Water Treatment

CE 326 Principles of Environmental Engineering

February 16, 2009

Tim Ellis, Ph.D., P.E.

Announcements:

•Wednesday Lab: in 112 Town & will probably take the full 2 hours

• c_____________ drinking c_____________ drinking water has the greatest impact on water has the greatest impact on human health for > ___% of world’s populationhuman health for > ___% of world’s population

• worldwide deaths due to contaminated drinking worldwide deaths due to contaminated drinking water are approximately _________ - ________ per water are approximately _________ - ________ per dayday

• _____% of hospital beds occupied by people _____% of hospital beds occupied by people infected with waterborne illnessesinfected with waterborne illnesses

• currently the world’s population that lack’s access currently the world’s population that lack’s access to “safe” drinking water is ____% or ____ billion to “safe” drinking water is ____% or ____ billion (Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development, 2002)(Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development, 2002)

World WaterWorld Water

• ____ billion are without proper sanitation____ billion are without proper sanitation• More than ___ million people die each year More than ___ million people die each year

from diseases caused by unsafe drinking from diseases caused by unsafe drinking water, lack of sanitation, and insufficient water, lack of sanitation, and insufficient water for hygiene. water for hygiene.

• In fact, over __ million deaths occur each In fact, over __ million deaths occur each year from water-related diarrhea alone. year from water-related diarrhea alone.

• Insufficient sanitation of water and Insufficient sanitation of water and sanitation disproportionately affect sanitation disproportionately affect w________, c_______, and the p______.w________, c_______, and the p______.

World Water• The majority of deaths from water-related diarrhea are The majority of deaths from water-related diarrhea are

among children under 15, and women. among children under 15, and women. • At any given time, almost ____ of the people in At any given time, almost ____ of the people in

developing countries suffer from water-related diseases. developing countries suffer from water-related diseases. • Agriculture accounts for more than ____ percent of global Agriculture accounts for more than ____ percent of global

water consumption. water consumption. • The inefficient use of water for i__________ has led to The inefficient use of water for i__________ has led to

depletion of groundwater resources in many of the depletion of groundwater resources in many of the world’s most important agricultural regions, and is the world’s most important agricultural regions, and is the primary source of groundwater pollution in parts of primary source of groundwater pollution in parts of E_________, the US, and A_____.E_________, the US, and A_____.

World Water• During the 1990s, about _____ million people in developing During the 1990s, about _____ million people in developing

countries gained access to improved drinking water, countries gained access to improved drinking water, demonstrating the possibility for major improvements in demonstrating the possibility for major improvements in safe water access worldwide.safe water access worldwide.

• At the Millennium Summit in September 2000, world leaders At the Millennium Summit in September 2000, world leaders agreed to the goal of halving, by ______, the proportion of agreed to the goal of halving, by ______, the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water and sanitation. people without access to safe drinking water and sanitation.

• To meet this goal, an additional _____ billion people will To meet this goal, an additional _____ billion people will need access to adequate water, and _____ billion will need need access to adequate water, and _____ billion will need improved sanitation. improved sanitation.

• The annual investment required to meet the goal is The annual investment required to meet the goal is estimated to be $_____ billion, nearly twice the estimated to be $_____ billion, nearly twice the current level of investment.current level of investment.

World Water

• Within ___ years, half the world's population could have trouble finding enough fresh water for d______________ and i_____________

• The study was carried out at Colorado University, which surveyed river basins all over the planet to identify those under most pressure.

• It found a t_______ of the world's people already live in regions considered to be "w__________-s___________" - where there is not enough, or barely enough water to go around.

World Water• Areas at risk Waterways under most pressure

included – China's Y_________ R_______ basin, – the Z_________ R______ in Africa, – and the rivers that lead into the A___ S____ in Central

Asia.

• Most of the water from those sources is used for i___________, not drinking, according to the study's leading author, Kenneth Strzepek. He says that with rising populations, half the world's people will find it hard to get enough water for crops and livestock within ___ years, and still have enough left to d______ themselves.

U.S.A.

• In the U.S.A. approximately ___ billion gallons of In the U.S.A. approximately ___ billion gallons of water is withdrawn from surface and groundwater water is withdrawn from surface and groundwater supplies daily.supplies daily.

• About ___% of this amount (32 bgd) is used for About ___% of this amount (32 bgd) is used for public water supplies.public water supplies.

• Approximately 50,000 c_____________ water systems Approximately 50,000 c_____________ water systems supply 80 to 90% of the U.S. population.supply 80 to 90% of the U.S. population.

