WATER SAVING jss.docx

8/19/2019 WATER SAVING jss.docx

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WATER SAVING AND AUTOMATIC WATERFILLING AND PIPE

CHECKER SYSTEM

A

REPORT

SUBMITTED TOWARDS PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE

AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

B.TECH

( Dept.of Electronics and Communication Engineering)

SUBMITTED BY

MUKESH KUMAR

University Roll No

Un!er t"e s#$ervision o%

MR& SA'HIN

(De$)rt*ent o% E'E+

MERI – COLLEGE OF EGIEERIG ! "EC#OLOG$

%ampla

(&ffiliated to Ma'ars'i Daanand ni*ersit+ Ro'ta,)


2/107


3/107

T"ere )re t"ree * !e o% t"is $ro,e-t6

7& 'ontrol *o!e6 in t"is *o!e .e -ontrol

• one sensor %or $#t t"e .)ter in sever %or

$)rti-#l)r -"e-2in/&

• An! se-on! sensor .e #se t"e 0ll t"e .)ter ont"e 1)ses o% !esire! level o% .)ter&

8& FEEDBA'K MODE6In t"is *o!e .e -"e-2 t"e .)ter in t)n2& Wit" t"e

"el$ o% .)ter sensor .e -"e-2 t"e level )n! t"is

in%or*)tion /ive to *i-ro-ontroller )n! t"is sit#)tion

-ontrol 1y *i-ro-ontroller on t"e 1)ses o% $#*$

-ontrollin/ in t"is $ro,e-t&

Operate the pup! i% .e .)nt to o$er)te t"e $#*$ t"en it

o$er)te )n! it -ontrol 1y s.it-" )n! )#to*)ti- )lso& I% 0el!

-o*$lete 0ll t"en syste* )#to*)ti-)lly sense it -on!ition

)n! o$er)te t"e $#*$ in o5 *o!e&


4/107

'o*$onent6

7& Ste$ !o.n tr)ns%or*er&(79:+8& Re/#l)tor (;=+>&Dio!e (in?::;(8+?&Le!&(7+

=& Mi-ro-ontroller ()t


5/107

77& 'ryst)l os-ill)tor (77&:=98*"4+&(?=+78& Pl)te sensor&(89+7>& S$st s.it-"&(8+7?& L*>>9 -o*$)r)tor&(@=+

7=& P-1 1o)r!(78:+&7@& Sol!erin/ 2it(=::+&7;& Driver -2t (@:+&

NEED FOR SYSTEM!


6/107

Li/"t )#to*)tion is very 1)si- nee! in )ny "o*e3in!#stry

)n! -olle/e& T"is syste* $rovi!e very e-ient )#to*)ti-

)n! ne. ener/y s)vin/ )n! .)ter s)vin/ -on-e$t&

Be-)#se .e -ontrol t"e .)ter $#*$ on t"e 1)ses o%reC#ire*ent %or s#-ient ti*e&&

BRIEF DES'RIPTION6 In t"is $ro,e-t .e *)2e ) $o.er

s#$$ly %or $o.er s#$$ly to t)2e 88: volt)/e %ro* )-

s#$$ly t")t /ive to ste$!o.n tr)ns%or*er t")t /ive 9v

)n! .e #se re/#l)tor(;


7/107

t)n2 .it" t"e "el$ o% .)ter sensor )n! in -)se o% %#ll t)n2

syste* )#to*)ti-)lly sto$ t"e $#*$ )n! )lert t"e "onor&

In )ny -)se .)ter le)2)/e In )ny $l)-e in $i$e line

syste* )#to*)ti-)lly -"e-2 t"is -on!ition )n! it /ive t"esi/n)l to -ontrol roo* )n! o$er)te t"e 1#44er&

RESEARCH AREA

• G&L Peterson t"e .ireless -ontrol syste*&• U&S De$)rt*ent o% ener/y Ener/y s)ver

syste*

• S&2o$$)rt"i $r)t#l K ),*er) 6 Si/n)l !elivery %or

re*otely lo-)te! *i-rosyste*&


8/107

• Dis-rete Se*i-on!#-tors&8n888888&

• TEAS Instr#*ents&*)8>8"t78e )n! "t

78&

• At*el -or$or)tion *i-ro-ontroller )t


9/107

'IR'UIT DIAGRAM6

Po.er

s#$$ly

W)t

er

sen

sor

rel)y

Driver

-2t

L*>>9

Mi-ro-o

ntroller

At


10/107

XTAL218

XTAL119

ALE30

EA31

PSEN29

RST9

P0.0/AD0 39

P0.1/AD1 38

P0.2/AD2 37

P0.3/AD3 36

P0.4/AD4 35

P0.5/AD5 34

P0.6/AD6 33

P0.7/AD7 32

P1.0/T21

P1.1/T2EX2

P1.23

P1.34

P1.45

P1.56

P1.67

P1.78

P3.0/RXD 10

P3.1/TXD 11

P3.2/INT0 12

P3.3/INT1 13

P3.4/T0 14

P3.7/RD 17

P3.6/WR 16

P3.5/T1 15

P2.7/A15 28

P2.0/A8 21

P2.1/A9 22

P2.2/A10 23

P2.3/A11 24

P2.4/A12 25

P2.5/A13 26

P2.6/A14 27

U?

AT89C52

TR?

TRAN-2P2S

D?

DIODE

D?

DIODE

C?1nF

I1

O 3

! N D

2

U?7805

C?1nF

R?10"

D?LED

X?

CR#STAL

C?1nF

C?1nF

C?1nF

R?10"

$?PNP

D 7

1 4

D 6

1 3

D 5

1 2

D 4

1 1

D 3

1 0

D 2

9

D 1

8

D 0

7

E

6

R W

5

R S

4

S S

1

D D

2

E E

3

LCD1L%016L

R2

1"

$1NPN

D1

DIODE

3

21

8

4

U1&A

L%358

R11"

D3LED

R110"

$6PNP

$7NPN

D2

DIODE

5

67

8

4

U1&'

L%358

R31"

D4LED

R210"

D5

LEDD6

LED

3 2

1

8 4

U2&A

L%358

R41"

PLATE SENSOR

WATER SENSOR

LDR SENOR


11/107

ADANTAGE6 )n! )$$li-)tion !o yo#r sel%&7& T"is syste* )$$li-)1le in in!#stry "o*e -olle/e )n!

ot"er $l)-e&8& T"is -on-e$t )$$li-)1le in )- %)n )n! in!#-tion

*otor&

GAINT CHART6


12/107

St)rt

Initi)li4e t"e I3O Ports L'D )ri)1les Ti*ers )n! Interr#$tion

Dis$l)y Mess)/e on L'D

Is on t"e $#*$

Is t)n2 J%#ll t)n2

tr

Is Key J *&vset v)l#e 2ey

Is Key J Reset 2ey

D

B

A

Reset t"e Syste* P)r)*eters

No

es

es

es

No


13/107

A

En)1le t"e syste*

St)rt t"e .)it ti*er

Is W)it Ti*er

Over

En)1le Re-eiver

W)it %or t"e ret#rn P#lse

Dis$l)y t"e Dist)n-e on L'D

No

es

es

D


14/107

En)1le t"e !river -2t

St)rt t"e -o**)n!

-"e-2in/

Is

Over

STOP THE PUMP

W)it %or t"e ret#rn

P#lse3.ee$ t"e 1#44er

A/)in ret#rn in initi)l *o!e

No

es

B

D


15/107

PROBLEM CONTENT!

• 'o*$onents )v)il)1ility&

• Ho. to !e-i!e v)l#e o% -o*$onents&

• 'ir-#it !esi/nin/&

• Ho. to /ive t"e e5ort o% sol!erin/ $ro$erly&

• Pro/r)**in/ o% sensor

• si/n)l sen!in/ )n!&

• l-! inter%)-in/&


16/107

LEARNING OB"ECTIVE!

