as grease and
tree roots. And a water-monitoring program
will be implemented to establish whether
human waste is entering and being dis-
charged from the city's stormwater system.
Fort Smith will also pay a $300,000 civil
penalty and will spend $400,000 on a pro-
gram to help low-income areas of the city
repair and replace privately-owned portions
of the sewer network.
According to the EPA, this settlement
agreement will substantially reduce the
number of sewage discharges and improve
water quality. It will cut discharges of 3,492
pounds of total suspended solids, 3,343
pounds of biological oxygen demand, 543
pounds of nitrogen and 78 pounds of phos-
phorus from the Fort Smith sewage system
each year.
High levels of these pollutants can
reduce oxygen levels in water bodies,
threatening the health of aquatic plants and
animals, for example by causing excessive
algae growth.
IChemE calls for action to cut water usage in food production
More needs to be done to reduce the
amount of water used in food production,
according to the Institution of Chemical
Engineers (IChemE).
The organization estimates that around
90 percent of all freshwater is currently
used by agriculture (70 percent) and indus-
try (20 percent), leaving just 10 percent for
domestic use.
With the global population continuing to
rise and more people moving to a Western-
style diet, increases in food production will
be required to feed the population and that
increased production will need larger water
supplies.
"Estimates suggest that we will need to
produce 60 percent more food by 2050.
Agriculture will need around 19 percent
more water to produce that extra food,"
commented Andy Furlong, IChemE director
of policy.
22 February 2015 | Water/Waste Processing | www.waterwaste.com
News in brief
-
www.waterwaste.com | Water/Waste Processing | February 2015 23
"It is clear that current production meth-
ods are unsustainable and there are
genuine risks of food shortages, rising food
prices, droughts and social unrest for future
generations unless we make more efficient
use of water," he added.
By 2050 around two-thirds of the
world's population will be living in "water
scarce" areas, compared to just seven
percent at present.
IChemE is calling for a global target
to cut the amount of water used in food
production worldwide by 20 percent.
Shutdown strategy saves treatment plant time, money
Engineers in the United Kingdom have
devised a way to shut down an entire
sewage treatment works without using
storm facilities.
Engineering and construction group
Costain said that a team working at
Severn Trent Water's Stratford Milcote
facility developed and trialed the strategy
while installing a new inlet works with
associated screens and handling at the
sewage treatment plant.
Tom Grainger-White, senior site agent
for Costain, explained: "Traditionally when
a treatment works is shut down, foul
water is transferred to tankers and then
transported to other sites. By compil-
ing information such as how wastewater
flowed between the 15 pump stations
that fed the site, and carrying out tests to
check those interactions, we were able to
turn off individual stations.
"This allowed us to increase the time
we could turn off the main treatment
works, and so no tankers were required."
When a faulty valve was discovered at
the water utility's Paddock Lane pump
station, the strategy proved its worth.
Grainger-White said: "Paddock Lane
is a very large pumping station; it's in a
residential area and is almost impossible to
tanker from. But the three trials we carried
out at the Stratford Milcote scheme were
enough to convince everyone that STW
could perform shutdowns further up the
network and so safely replace the valve."
Using information from the shutdown
trials at Milcote, the team was able to safely
replace the faulty valve the next day. Severn
Trent Water estimated that the work cost
around 35,000 ($55,000) less than if over-
pumping had been required.
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Write In 110
-
Aplus Finetek Sensor, Inc.'s
newest EG series level transmitter,
the EG31, is designed to pre-
cisely measure coolant level in an
evaporator within an industrial air
or water cooled chiller. Accurate
reservoir level control is important
for precise control of refrigerant
flow through the expansion valve.
The Aplus Finetek EG31 also includes a customized installation
mechanism that allows the level transmitter to be installed or
removed without taking the system out of service. The EG31 level
transmitter is currently used by a global leader in the manufac-
ture of large scale industrial chillers.
Aplus Finetek Sensor, Inc.
www.aplusfine.comWrite In 204
Chemical Metering Pumps
Watson-Marlow Pumps Group's
new Qdos 60 chemical metering
pumps expand the Qdos range to
incorporate flow rates from 0.001 to
15 GPH at 100psi and is designed
to reduce chemical metering costs
compared to conventional solenoid
or stepper-driven diaphragm meter-
ing pumps. The Qdos 60 is espe-
cially suited to chemical metering
applications found in larger water treatment plants where flow
demand is greater than that provided by the existing Qdos 30
model and is ideal for disinfection, pH adjustment and floccula-
tion of drinking water, wastewater and industrial process water.
ReNu pumphead technology provides a single, safely con-
tained component for rapid maintenance without the need for
tools. Simple drop-in installation eliminates the need for ancillary
equipment; and the pumps highly accurate, linear and repeat-
able metering cut the cost of chemical wastage.
Watson-Marlow Pumps Group
www.wmpg.comWrite In 203
Level Transmitter for Measuring Coolant
24 February 2015 | Water/Waste Processing | www.waterwaste.com
Advertiser IndexAmerican Water Works Association (AWWA) ...............................11
Aplus Finetek Sensor, Inc. ..............................................................15
Baldor Electric Company ..................................................................5
Blue-White Industries......................................................................13
Boerger ............................................................................................21
Dwyer Instruments ...............................................Inside Front Cover
Flexicon Corp. .................................................................................10
GEM ...............................................................................................23
Infilco Degremont .............................................. Inside Back Cover
Kaeser Compressors ........................................................................1
Myron L ............................................................................ Back Cover
Process / Flow Network ..................................................................17
Rosedale Products .......................................................................... 7
Rotork ................................................................................................3
Sonitec-Vortisand ............................................................................19
Watson-Marlow Pumps Group .........................................................9
New Product Spotlight
-
Write In 114
-
Write In 115
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