• On average, Americans use ____ gal/person/day. On average, Americans use ____ gal/person/day. (This includes industrial uses and system losses).(This includes industrial uses and system losses).

• About ____ people do not have running water in their About ____ people do not have running water in their homes.homes.

• The split between surface water and well water is The split between surface water and well water is about _______.about _______.

• In rural areas _____% of the population uses In rural areas _____% of the population uses groundwater.groundwater.

• 20% of all public water supply wells and 29% of wells 20% of all public water supply wells and 29% of wells in urban areas have detectable levels of at least one in urban areas have detectable levels of at least one v________ o__________ c______________.v________ o__________ c______________.

• At least 13 organic chemicals that are confirmed At least 13 organic chemicals that are confirmed animal or human c_____________ have been detected animal or human c_____________ have been detected in drinking water wells.in drinking water wells.

• Toxic organics were found in some wells in almost Toxic organics were found in some wells in almost every state east of the Mississippi, t_______________ every state east of the Mississippi, t_______________ (TCE) was the most prevalent.(TCE) was the most prevalent.

• 1000 public drinking water systems that serve 12 1000 public drinking water systems that serve 12 million people in the U.S. exceed n_______ levels at million people in the U.S. exceed n_______ levels at least some of the time. 8.7 million of these people are least some of the time. 8.7 million of these people are in California.in California.

Iowa WaterIowa Water

• In Iowa, _____% of our drinking water comes from In Iowa, _____% of our drinking water comes from ground supplies.ground supplies.

• Iowans use an average of ____ gal/person each day.Iowans use an average of ____ gal/person each day.• Farms lose _________ tons of soil each year. Farms lose _________ tons of soil each year. • Soil runoff is the leading pollutant in Iowa's Soil runoff is the leading pollutant in Iowa's

waterways.waterways.• Iowa has lost over ____% of its wetlands.Iowa has lost over ____% of its wetlands.• Iowans apply more f__________ than all states Iowans apply more f__________ than all states

except Illinois.except Illinois.• In 1996 there were _________ fish killed from manure In 1996 there were _________ fish killed from manure

and chemical spills.and chemical spills.• About ____% of public water systems had excessive About ____% of public water systems had excessive

bacterial counts during sampling period.bacterial counts during sampling period.

Iowa WaterIowa Water

• Trihalomethanes were detected in over Trihalomethanes were detected in over ______% of samples over a seven year ______% of samples over a seven year period. Only 10% of samples exceed period. Only 10% of samples exceed drinking water standards.drinking water standards.

• High nitrate levels were found in ____High nitrate levels were found in ____% of private wells and 2% of public % of private wells and 2% of public water systems.water systems.

• The herbicide atrazine was found in The herbicide atrazine was found in _____% of drinking water samples. _____% of drinking water samples. Only 1% of samples exceed drinking Only 1% of samples exceed drinking water standards.water standards.

Hardness and Trace MetalsHardness and Trace Metals• life expectancy for white males over 45 years of life expectancy for white males over 45 years of

age hasn't changed much since 1900 (mainly due age hasn't changed much since 1900 (mainly due to little progress in the control of c______________ to little progress in the control of c______________ disease)disease)

• in 1959 researchers noticed a large discrepancy in 1959 researchers noticed a large discrepancy between rates of cardiovascular heart disease between rates of cardiovascular heart disease depending on g_________ locationdepending on g_________ location

• significant negative correlations were found significant negative correlations were found between m__________ from cardiovascular heart between m__________ from cardiovascular heart disease and magnesium, calcium, bicarbonate, disease and magnesium, calcium, bicarbonate, sulfate, fluoride, dissolved solids, specific sulfate, fluoride, dissolved solids, specific conductance, and pHconductance, and pH

• most significant negative correlation was for most significant negative correlation was for h__________h__________

Hardness and Trace MetalsHardness and Trace Metals

• mortality from cardiovascular heart disease mortality from cardiovascular heart disease in hard water areas has been shown to be in hard water areas has been shown to be h_____ that in soft water areash_____ that in soft water areas

• t_______ metals may be an important factort_______ metals may be an important factor• c_____________ of water may be an c_____________ of water may be an

important factorimportant factor• studies in Texas have shown a relationship studies in Texas have shown a relationship

between the levels of l________ in between the levels of l________ in groundwater and incidence of groundwater and incidence of schizophrenia, psychosis, neurosis, schizophrenia, psychosis, neurosis, personality problems, and homicidal personality problems, and homicidal tendencies.tendencies.