-ir-#it !esi/nin/ on $rote#s so%t.)re&

P-1 l)yo#t on ARES so%t.)re&

Pro/r)**in/ l)n/#)/e e*1e!!e! - )n! )sse*1ly&

• Ho. to #se 2eil so%t.)re&

• Gener)te t"e "el 0le&

• Ho. to1#rn t"e i-&

• Ho. to !o t"e sol!erin/&

TECHNICAL PROSPECTIVE IDEA6

• Printe! -ir-#it 1o)r! si4e6 9=&

• M!% 1o)r! si4e 7


17/107

• 'o*$onents&

• De-i!e t"e -o*$onent r)tin/&

• N)*e o% -o*$onents t")t *)y 1e #se in $ro,e-t&

• P#r-")se t"e -o*$onents&

). )r& M%&e!• In t"is *o!e .e !esi/n ) -ir-#it on $-1&

• Asse*1le t"e -o*$onents&

• Test t"e sol!erin/ !ry or not&

*. *th %&e!in t"is *o!e .e so%t.)re %or -o!in/&

• We #se 2eil so%t.)re&

• We !esi/n ) -o!e in )sse*1ly or e*1e!!e! -&

• We -re)te t"e "e 0le&

+. +th %&e6• in t"is *o!e .e !esi/n ) -ir-#it !i)/r)* on $rote#s %or

si*#l)tion

• try to si*#l)tion on $rote#s&

,. ,th %&e!

• In t"is *o!e .e #se t"e to$.in so%t.)re&• We $ro/r)**e! t"e i-&

-. ;t" *o!e 6in t"is *o!e .e test t"e %e)t#res o% $ro,e-t&

TESTING TOOL!

M#lti*eter&

• S.it-"&

• B)ttery&

• 'ro&

• S-o$e&

• Le! in!i-)tion&


18/107

PERFORMANCE EVOLUTION CRITERIA!

In t"is $ro,e-t .e try to 1est e5ort o% te-"ni-)l s2ill& My $ro,e-t is

$re!i-tion o% ne. invention& T")t $rovi!e ne. -re)tion )n! s-o$e

in %#t#re&

T"is $ro,e-t !e*onstr)te t"e $ro$er .or2in/ )n! $rovi!e

-o*$lete -")r)-ter&

HARDWARE/COMPONENTS DETAIL!

POWER SUPPLY

&ll digital circuits re3uire regulated po4er suppl. In t'is article 4e are going to learn 'o4 to get

a regulated positi*e suppl from t'e mains suppl.

Figure 1 s'o4s t'e 5asic 5loc, diagram of a fi6ed regulated po4er suppl. Let us go t'roug'

eac' 5loc,.

TRANSFORMER


19/107

& transformer consists of t4o coils also called as 78IDIG%9 namel :RIM&R$ !

%ECOD&R$.

"'e are lin,ed toget'er t'roug' inducti*el coupled electrical conductors also called as CORE.

& c'anging current in t'e primar causes a c'ange in t'e Magnetic Field in t'e core ! t'is in

turn induces an alternating *oltage in t'e secondar coil. If load is applied to t'e secondar t'en

an alternating current 4ill flo4 t'roug' t'e load. If 4e consider an ideal condition t'en all t'e

energ from t'e primar circuit 4ill 5e transferred to t'e secondar circuit t'roug' t'e magnetic

field.

%o

"'e secondar *oltage of t'e transformer depends on t'e num5er of turns in t'e :rimar as 4ell as in t'e

secondar..

Rectifier


20/107

& rectifier is a de*ice t'at con*erts an &C signal into DC signal. For rectification purpose 4e use

a diode+ a diode is a de*ice t'at allo4s current to pass onl in one direction i.e. 4'en t'e anode

of t'e diode is positi*e 4it' respect to t'e cat'ode also called as for4ard 5iased condition !

5loc,s current in t'e re*ersed 5iased condition.

Rectifier can 5e classified as follo4s;

1) Half Wave rectifier.

"'is is t'e simplest tpe of rectifier as ou can see in t'e diagram a 'alf 4a*e rectifier consists

of onl one diode. 8'en an &C signal is applied to it during t'e positi*e 'alf ccle t'e diode isfor4ard 5iased ! current flo4s t'roug' it.


21/107

#alf 4a*e rectifier is 3uite simple 5ut it is *er inefficient+ for greater efficienc 4e 4ould li,e

to use 5ot' t'e 'alf ccles of t'e &C signal. "'is can 5e ac'ie*ed 5 using a center tapped

transformer i.e. 4e 4ould 'a*e to dou5le t'e si=e of secondar 4inding ! pro*ide connection to

t'e center. %o during t'e positi*e 'alf ccle diode D1 conducts ! D/ is in re*erse 5iased

condition. During t'e negati*e 'alf ccle diode D/ conducts ! D1 is re*erse 5iased. "'us 4e get

5ot' t'e 'alf ccles across t'e load.

One of t'e disad*antages of Full 8a*e Rectifier design is t'e necessit of using a center tapped

transformer+ t'us increasing t'e si=e ! cost of t'e circuit. "'is can 5e a*oided 5 using t'e Full

8a*e


22/107

&s t'e name suggests it con*erts t'e full 4a*e i.e. 5ot' t'e positi*e ! t'e negati*e 'alf ccle

into DC t'us it is muc' more efficient t'an #alf 8a*e Rectifier ! t'at too 4it'out using a center

tapped transformer t'us muc' more cost effecti*e t'an Full 8a*e Rectifier.

Full and D?. During t'e

positi*e 'alf ccle diodes D1 ! D? conduct 4'ereas in t'e negati*e 'alf ccle diodes D/ ! D>

conduct t'us t'e diodes ,eep s4itc'ing t'e transformer connections so 4e get positi*e 'alf

ccles in t'e output.


23/107

If 4e use a center tapped transformer for a 5ridge rectifier 4e can get 5ot' positi*e ! negati*e

'alf ccles 4'ic' can t'us 5e used for generating fi6ed positi*e ! fi6ed negati*e *oltages.

F$LTER %APA%$TOR

E*en t'oug' 'alf 4a*e ! full 4a*e rectifier gi*e DC output+ none of t'em pro*ides a constant

output *oltage.For t'is 4e re3uire to smoot'en t'e 4a*eform recei*ed from t'e rectifier. "'is

can 5e done 5 using a capacitor at t'e output of t'e rectifier t'is capacitor is also called as

7FIL"ER C&:&CI"OR9 or 7%MOO"#IG C&:&CI"OR9 or 7RE%ER@OIR C&:&CI"OR9.

E*en after using t'is capacitor a small amount of ripple 4ill remain.

8e place t'e Filter Capacitor at t'e output of t'e rectifier t'e capacitor 4ill c'arge to t'e pea, *oltage du

eac' 'alf ccle t'en 4ill disc'arge its stored energ slo4l t'roug' t'e load 4'ile t'e rectified *oltage d

to =ero+ t'us tring to ,eep t'e *oltage as constant as possi5le.


24/107

If 4e go on increasing t'e *alue of t'e filter capacitor t'en t'e Ripple 4ill decrease.


25/107

&fter filtering t'e rectifier output t'e signal is gi*en to a *oltage regulator. "'e ma6imum input *oltage

can 5e applied at t'e input is >[email protected] t'ere is a /> @olts drop across t'e regulator so t'e input *olt

s'ould 5e at least /> @olts 'ig'er t'an t'e output *oltage. If t'e input *oltage gets 5elo4 t'e @min of t'

regulator due to t'e ripple *oltage or due to an ot'er reason t'e *oltage regulator 4ill not 5e a5le to pro

t'e correct regulated *oltage


26/107

POWER SUPPL#

)n *+), * , n 5 * * ,: * n* *+ 220

* )n * 5 * )*+ *+ + ; *+ 5 * * ))*. F),* OF

,* n *+ 220 * )n* 6 * )*+ *+ + ; ,* n

*n,;


27/107

P)n n 40 ; *+ n* ), nn* * *+ ,)*) ,:. P)n n 20 ),

nn* * *+ n. P)n n 9 ), nn* * >*n ,),*

)* * ) *


28/107

"'e simplest semiconductor de*ice is made up of a sand4ic' of :tpe

semiconducting material+ 4it' contacts pro*ided to connect t'e pand ntpe laers to an

e6ternal circuit. "'is is a Hunction Diode. If t'e positi*e terminal of t'e 5atter is

connected to t'e ptpe material (cat'ode) and t'e negati*e terminal to t'e tpe

material (&node)+ a large current 4ill flo4. "'is is called for4ard current or for4ard

5iased.

I% t"e -onne-tions )re reverse! ) very little -#rrent .ill o.& T"is

is 1e-)#se #n!er t"is -on!ition t"e $ty$e *)teri)l .ill )--e$t t"e

ele-trons %ro* t"e ne/)tive ter*in)l o% t"e 1)ttery )n! t"e Nty$e

*)teri)l .ill /ive #$ its %ree ele-trons to t"e 1)ttery res#ltin/ in t"e

st)te o% ele-tri-)l eC#ili1ri#* sin-e t"e Nty$e *)teri)l ")s no *ore

ele-trons& T"#s t"ere .ill 1e ) s*)ll -#rrent to o. )n! t"e !io!e is

-)lle! Reverse 1i)se!&

T"#s t"e Dio!e )llo.s !ire-t -#rrent to $)ss only in one !ire-tion

."ile 1lo-2in/ it in t"e ot"er !ire-tion& Po.er !io!es )re #se! in

-on-ertin/ A' into D'& In t"is -#rrent .ill o. %reely !#rin/ t"e 0rst

")l% -y-le (%or.)r! 1i)se!+ )n! $r)-ti-)lly not )t )ll !#rin/ t"e ot"er

")l% -y-le (reverse 1i)se!+& T"is *)2es t"e !io!e )n e5e-tive re-ti0er

."i-" -onvert )- into $#ls)tin/ !-& Si/n)l !io!es )re #se! in r)!io

-ir-#its %or !ete-tion& ener !io!es )re #se! in t"e -ir-#it to -ontrol t"e

volt)/e&


29/107

So*e -o**on !io!es )re6

7& ener !io!e&

8& P"oto !io!e&

>& Li/"t E*ittin/ !io!e&

1. ZENER DIODE:-

A 4ener !io!e is s$e-i)lly !esi/ne! ,#n-tion !io!e ."i-" -)n

o$er)te -ontin#o#sly .it"o#t 1ein/ !)*)/e! in t"e re/ion o% reverse

1re)2 !o.n volt)/e& One o% t"e *ost i*$ort)nt )$$li-)tions o% 4ener

!io!e is t"e !esi/n o% -onst)nt volt)/e $o.er s#$$ly& T"e 4ener !io!e

is ,oine! in reverse 1i)s to !&-& t"ro#/" ) resist)n-e R o% s#it)1le v)l#e&

2. PHOTO DIODE:-


30/107

A $"oto !io!e is ) ,#n-tion !io!e *)!e %ro* $"oto sensitive

se*i-on!#-tor or *)teri)l& In s#-" ) !io!e t"ere is ) $rovision to )llo.

t"e li/"t o% s#it)1le %reC#en-y to %)ll on t"e $n ,#n-tion& It is reverse

1i)se! 1#t t"e volt)/e )$$lie! is less t")n t"e 1re)2 !o.n volt)/e& As

t"e intensity o% in-i!ent li/"t is in-re)se! -#rrent /oes on in-re)sin/till it 1e-o*es *)i*#*& T"e *)i*#* -#rrent is -)lle! s)t#r)tion

-#rrent&

3. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED):-

W"en ) ,#n-tion !io!e is %or.)r! 1i)se! ener/y is rele)se! )t t"e ,#n-tion !io!e is %or.)r! 1i)se! ener/y is rele)se! )t t"e ,#n-tion !#e

to re-o*1in)tion o% ele-trons )n! "oles& In -)se o% sili-on )n!

/er*)ni#* !io!es t"e ener/y rele)se! is in in%r)re! re/ion& In t"e

,#n-tion !io!e *)!e o% /)lli#* )rsen)te or in!i#* $"os$"i!e t"e

ener/y is rele)se! in visi1le re/ion& S#-" ) ,#n-tion !io!e is -)lle! )

li/"t e*ittin/ !io!e or LED&

HOW LIGHT EMITTING DIODES WORK

Li/"t e*ittin/ !io!es -o**only -)lle! LEDs !o !o4ens o% !i5erent ,o1s )n! )re

%o#n! in )ll 2in!s o% !evi-es& A*on/ ot"er t"in/s t"ey %or* t"e n#*1ers on !i/it)l

-lo-2s tr)ns*it in%or*)tion %ro* re*ote -ontrols li/"t #$ .)t-"es )n! tell yo#

."en yo#r )$$li)n-es )re t#rne! on& 'olle-te! to/et"er t"ey -)n %or* i*)/es on )

,#*1o television s-reen or ill#*in)te ) tr)- li/"t&

B)si-)lly LEDs )re ,#st tiny li/"t 1#l1s t")t 0t e)sily into )n ele-tri-)l -ir-#it& B#t#nli2e or!in)ry in-)n!es-ent 1#l1s t"ey !ont ")ve ) 0l)*ent t")t .ill 1#rn o#t

)n! t"ey !ont /et es$e-i)lly "ot& T"ey )re ill#*in)te! solely 1y t"e *ove*ent o%

ele-trons in ) se*i-on!#-tor *)teri)l )n! t"ey l)st ,#st )s lon/ )s ) st)n!)r!

tr)nsistor&


31/107

DIODE

A !io!e is t"e si*$lest sort o% se*i-on!#-tor !evi-e& A se*i-on!#-tor is ) *)teri)l

.it" ) v)ryin/ )1ility to -on!#-t ele-tri-)l -#rrent& Most se*i-on!#-tors )re *)!e

o% ) $oor -on!#-tor t")t ")s ")! i*$#rities ()to*s o% )not"er *)teri)l+ )!!e! to it& T"e $ro-ess o% )!!in/ i*$#rities is -)lle! !o$in/&

In t"e -)se o% LEDs t"e -on!#-tor *)teri)l is ty$i-)lly a0u1(u23a001u2

ar$e(1&e 4A0GaA$5& In $#re )l#*in#*/)lli#*)rseni!e )ll o% t"e )to*s 1on!

$er%e-tly to t"eir nei/"1ors le)vin/ no %ree ele-trons (ne/)tively-")r/e! $)rti-les+

to -on!#-t ele-tri- -#rrent& In !o$e! *)teri)l )!!ition)l )to*s -")n/e t"e 1)l)n-e

eit"er )!!in/ %ree ele-trons or -re)tin/ "oles ."ere ele-trons -)n /o& Eit"er o%

t"ese )!!itions *)2es t"e *)teri)l *ore -on!#-tive&

A

se*i-on!#-tor .it" etr) ele-trons is -)lle! Nty$e *)teri)l sin-e it ")s etr)

ne/)tively -")r/e! $)rti-les& In Nty$e *)teri)l %ree ele-trons *ove %ro* )

ne/)tively -")r/e! )re) to ) $ositively -")r/e! )re)&

A se*i-on!#-tor .it" etr) "oles is -)lle! Pty$e *)teri)l sin-e it e5e-tively ")s

etr) $ositively -")r/e! $)rti-les& Ele-trons -)n ,#*$ %ro* "ole to "ole *ovin/

%ro* ) ne/)tively -")r/e! )re) to ) $ositively -")r/e! )re)& As ) res#lt t"e "oles

t"e*selves )$$e)r to *ove %ro* ) $ositively -")r/e! )re) to ) ne/)tively -")r/e!