• Very hard water is considered > 200 mg/L as Very hard water is considered > 200 mg/L as CaCOCaCO33

Four Water Quality Four Water Quality CharacteristicsCharacteristics

1.1. P_______ characteristics relate to quality P_______ characteristics relate to quality of water for domestic use: e.g., color, of water for domestic use: e.g., color, turbidity, temperature, and taste and turbidity, temperature, and taste and odor.odor.

• C_________ characteristics are often C_________ characteristics are often evidenced by observed reactions: e.g., evidenced by observed reactions: e.g., hardness of water.hardness of water.

• B____________ characteristics are B____________ characteristics are important for public health reasons: e.g., important for public health reasons: e.g., pathogens.pathogens.

• R___________ factors must be R___________ factors must be considered where there is possibility of considered where there is possibility of contact withcontact with radioactive substances: e.g., radioactive substances: e.g., radon in groundwater.radon in groundwater.

Physical CharacteristicsPhysical Characteristics• Turbidity. Turbidity.

• Presence of s__________ m__________ in water. Presence of s__________ m__________ in water. • Measured by refraction of light (Nephelometric Measured by refraction of light (Nephelometric

Turbidity Units, NTU). Turbidity Units, NTU). • Not necessarily a health concern, but may be an Not necessarily a health concern, but may be an

indication of contamination.indication of contamination.• Color. Color.

– Dissolved organic material from decaying vegetation Dissolved organic material from decaying vegetation may cause color in water. Color is a concern from may cause color in water. Color is a concern from the standpoint of aesthetics and it often indicates the the standpoint of aesthetics and it often indicates the presence of h______ substances which are presence of h______ substances which are precursors of t___ h_____ m________ (THMs) precursors of t___ h_____ m________ (THMs) formed during chlorination.formed during chlorination.

Physical CharacteristicsPhysical Characteristics• Taste and Odor. Taste and Odor.

– Taste and odor in water is caused byTaste and odor in water is caused by• o_______ c__________, o_______ c__________, • i________ s______, or i________ s______, or • d_________ g_________. d_________ g_________.

– Objectionable tastes and odors should be Objectionable tastes and odors should be removed from drinking water.removed from drinking water.

• Temperature. Temperature. – Consistently cool drinking water is most desirable Consistently cool drinking water is most desirable

(____ - _____ °C).(____ - _____ °C).

Chemical CharacteristicsChemical Characteristics• Inorganic Substances. Inorganic Substances.

– Chloride. Chloride. • All waters contain some chloride due to All waters contain some chloride due to

– leaching of m_____ s_________ d_______, leaching of m_____ s_________ d_______, – infiltration of sea water, or infiltration of sea water, or – industrial and agricultural influence. Concentrations in excess of 250 industrial and agricultural influence. Concentrations in excess of 250

mg/L may cause noticeable taste.mg/L may cause noticeable taste.

– Copper. Copper. • Found in some natural waters, particularly around ore deposits and Found in some natural waters, particularly around ore deposits and

mines. Small quantities are not considered a problem, but may mines. Small quantities are not considered a problem, but may cause a undesirable t________ in water.cause a undesirable t________ in water.

– Fluorides. Fluorides. • Some waters contain natural fluorides. Good in preventing t_____ Some waters contain natural fluorides. Good in preventing t_____

d_______ when concentration is between 0.7 and 1.2 mg/L. d_______ when concentration is between 0.7 and 1.2 mg/L. • Higher concentrations can lead to f________ a discoloration and Higher concentrations can lead to f________ a discoloration and

pitting of teeth in children.pitting of teeth in children.

http://www.solheim.bismarck.k12.nd.us/images/mali snap gallery/mini-QWell.jpg

Dental FlourosisDental Flourosis

Chemical CharacteristicsChemical Characteristics• Iron. Iron.

– Usually present in small amounts, especially in groundwater. Usually present in small amounts, especially in groundwater. – High levels of iron are objectionable because they leave a b_______ High levels of iron are objectionable because they leave a b_______

c_____ on laundry and impart taste and odor to the water.c_____ on laundry and impart taste and odor to the water.