)re)&

A !io!e -o*$rises ) se-tion o% Nty$e *)teri)l 1on!e! to ) se-tion o% Pty$e

*)teri)l .it" ele-tro!es on e)-" en!& T"is )rr)n/e*ent -on!#-ts ele-tri-ity in onlyone !ire-tion& W"en no volt)/e is )$$lie! to t"e !io!e ele-trons %ro* t"e Nty$e

*)teri)l 0ll "oles %ro* t"e Pty$e *)teri)l )lon/ t"e ,#n-tion 1et.een t"e l)yers

%or*in/ ) !e$letion 4one& In ) !e$letion 4one t"e se*i-on!#-tor *)teri)l is

ret#rne! to its ori/in)l ins#l)tin/ st)te )ll o% t"e "oles )re 0lle! so t"ere )re no

%ree ele-trons or e*$ty s$)-es %or ele-trons )n! -")r/e -)nt o.&

At t"e ,#n-tion %ree ele-trons %ro* t"e Nty$e *)teri)l 0ll "oles %ro*

t"e Pty$e *)teri)l& T"is -re)tes )n ins#l)tin/ l)yer in t"e *i!!le o% t"e

!io!e -)lle! t"e !e$letion 4one&


32/107

To /et ri! o% t"e !e$letion 4one ele-trons s"o#l! *ove %ro* t"e Nty$e )re) to t"e

Pty$e )re) )n! "oles s"o#l! *ove in t"e reverse !ire-tion& T"is is !one 1y

-onne-tin/ t"e Nty$e si!e o% t"e !io!e to t"e ne/)tive en! o% ) -ir-#it )n! t"e P

ty$e si!e to t"e $ositive en!& T"e %ree ele-trons in t"e Nty$e *)teri)l )re re$elle!

1y t"e ne/)tive ele-tro!e )n! !r).n to t"e $ositive ele-tro!e& T"e "oles in t"e P

ty$e *)teri)l *ove t"e ot"er .)y& W"en t"e volt)/e !i5eren-e 1et.een t"e

ele-tro!es is "i/" eno#/" t"e ele-trons in t"e !e$letion 4one )re 1ooste! o#t o%

t"eir "oles )n! 1e/in *ovin/ %reely )/)in& T"e !e$letion 4one !is)$$e)rs )n!

-")r/e *oves )-ross t"e !io!e&

At t"e ,#n-tion %ree ele-trons %ro* t"e Nty$e *)teri)l 0ll "oles %ro*

t"e Pty$e *)teri)l& T"is -re)tes )n ins#l)tin/ l)yer in t"e *i!!le o% t"e

!io!e -)lle! t"e !e$letion 4one&


33/107

W"en t"e ne/)tive en! o% t"e -ir-#it is "oo2e! #$ to t"e Nty$e l)yer

)n! t"e $ositive en! is "oo2e! #$ to Pty$e l)yer ele-trons )n! "oles

st)rt *ovin/ )n! t"e !e$letion 4one !is)$$e)rs&

I% -#rrent is r#n t"e ot"er .)y .it" t"e Pty$e si!e -onne-te! to t"e ne/)tive en!

o% t"e -ir-#it )n! t"e Nty$e si!e -onne-te! to t"e $ositive en! -#rrent .ill not

o.& T"e ne/)tive ele-trons in t"e Nty$e *)teri)l )re )ttr)-te! to t"e $ositive

ele-tro!e& T"e $ositive "oles in t"e Pty$e *)teri)l )re )ttr)-te! to t"e ne/)tive

ele-tro!e& No -#rrent o.s )-ross t"e ,#n-tion 1e-)#se t"e "oles )n! t"e ele-trons

)re e)-" *ovin/ in t"e .ron/ !ire-tion& T"e !e$letion 4one in-re)ses&


34/107

W"en t"e $ositive en! o% t"e -ir-#it is "oo2e! #$ to

t"e Nty$e l)yer )n! t"e ne/)tive en! is "oo2e! #$

to t"e Pty$e l)yer %ree ele-trons -olle-t on one en!

o% t"e !io!e )n! "oles -olle-t on t"e ot"er& T"e

!e$letion 4one /ets 1i//er&

T"e inter)-tion 1et.een ele-trons )n! "oles in t"is set#$ ")s )n interestin/ si!e

e5e-t it /ener)tes li/"t&

HOW CAN A DIODE PRODUCE LIGHT6

Li/"t is ) %or* o% ener/y t")t -)n 1e rele)se! 1y )n )to*& It is *)!e #$ o% *)ny

s*)ll $)rti-leli2e $)-2ets t")t ")ve ener/y )n! *o*ent#* 1#t no *)ss& T"ese

$)rti-les -)lle! $"otons )re t"e *ost 1)si- #nits o% li/"t&

P"otons )re rele)se! )s ) res#lt o% *ovin/ ele-trons& In )n )to* ele-trons *ove in

or1it)ls )ro#n! t"e n#-le#s& Ele-trons in !i5erent or1it)ls ")ve !i5erent )*o#nts o%

ener/y& Ele-trons .it" /re)ter ener/y *ove in or1it)ls %)rt"er ).)y %ro* t"e

n#-le#s&


35/107

For )n ele-tron to ,#*$ %ro* ) lo.er or1it)l to ) "i/"er or1it)l so*et"in/ ")s to

1oost its ener/y level& 'onversely )n ele-tron rele)ses ener/y ."en it !ro$s %ro* )

"i/"er or1it)l to ) lo.er one& T"is ener/y is rele)se! in t"e %or* o% ) $"oton& A

/re)ter ener/y !ro$ rele)ses ) "i/"erener/y $"oton ."i-" is -")r)-teri4e! 1y )

"i/"er %reC#en-y&

As %ree ele-trons *ovin/ )-ross ) !io!e -)n %)ll into e*$ty "oles %ro* t"e Pty$e

l)yer& T"is involves ) !ro$ %ro* t"e -on!#-tion 1)n! to ) lo.er or1it)l so t"e

ele-trons rele)se ener/y in t"e %or* o% $"otons& T"is ")$$ens in )ny !io!e 1#t t"e

$"otons )re seen ."en t"e !io!e is -o*$ose! o% -ert)in *)teri)l& T"e )to*s in )

st)n!)r! sili-on !io!e %or e)*$le )re )rr)n/e! in s#-" ) .)y t")t t"e ele-tron

!ro$s ) rel)tively s"ort !ist)n-e& As ) res#lt t"e $"otons %reC#en-y is so lo. t")t it

is invisi1le to t"e "#*)n eye it is in t"e in%r)re! $ortion o% t"e li/"t s$e-tr#*& T"is

isnt ne-ess)rily ) 1)! t"in/ o% -o#rse6 In%r)re! LEDs )re i!e)l %or re*ote -ontrols

)*on/ ot"er t"in/s&

isi1le li/"te*ittin/ !io!es (LEDs+ s#-" )s t"e ones t")t li/"t #$ n#*1ers in )

!i/it)l -lo-2 )re *)!e o% *)teri)ls -")r)-teri4e! 1y ) .i!er /)$ 1et.een t"e

-on!#-tion 1)n! )n! t"e lo.er or1it)ls& T"e si4e o% t"e /)$ !eter*ines t"e

%reC#en-y o% t"e $"oton in ot"er .or!s it !eter*ines t"e -olor o% t"e li/"t&

W"ile )ll !io!es rele)se li/"t *ost !ont !o it very e5e-tively& In )n or!in)ry !io!e

t"e se*i-on!#-tor *)teri)l itsel% en!s #$ )1sor1in/ ) lot o% t"e li/"t ener/y&

LEDs )re s$e-i)lly -onstr#-te! to rele)se ) l)r/e n#*1er o% $"otons o#t.)r!&

A!!ition)lly t"ey )re "o#se! in ) $l)sti- 1#l1 t")t -on-entr)tes t"e li/"t in )

$)rti-#l)r !ire-tion& Most o% t"e li/"t %ro* t"e !io!e 1o#n-es o5 t"e si!es o% t"e

1#l1 tr)velin/ on t"ro#/" t"e ro#n!e! en!&


36/107

LEDs ")ve sever)l )!v)nt)/es over -onvention)l in-)n!es-ent l)*$s& For one

t"in/ t"ey !ont ")ve ) 0l)*ent t")t .ill 1#rn o#t so t"ey l)st *#-" lon/er&

A!!ition)lly t"eir s*)ll $l)sti- 1#l1 *)2es t"e* ) lot *ore !#r)1le& T"ey )lso 0t

*ore e)sily into *o!ern ele-troni- -ir-#its&

B#t t"e *)in )!v)nt)/e is e-ien-y& In -onvention)l in-)n!es-ent 1#l1s t"e li/"t

$ro!#-tion $ro-ess involves /ener)tin/ ) lot o% "e)t (t"e 0l)*ent *#st 1e .)r*e!+&

is -o*$letely .)ste! ener/y #nless t"e l)*$ is #se! )s ) "e)ter 1e-)#se ) "#/e

$ortion o% t"e )v)il)1le ele-tri-ity isnt /oin/ to.)r! $ro!#-in/ visi1le li/"t& LEDs