• Lead. Lead. – Dangerous even in small quantities. Dangerous even in small quantities. – Cumulative p_________.Cumulative p_________.– Poorly absorbed by adults (5 - 7%) Poorly absorbed by adults (5 - 7%) – but highly absorbed by children (up to 40%). but highly absorbed by children (up to 40%). – Stored in the bone and slowly released into the bloodstream.Stored in the bone and slowly released into the bloodstream.– Lead poison can cause brain and nerve damage, kidney damage, Lead poison can cause brain and nerve damage, kidney damage,

anemia, and porphyrinuria (excretion of hemoglobin precursors in the anemia, and porphyrinuria (excretion of hemoglobin precursors in the urine). urine).

– Problem in drinking water due to lead solder, lead pipes, and lead Problem in drinking water due to lead solder, lead pipes, and lead cores in drinking water fountains.cores in drinking water fountains.

http://www.pbase.com/lamarn/image/73180381

• Manganese. Manganese. – Imparts a b________ color to water and laundry, Imparts a b________ color to water and laundry,

flavors coffee and tea.flavors coffee and tea.

• Nitrate. Nitrate. – Causes methemoglobinemia (b____ b____) in infants Causes methemoglobinemia (b____ b____) in infants

given formula containing high concentrations of nitrate given formula containing high concentrations of nitrate and breast fed babies whose mothers drink high and breast fed babies whose mothers drink high levels of nitrate. levels of nitrate.

– The babies blood absorbs nitrate instead of oxygen The babies blood absorbs nitrate instead of oxygen resulting in oxygen depletion. resulting in oxygen depletion.

– Nitrates are found in water contaminated from Nitrates are found in water contaminated from wastewaters or fertilizers.wastewaters or fertilizers.

– Current MCL of 10 mg/LCurrent MCL of 10 mg/L

Chemical Characteristics• Sodium. Sodium.

– Concern for people with heart, kidney, or circulatory Concern for people with heart, kidney, or circulatory ailments. Most home w_____ s________ use sodium, ailments. Most home w_____ s________ use sodium, replacing the calcium and magnesium ions with sodium replacing the calcium and magnesium ions with sodium ions.ions.

• Sulfate. Sulfate. – Waters containing high sulfate concentrations from contact Waters containing high sulfate concentrations from contact

with natural deposits of magnesium or sodium sulfate may with natural deposits of magnesium or sodium sulfate may act as a l____________.act as a l____________.

• Zinc. Zinc. – Zinc in water supplies (usually near zinc ore mines) will Zinc in water supplies (usually near zinc ore mines) will

give an undesirable t________. give an undesirable t________.

Maximum Contaminant Levels for Inorganic Compounds

ContaminantExisting MCL (mg/L) MCLG (mg/L)

ArsenicAsbestosBariumCadmiumChromiumLeadMercuryNitrate (as N)Nitrite (as N)SeleniumThallium

0.017 million fibers/L

2.00.0050.1

0.015 TT0.00210.01.0

0.050.0005

07 million fibers/L

2.00.0050.10

0.00210.01.00.05

0.002

Organic SubstancesOrganic Substances

• Volatile Organic Compounds. Volatile Organic Compounds. – Compounds which are characterized by high Compounds which are characterized by high

v_____________ are classified as volatile v_____________ are classified as volatile organic compounds (VOCs). organic compounds (VOCs).

– VOCs may have particular adverse health VOCs may have particular adverse health effects. effects.

– They are a result of industrial, commercial, They are a result of industrial, commercial, and agricultural activity. and agricultural activity.

– Many are s___________ or additives (e.g., Many are s___________ or additives (e.g., paint thinners).paint thinners).

Synthetic Organic CompoundsSynthetic Organic Compounds

• Organic chemicals of an a________________ Organic chemicals of an a________________ origin are termed synthetic organic origin are termed synthetic organic compounds (SOCs). compounds (SOCs).

• Like VOCs, SOCs may have particular Like VOCs, SOCs may have particular adverse health effects and are a result of adverse health effects and are a result of – industrial, industrial, – commercial, and commercial, and – agricultural activity. agricultural activity.

• Many SOCs are h__________, p___________, Many SOCs are h__________, p___________, or i______________.or i______________.

Disinfection ByproductsDisinfection Byproducts• During disinfection of drinking water, chemical During disinfection of drinking water, chemical

oxidants kill disease causing organisms oxidants kill disease causing organisms (p_____________) but can also create toxic organic (p_____________) but can also create toxic organic compounds. compounds.

• These are termed disinfection byproducts (DBPs).These are termed disinfection byproducts (DBPs).• The most common source of DBPs is c__________ The most common source of DBPs is c__________

or b___________ of water containing organic or b___________ of water containing organic matter. matter.