/ener)te very little "e)t rel)tively& A *#-" "i/"er $er-ent)/e o% t"e ele-tri-)l

$o.er is /oin/ !ire-tly to /ener)tin/ li/"t ."i-" -#ts !o.n on t"e ele-tri-ity

!e*)n!s -onsi!er)1ly&

U$ #ntil re-ently LEDs .ere too e$ensive to #se %or *ost li/"tin/ )$$li-)tions1e-)#se t"eyre 1#ilt )ro#n! )!v)n-e! se*i-on!#-tor *)teri)l& T"e $ri-e o%

se*i-on!#-tor !evi-es ")s $l#**ete! over t"e $)st !e-)!e "o.ever *)2in/

LEDs ) *ore -oste5e-tive li/"tin/ o$tion %or ) .i!e r)n/e o% sit#)tions& W"ile t"ey

*)y 1e *ore e$ensive t")n in-)n!e %ront t"eir lo.er -ost in t"e lon/ r#n -)n

*)2e t"e* ) 1etter 1#y& In t"e %#t#re t"ey .ill $l)y )n even 1i//er role in t"e .orl!

o% te-"nolo/y&


37/107

MAKING PRINTED 'IR'UIT BOARD (P&'&B&+

INTRODUCTION22

Ma71(3 a Pr1(te& C1r8u1t B%ar& 1$ the 9r$t $tep t%:ar&$

;u10&1(3 e0e8tr%(18 e eth%&$ are a?a10a;0e >%r a71(3 P.C.B.@ the

$1p0e$t eth%& 1$ %> &ra:1(3 patter( %( a 8%pper 80a& ;%ar&

:1th a81& re$1$ta(t 4et8ha(t$5 1(7 %r pa1(t %r $1p0e (a10 p%01$h

%( a 8%pper 80a& ;%ar& a(& &% the et8h1(3 pr%8e$$ >%r

&1$$%0?1(3 the re$t %> 8%pper patter( 1( a81& 01


38/107

MATERIAL REUIRED

T"e )$$)r)t#s nee!s %or *)2in/ ) P&'&B& is 6

'o$$er 'l)! S"eet

N)il Polis" or P)int

Ferri- '"lori!e Po.!er& (Fe-l+

Pl)sti- Tr)y

T)$ W)ter et-&

PROCEDURE

T"e 0rst )n! %ore*ost in t"e $ro-ess is to -le)n )ll !irt %ro* -o$$er

s"eet .it" s)y s$irit or tri-"loro et"ylene to re*ove tr)-es /re)se or oil


39/107

et-& )n! t"en .)s" t"e 1o)r! #n!er r#nnin/ t)$ .)ter& Dry t"e s#r%)-e

.it" %or-e! .)r* )ir or ,#st le)ve t"e 1o)r! to !ry n)t#r)lly %or so*e

ti*e&

M)2in/ o% t"e P&'&B& !r).in/ involves so*e $reli*in)ry -onsi!er)tion

s#-" )s t"i-2ness o% lines3 "oles )--or!in/ to t"e -o*$onents& No.

!r). t"e s2et-" o% P&'&B& !esi/n (tr)-2s ro.s sC#)re+ )s $er -ir-#it

!i)/r)* .it" t"e "el$ o% n)il $olis" or en)*el $)int or )ny ot"er )-i!

resist)nt liC#i!& Dry t"e $oint s#r%)-e in o$en )ir ."en it is -o*$letely

!rie! t"e *)r2e! "oles in P&'&B& *)y 1e !rille! #sin/ 7M* !rill 1its& In

-)se t"ere is )ny s"ortin/ o% lines !#e to s$illin/ o% $)int t"ese *)y 1e

re*ove! 1y s-r)$in/ .it" ) 1l)!e or ) 2ni%e )%ter t"e $)int ")s !rie!&

A%ter !ryin/ 88>: /r)*s o% %erri- -"lori!e in ;= *l o% .)ter *)y 1e

"e)te! to )1o#t @: !e/ree )n! $o#re! over t"e P&'&B& $l)-e! .it" its

-o$$er si!e #$.)r!s in ) $l)sti- tr)y o% )1o#t 7=8: -*& Stirrin/ t"e

sol#tion "el$s s$ee!y et-"in/& T"e !issol#tion o% #n.)nte! -o$$er

.o#l! t)2e )1o#t ?= *in#tes& I% et-"in/ t)2es lon/er t"e sol#tion *)y1e "e)te! )/)in )n! t"e $ro-ess re$e)te!& T"e $)int on t"e $)ttern

-)n 1e re*ove! P&'&B& *)y t"en 1e .)s"e! )n! !rie!& P#t ) -o)t o%

v)rnis" to ret)in t"e s"ine& o#r P&'&B& is re)!y&

REACTION


40/107

Fe-l> '# '#'l> Fe

Fe-l> >H8O Fe (OH+> >H'L

PRECAUTION

#. A!! Ferri- '"lori!e (Fe-l>+ -)re%#lly .it"o#t )ny s$l)s"in/& Fe-l>

is irrit)tin/ to t"e s2in )n! .ill st)in t"e -lot"es&

'. Pl)-e t"e 1o)r! in sol#tion .it" -o$$er si!e #$&

). Try not to 1re)t"e t"e v)$o#rs& Stir t"e sol#tion 1y /ivin/ sees).

*otion to t"e !is" )n! sol#tion in it&

*. O--)sion)lly .)r* i% t"e sol#tion over ) "e)ternot to 1oilin/&

A%ter so*e ti*e t"e #ns")!e! $)rts -")n/e t"eir -olo#r -ontin#eto et-"& Gr)!#)lly t"e 1)se *)teri)l .ill 1e-o*e visi1le& Et-" %or

t.o *in#tes *ore to /et ) ne)t $)ttern&


41/107

+. Dont t"ro. ).)y t"e re*)inin/ Fe-l> sol#tion& It -)n 1e #se!

)/)in %or net Printe! 'ir-#it Bo)r! P&'&B&

USES

Printe! 'ir-#it Bo)r! )re #se! %or "o#sin/ -o*$onents to *)2e )

-ir-#it %or -o*$)-tness si*$li-ity o% servi-in/ )n! -)se o%

inter-onne-tion& T"#s .e -)n !e0ne t"e P&'&B& )s 6 Prin2e! 'ir-#it

Bo)r!s is )-t#)lly ) s"eet o% 1)2elite ()n ins#l)tin/ *)teri)l+ on t"e

one si!e o% ."i-" -o$$er $)tterns )re *)!e .it" "oles )n! %ro*

)not"er si!e le)!s o% ele-troni- -o*$onents )re inserte! in t"e $ro$er

"oles )n! sol!ere! to t"e -o$$er $oints on t"e 1)-2& T"#s le)!s o%

ele-troni- -o*$onents ter*in)ls )re ,oine! to *)2e ele-troni- -ir-#it&

In t"e 1o)r!s -o$$er -l)!!in/ is !one 1y $)stin/ t"in -o$$er %oil on t"e

1o)r!s !#rin/ -#rin/& T"e -o$$er on t"e 1o)r! is )1o#t 8 ** t"i-2 )n!

.ei/"ts )n o#n-e $er sC#)re %oot&

T"e $ro-ess o% *)2in/ ) Printe! 'ir-#it %or )ny )$$li-)tion ")s t"e

%ollo.in/ ste$s (o$te! $ro%ession)lly+6


42/107

Pre$)rin/ t"e l)yo#t o% t"e tr)-2&

Tr)ns%errin/ t"is l)yo#t $"oto/r)$"i-)lly M t"e -o$$er&

Re*ovin/ t"e -o$$er in $l)-es ."i-" )re not nee!e! 1y t"e

$ro-ess o% et-"in/ (-"e*i-)l $ro-ess+

Drillin/ "oles %or -o*$onents *o#ntin/&

PRINTED 'IR'UIT BOARD

Printe! -ir-#it 1o)r!s )re #se! %or "o#sin/ -o*$onents to *)2e )

-ir-#it %or -o*)-tness si*$li-ity o% servi-in/ )n! e)se o%

inter-onne-tion& Sin/le si!e! !o#1le si!e! )n! !o#1le si!e! .it"

$l)te!t"ro#/""ol! (PH+ ty$es o% $&- 1o)r!s )re -o**on to!)y&

Bo)r!s )re o% t.o ty$es o% *)teri)l (7+ $"enoli- $)$er 1)se!