• This often results in trihalomethanes (THMs), the This often results in trihalomethanes (THMs), the most common of which are: most common of which are: – Chloroform (CHCl3)Chloroform (CHCl3)– Bromoform (CHBrBromoform (CHBr33))– Bromodichloromethane (CHBrClBromodichloromethane (CHBrCl22))– Dibromochloromethane (CHBrDibromochloromethane (CHBr22Cl)Cl)

LegislationLegislation

• SDWA of 1974SDWA of 1974– The S____ D_________ W_____ A___ (SDWA) was The S____ D_________ W_____ A___ (SDWA) was

signed into law by President Gerald Ford in 1974. signed into law by President Gerald Ford in 1974. – It established minimum national standards for It established minimum national standards for

drinking water to protect public health. drinking water to protect public health. – The act established p___________ standards which The act established p___________ standards which

specified maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) for specified maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) for individual contaminants suspected of having an individual contaminants suspected of having an adverse affect on public health.adverse affect on public health.

– The act also established s__________ standards The act also established s__________ standards relating to tastes, odors, and appearance of drinking relating to tastes, odors, and appearance of drinking water.water.

– SDWA set a timeline for the promulgation of SDWA set a timeline for the promulgation of standards with a review every three years.standards with a review every three years.

SDWA Amendments of 1986SDWA Amendments of 1986• By the 1980s, a number of contaminants had yet to be regulated, and on June 19, By the 1980s, a number of contaminants had yet to be regulated, and on June 19,

1986 President Reagan signed into law the 1986 Amendments to the SDWA.1986 President Reagan signed into law the 1986 Amendments to the SDWA.• Major aspects of the 1986 Amendments to the SDWA included:Major aspects of the 1986 Amendments to the SDWA included:

– C____________ revisions to drinking water regulations in a timely fashion.C____________ revisions to drinking water regulations in a timely fashion.– Definition of a t___________ t___________ for each contaminant regulated.Definition of a t___________ t___________ for each contaminant regulated.– Requirement of a treatment technique where it is not feasible to ascertain the Requirement of a treatment technique where it is not feasible to ascertain the

level of a r___________ c______________level of a r___________ c______________– F___________ r_____ for surface waters (Surface Water Treatment Rule, F___________ r_____ for surface waters (Surface Water Treatment Rule,

SWTR).SWTR).– D____________ of all water supplies.D____________ of all water supplies.– Prohibition on the use of l_____ products on conveyance systems.Prohibition on the use of l_____ products on conveyance systems.– Requirement for the protection of g__________ sources.Requirement for the protection of g__________ sources.

• The SDWA directed EPA to set up several classes of compounds for which The SDWA directed EPA to set up several classes of compounds for which regulations are to be developed and to establish a timeline for development of regulations are to be developed and to establish a timeline for development of the regulations.the regulations.

•

SDWA Amendments of 1996

• On November 29, 1996, the Senate passed a bill to On November 29, 1996, the Senate passed a bill to r_____________ the SDWA. r_____________ the SDWA.

• This bill contained several amendments to the This bill contained several amendments to the regulations which would lessen some of the regulatory regulations which would lessen some of the regulatory burden on water utilities, especially small systems. burden on water utilities, especially small systems.

• It bill passed the House on June 25, 1996 and both It bill passed the House on June 25, 1996 and both houses on houses on August 2, 1996. August 2, 1996.

• These amendments locked EPA into a 1998 deadline for These amendments locked EPA into a 1998 deadline for issuing a DBP rule and enhanced SWTR.issuing a DBP rule and enhanced SWTR.

• Subsequent review and revisions to current standards is Subsequent review and revisions to current standards is required every six years.required every six years.

Contaminant Candidate List

• Currently, EPA has drinking water regulations for more than 90 contaminants.

• The SDWA required EPA to maintain a list of unregulated contaminants. EPA uses this list to prioritize research and data collection efforts to determine whether to regulate a given contaminant.

• In February 2005, EPA published its second list of contaminants, the contaminant candidate list (CCL). Currently EPA is soliciting nominations for CCL3.

EPA LINKS

• For the current list of standards see: http://www.epa.gov/safewater/contaminants/index.html

• for the time line of promulgation, see: http://www.epa.gov/safewater/contaminants/pdfs/contam_timeline.pdf

• for the contaminant candidate list see: http://www.epa.gov/safewater/ccl/ccl2.html

• for nominating a contaminant to the CCL see: http://www.epa.gov/safewater/ccl/ccl3.html