*)teri)l (8+ Gl)ss e$oy *)teri)l& Bot" *)teri)ls )re )v)il)1le )sl)*in)te s"eets .it" -o$$er -l)!!in/&

Printe! -ir-#it 1o)r!s ")ve ) -o$$er -l)!!in/ on one or 1ot"

si!es& In 1ot" 1o)r!s $)stin/ t"in -o$$er %oil on t"e 1o)r! !#rin/


43/107

-#rin/ !oes t"is& Bo)r!s )re $re$)re! in si4es o% 7 to = *etre .i!e )n!

#$to 8 *etres lon/& T"e t"i-2ness o% t"e 1o)r!s is 7&?8 to 7&


44/107

"o understand t'e concept of capacitance+ consider a pair of metal plates 4'ic' all

are placed near to eac' ot'er 4it'out touc'ing. If a 5atter is connected to t'ese plates

t'e positi*e pole to one and t'e negati*e pole to t'e ot'er+ electrons from t'e 5atter 4ill

5e attracted from t'e plate connected to t'e positi*e terminal of t'e 5atter. If t'e 5atter

is t'en disconnected+ one plate 4ill 5e left 4it' an e6cess of electrons+ t'e ot'er 4it' as'ortage+ and a potential or *oltage difference 4ill e6ists 5et4een t'em. "'ese plates 4ill

5e acting as capacitors. Capacitors are of t4o tpes; (1) fi(e" t*e li,e ceramic+

polester+ electroltic capacitorst'ese names refer to t'e


45/107

material t'e are made of aluminium foil. (/) &aria+le t*e li,e gang condenser in radio

or trimmer. In fi6ed tpe capacitors+ it 'as t4o leads and its *alue is 4ritten o*er its 5od

and *aria5le tpe 'as t'ree leads. nit of measurement of a capacitor is farad denoted 5

t'e sm5ol F. It is a *er 5ig unit of capacitance. %mall unit capacitor are picofarad

denoted 5 pf (IpfA11000+000+000+000 f) &5o*e all+ in case of electroltic capacitors+ its

t4o terminal are mar,ed as () and (J) so c'ec, it 4'ile using capacitors in t'e circuit in

rig't direction. Mista,e can destro t'e capacitor or entire circuit in operational.

RESISTAN'E

Resist)n-e is t"e o$$osition o% ) *)teri)l to t"e -#rrent& It is

*e)s#re! in O"*s (Ω+& All -on!#-tors re$resent ) -ert)in )*o#nto% resist)n-e sin-e no -on!#-tor is 7:: e-ient& To -ontrol t"e

ele-tron o. (-#rrent+ in ) $re!i-t)1le *)nner .e #se resistors&

Ele-troni- -ir-#its #se -)li1r)te! l#*$e! resist)n-e to -ontrol t"e

o. o% -#rrent& Bro)!ly s$e)2in/ resistor -)n 1e !ivi!e! into t.o

/ro#$s vi4& 0e! )!,#st)1le (v)ri)1le+ resistors& In 0e!

resistors t"e v)l#e is 0e! -)nnot 1e v)rie!& In v)ri)1le

resistors t"e resist)n-e v)l#e -)n 1e v)rie! 1y )n )!,#ster 2no1&

It -)n 1e !ivi!e! into ()+ ')r1on -o*$osition (1+ Wire .o#n! (-+S$e-i)l ty$e& T"e *ost -o**on ty$e o% resistors #se! in o#r

$ro,e-ts is -)r1on ty$e& T"e resist)n-e v)l#e is nor*)lly in!i-)te!

1y -olo#r 1)n!s& E)-" resist)n-e ")s %o#r -olo#rs one o% t"e 1)n!

on eit"er si!e .ill 1e /ol! or silver t"is is -)lle! %o#rt" 1)n! )n!

in!i-)tes t"e toler)n-e ot"ers t"ree 1)n! .ill /ive t"e v)l#e o%


46/107

resist)n-e (see t)1le+& For e)*$le i% ) resistor ")s t"e %ollo.in/

*)r2in/ on it s)y re! violet /ol!& 'o*$)rin/ t"ese -olo#re!

rin/s .it" t"e -olo#r -o!e its v)l#e is 8;::: o"*s or 8; 2ilo

o"*s )n! its toler)n-e is =& Resistor -o*es in v)rio#s si4es

(Po.er r)tin/+& T"e 1i//er t"e si4e t"e *ore $o.er r)tin/ o% 73?

.)tts& T"e %o#r -olo#r rin/s on its 1o!y tells #s t"e v)l#e o%

resistor v)l#e )s /iven 1elo.&

COLOURS CODE

Bl)-2:

Bro.n7

Re!8

Or)n/e>

ello.?

Green=

Bl#e@

iolet;

Grey<

W"ite9


47/107

T"e 0rst rin/s /ive t"e 0rst !i/it& T"e se-on! rin/ /ives t"e

se-on! !i/it& T"e t"ir! rin/ in!i-)tes t"e n#*1er o% 4eroes to 1e

$l)-e! )%ter t"e !i/its& T"e %o#rt" rin/ /ives toler)n-e (/ol! =

silver 7: No -olo#r 8:+&

In v)ri)1le resistors .e ")ve t"e !i)l ty$e o% resist)n-e

1oes& T"ere is ) 2no1 .it" ) *et)l $ointer& T"is $resses over1r)ss $ie-es $l)-e! )lon/ ) -ir-le .it" so*e s$)-e 13. e)-" o%

t"e*&

Resist)n-e -oils o% !i5erent v)l#es )re -onne-te! 13. t"e

/)$s& W"en t"e 2no1 is rot)te! t"e $ointer )lso *oves over t"e

1r)ss $ie-es& I% ) /)$ is s2i$$e! over its resist)n-e is in-l#!e! in

t"e -ir-#it& I% t.o /)$s )re s2i$$e! over t"e resist)n-es o% 1ot"to/et"er )re in-l#!e! in t"e -ir-#it )n! so on&

A !i)l ty$e o% resist)n-e 1o -ont)ins *)ny !i)ls !e$en!in/

#$on t"e r)n/e ."i-" it ")s to -over& I% ) resist)n-e 1o ")s to


48/107

re)! #$to 7::::Ω it .ill ")ve t"ree !i)ls e)-" ")vin/ ten /)$s

i&e& ten resist)n-e -oils e)-" o% resist)n-e 7: Ω& T"e t"ir! !i)l .ill

")ve ten resist)n-es e)-" o% 7:: Ω&

T"e !i)l ty$e o% resist)n-e 1oes is 1etter 1e-)#se t"e

-ont)-t resist)n-e in t"is -)se is s*)ll -onst)nt&

THE ADAPTING 3-TERMINAL VOLTAGE

REGULATORS FOR CONSTANT HIGH VOLTAGE

POWER SUPPLIES

One -)n /et ) -onst)nt "i/"volt)/e $o.er s#$$ly #sin/

ine$ensive >ter*in)l volt)/e re/#l)tors t"ro#/" so*e si*$le

te-"niC#es !es-ri1e! 1elo.& De$en!in/ #$on t"e -#rrent reC#ire*ent

) re)son)1le lo)! re/#l)tion -)n 1e )-"ieve!& Line re/#l)tion in )ll

-)ses is eC#)l to t")t o% t"e volt)/e re/#l)tor #se!&

T"o#/" "i/" volt)/e -)n 1e o1t)ine! .it" s#it)1le volt)/e 1oost-ir-#itry #sin/ I's li2e LM ;8> so*e )!v)nt)/es o% t"e -ir-#its

$resente! 1elo. )re6 si*$li-ity lo. -ost )n! $r)-ti-)lly re)son)1le

re/#l)tion -")r)-teristi-s& For -#rrents o% t"e or!er o% 7A or less only

one 4ener )n! so*e resistors )n! -)$)-itors )re nee!e!& For "i/"er

-#rrents one $)ss tr)nsistor s#-" )s E'P:== is nee!e!&

terminal tpe

constant *oltage regulators. Let us see t'e sc'ematic in Fig. 4'ere is a >terminal

*oltage regulator.


49/107

S-"e*)ti- %or

o1t)inin/ lo.volt)/e re/#l)te! o#t$#t #sin/ >ter*in)l volt)/e re/#l)tors&

Re-ti0e! )n! 0ltere! #nre/#l)te! volt)/e is )$$lie! )t IN )n! )

-onst)nt volt)/e )$$e)rs 1et.een $ins 8 )n! 8 o% t"e volt)/e

re/#l)tor& T"e !istri1#tion o% t.o -#rrents in t"e -ir-#it (IBIAS )n!

ILOAD+ is )s s"o.n&

It is "i/"ly re-o**en!e! to #se t"e t.o -)$)-itors )s s"o.n&

Ele-tri-)lly re/#l)tor .ill 1e )t ) !ist)n-e %ro* t"e re-ti0er s#$$ly&

T"#s ) t)nt)l#* /r)!e -)$)-itor o% =*% )n! r)te! volt)/e is /oo!&

Ele-trolyti- -)$)-itor is not s#it)1le %or it is $oor in res$onse to lo)!

tr)nsients ."i-" ")ve "i/" %reC#en-y -o*$onents& At t"e o#t$#t si!e

) :&88*% !is- -er)*i- -)$)-itor is #se%#l to eli*in)te s$#rio#s

os-ill)tions ."i-" t"e re/#l)tor *i/"t 1re)2 into 1e-)#se o% its

intern)l "i/" /)in -ir-#itry&

T"ese volt)/e re/#l)tors ")ve ) ty$i-)l 1i)s -#rrent o% = *A

."i-" is re)son)1ly -onst)nt& By insertin/ ) s*)ll resistor R 1et.een

$in 8 )n! /ro#n! t"e o#t$#t volt)/e in *)ny -)ses& By t"is *et"o!

volt)/e in-re*ent o% = to 7: $er -ent is $r)-ti-)lly %e)si1le& Ho.ever i%

) "i/"v)l#e resist)n-e is #se! to o1t)in ) "i/"er o#t$#t volt)/e )

sli/"t v)ri)tion in 1i)s -#rrent .ill res#lt in .i!e v)ri)tion o% t"e o#t$#tvolt)/e&


50/107

No. let #s see t")t .")t -)n 1e !one to /et ) "i/"er 1#t

-onst)nt o#t$#t volt)/e& I% to t"e -ir-#it o% Fi/& resistor R )n! 4ener 4

)re )!!e! )s s"o.n in Fi/& t"e o#t$#t volt)/e is no. /iven 1y

OUTJR IBIAS R

A -onst)nt -#rrent o.s t"ro#/" R 1e-)#se OUT is -onst)nt

)n! s*)ll v)ri)tions in IBIAS !o not -")n/e $r)-ti-)lly t"e o$er)tin/

$oint o% 4& T"is sit#)tion is li2e -onst)nt -#rrent 1i)sin/ o% 4ener

."i-" res#lts in ) very )--#r)te settin/ o% t"e 4ener volt)/e&

As lon/ ) sINOUT8 volts O is -onst)nt %ro* t"e re)sonin/

o% Fi/ )n! t"#s -#rrent t"ro#/" R is -onst)nt&

OJR IBIAS R

Here t"e $in 8 o% t"e re/#l)tor is r)ise! )1ove /ro#n! 1y

4 IBIAS R& T"#s )ny -o*1in)tion o% 4ener .it" ) $ro$er sele-tion o%

R -)n 1e #se!&

For e)*$le Let RJ7= %or ;9 (st)n!)r! %ro* E'IL+


51/107

For ) st)n!)r! ?::*W 4ener o% E'IL *)2e IMAJ7: *A& T"#s i%

.e let $)ss =*A t"ro#/" R to *)2e ) ==volt s#$$ly

== >9

R J J>&82>&>2

= 7:>

== >9 7= 7

R J J J 8:: o"*

IBIAS = 7:>

S-"e*)ti- %or -onst)nt "i/"volt)/e $o.er s#$$lies

It s"o#l! 1e note! "ere t")t t"e *)i*#* in$#t volt)/e )llo.e!

%or ;= 1et.een $ins 7 )n! 8& We see t")t t"e

)-t#)l volt)/e 1et.eens $in 7 )n! 8 o% t"e re/#l)tor in t"is -ir-#it is

IN IBIAS R

It is t"ere%ore ne-ess)ry t")t IN 1e so -"osen t")t volt)/e

1et.een $ins 7 )n! 8 o% t"e I' !oes not e-ee! t"e *)i*#* r)tin/&

Also ) "i/" in$#to#t$#t !i5erenti)l volt)/e INOUT *e)ns *ore

$o.er !issi$)tion in t"e series$)ss ele*ent t"e re/#l)tor& T"#s .it"


52/107

$ro$er sele-tion o% t"e in$#t tr)ns%or*er volt)/e )n! -)$)-itor t"is

s"o#l! 1e *ini*i4e!&

For e)*$le i% ;


53/107

S-"e*)ti- %or -onst)nt "i/"volt)/e $o.er s#$$lies $rovi!in/ -#rrents in e-ess o% one )*$ere

No. i% -#rrents in e-ess o% 7A )re nee!e! t"e -ir-#it s"o.n in

0/& is #se%#l& T"is -ir-#it is si*il)r to t")t in Fi/& e-e$t t")t ) $)ss

tr)nsistor E'P:== is )!!e! 1esi!es ) :&=o"* or *ore resistor& T"is

tr)nsistor 1y$)sses t"e e-essive -#rrent& By sele-tin/ $ro$er R4 t"e

r)tio o% t.o -#rrents $)ssin/ t"ro#/" t"e re/#l)tor )n! tr)nsistor -)n

1e )ltere!&

T"is -ir-#it .ill s"o. lo)! )n! live re/#l)tion .it"in 7 )n! .ill

%#n-tion $ro$erly %or INOUT )s lo. )s ? volt& For s"ort-ir-#it$rote-tion ) %)st 1lo. %#se is re-o**en!e! )s t"is -ir-#it !oes not

")ve in"erent s"ort-ir-#it $rote-tion& A!eC#)te "e)t sin2 is to 1e #se!

%or t"e $)ss tr)nsistors& For ne/)tive volt)/es #se ;9 series

re/#l)tors )n! E'N:== )s t"e $)ss tr)nsistor& So*e )!v)nt)/es o% t"e

-ir-#its !es-ri1e! )1ove )re6 t"e lo.est -ost )*on/ -o*$)r)1le

$er%or*)n-e -ir-#its )1ility to .or2 )t lo. in$#to#t$#t !i5erenti)l

)n! ei1ility in !esi/n %or v)rio#s )$$li-)tions&

So )#!io ent"#si)sts i% yo# )re tro#1le! 1y "#* e*)n)tin/ %ro*

yo#r $o.er )*$li0er try t"is ine$ensive )ltern)tive %or $o.er s#$$ly&

'.#.# MICROCONTROLLER!


54/107

A *i-ro-ontroller is ) sin/le -"i$ t")t -ont)ins t"e $ro-essor (t"e 'PU+ nonvol)tile

*e*ory %or t"e $ro/r)* (ROM or )s"+ vol)tile *e*ory %or in$#t )n! o#t$#t

(RAM+ ) -lo-2 )n! )n I3O -ontrol #nit& Also -)lle! ) V-o*$#ter on ) -"i$V 1illions o%

*i-ro-ontroller #nits (M'Us+ )re e*1e!!e! e)-" ye)r in ) *yri)! o% $ro!#-ts %ro*

toys to )$$li)n-es to )#to*o1iles& For e)*$le ) sin/le ve"i-le -)n #se ;: or *ore

*i-ro-ontrollers&

MICROCONTROLLER ?$. GENERAL PURPOSE

MICROPROCESSOR!

W")t is t"e !i5eren-e 1et.een ) *i-ro$ro-essor )n! *i-ro-ontroller

Mi-ro$ro-essor is t"e /ener)l $#r$ose *i-ro$ro-essor s#-" )s Intels


55/107

functionall en'anced 021compati5le de*ices manufactured 5 more t'an /0 independent

manufacturers including &tmel+ Infineon "ec'nologies(formerl %iemens &G)+Ma6im Integrated

:roducts (*ia its Dallas %emiconductor su5sidiar)+ : (formerl :'ilips %emiconductor)+

u*oton (formerl 8in 5ond )+ %" Microelectronics + %ilicon La5oratories (formerl

Cgnal)+"e6as Instruments and Cpress %emiconductor.

Intels original MC%21 famil 4as de*eloped using MO% tec'nolog+ 5ut later *ersions+

identified 5 a letter C in t'eir name (e.g.+ 0C21) used CMO% tec'nolog and 4ere less po4er

'ungr t'an t'eir MO% predecessors. "'is made t'em more suita5le for 5atter po4ered

de*ices.

'.#.' IMPORTANT FEATURES AND

APPLICATIONS OF C+#!

It pro*ides man functions (C:+ R&M+ ROM+ IO+ interrupt logic+ timer+ etc.) in a

single pac,age


56/107

Po.er s)vin/ *o!e (on so*e !eriv)tives+

A $)rti-#l)rly #se%#l %e)t#re o% t"e


57/107

-o*$)r)tors A3D )n! D3A -onverters RT's etr) -o#nters )n! ti*ers in-ir-#it

!e1#//in/ %)-ilities *ore interr#$t so#r-es )n! etr) $o.er s)vin/ *o!es&

MEMORY ARCHITECTURE!

T"e M'S=7 ")s %o#r !istin-t ty$es o% *e*ory Y intern)l RAM s$e-i)l %#n-tion

re/isters $ro/r)* *e*ory )n! etern)l !)t) *e*ory&

Intern)l RAM (IRAM+ is lo-)te! %ro* )!!ress : to )!!ress :FF& IRAM %ro* ::: to

:;F -)n 1e )--esse! !ire-tly )n! t"e 1ytes %ro* :8: to :8F )re )lso 1it)!!ress)1le& IRAM %ro* :


58/107

!ire-t re/ister #sin/ A'' (t"e )--#*#l)tor+ )n! R:R;

!ire-t *e*ory ."i-" )--ess t"e intern)l RAM or t"e SFRs !e$en!in/ on t"e

)!!ress

in!ire-t *e*ory #sin/ R: R7 or DPTR to "ol! t"e *e*ory )!!ress& T"e

instr#-tion #se! *)y v)ry to )--ess intern)l RAM etern)l RAM or $ro/r)*

*e*ory&

in!ivi!#)l 1its o% ) r)n/e o% IRAM )n! so*e o% t"e SFRs

M)ny o% t"e o$er)tions )llo. )ny )!!ressin/ *o!e %or t"e so#r-e or t"e !estin)tion

%or e)*$le MO :8:" :>%" .ill -o$y t"e v)l#e in *e*ory lo-)tion :>% in t"e

intern)l RAM to t"e *e*ory lo-)tion :8: )lso in intern)l RAM& Be-)#se t"e


59/107

'.#.) PV+#RD'

(


60/107

GENERAL DESCRIPTION 6

T"e P


61/107

Pro/r)**)1le W)t-"!o/ ti*er (WDT+

Ei/"t interr#$t so#r-es .it" %o#r $riority levels

Se-on! DPTR re/ister

Lo. EMI *o!e (ALE in"i1it+

• TTL )n! 'MOS-o*$)ti1le lo/i- levels

• Bro.no#t !ete-tion• Lo. $o.er *o!es

Po.er!o.n *o!e .it" etern)l interr#$t .)2e#$

I!le *o!e

• PDIP?: PL''?? )n! TQFP?? $)-2)/es

'.#.* BLOCK DIAGRAM!


62/107


63/107

'.#.+ PIN DESCRIPTION!


64/107

%$M to >/ IO P* 0& P* 0 ), n 8-=)* n )n =)-

)*)n I/O P*.

P* 0 )n, *+* +

1@, )**n * *+<

;* n )n *+), ,**

n = , , +)+-

)*n

n *


65/107

+)+ =: *+

)n*n -,

+n 1@, )**n

* *+< n n

= , , )n*, )n

*+), ,**. A, )n*,P* 1 )n, *+*

>*n:

LOW ) ,

n* IIL

=, ; *+

)n*n -,.

P1.5 P1.6 P1.7

+

+)+ n* ) ;

16 *n +,* *n

" )n* ; *+PCA.

:1.> ? IO CEX0&

C*/*n I/O ; PCA

% 0.

E+


66/107

*/


67/107

* *+< n n

= , , )n*, )n

*+), ,**. A, )n*,

P* 2 )n, *+*

>*n:

LOW ) ,n* IIL

=, ; *+

)n*n -,. P*

2 ,n, *+

+)+- ,,

=:* )n ;*+,

;< >*n

<


68/107

n* IIL

=, ; *+

)n*n -,. P*

3 , ),

,*n +,* ./ 1/ I

------

INT0& >*n

)n** 0 )n*

:>.> 1> I

------

INT1& >*n

)n** 1 )n*

:>.? 1? I T0& >*n n*

)n* *

T).2 12 I T1& >*n n*

)n* *

T). 1 O

-----

WR& >*n *

*n *


69/107

) ), >*)n

;< )n*n

< *n <


70/107

n*n A,,

En=& EA *n <


71/107

")n. On ALE

, ), ,")

)n + ,,

* >*n *


72/107

application in hand held, portable and other battery po$ered instruments

$ith lo$ po$er consumption.

FEATURES:

• asy interace $ith a %-bit or &-bit /.

• 0uilt-in dot matrix LCD controller $ith ont 1 2 3 or 1 2 45 dots.

• Display data 6' or &5 characters (&5 2 &bits).

• Character +enerator 6*, $hich pro!ides 475 characters $ith ont

1 2 3 dots and 89 characters $ith ont 1 2 45 dots.

• 0oth display data and character +enerator 6's can be read rom the

/.

• #nternal automatic reset circuit at po$er *:.

• 0uilt-in oscillator circuit (:o extra cloc required).

• ;ide ran+e o instruction unctions< Clear display, cursor home,

Display *:=*>>, Cursor "hit, Display "hit.

OPERATIONAL OVERVIEW:

1. BUSY FLAG (BF):

;hen the busy la+ is ?#@? le!el, it indicates that the controller is in the

internal operation mode and the next instruction $ill not be accepted. ;hen


73/107

6=; is A4B and 6s is A5B, the busy la+ is output rom D0 3. The next instruction

must be $ritten ater the busy la+ +oes lo$.

2. ADDRESS COUNTER (AC):

The address counter ('C) +enerates the address or the DD 6', the C@

6' and or the cursor display. ;hen an instruction code or DD or C@ 6'

address is $ritten to the controller, ater decidin+ $hether it is DD 6' or

C@ 6', the address inormation is transerred to 'C. 'ter $ritin+ into DD

or C@ 6' display data, 'C is automatically incremented (or decremented).

The data o 'C is output D05D05 $hen 6" isB5B and 6=; isB4B.

3. CHARACTER GENERATOR ROM (CG ROM):

The character +enerator 6* +enerates 1 2 3 dot or 1 245 dot character

pattern rom &-bit character codes. #t can +enerate 475 types o 1 23 dot

character pattern and 89 types o 1 2 45 dot character patterns. ;hen the

&-bit character code o a C@ 6* is $ritten to the DD 6', the character

pattern o the C@ 6* correspondin+ to the code is displayed on the LCD

display position correspondin+ to the DD 6'.

4. CHARACTER GENERATOR RAM (CG RAM):

55 54 59 58 5% -- -- -- %D % %>

55 54 59 58 5% 51 57 53


74/107

The character +enerator 6' (C@ 6') is the 6' $ith $hich the user can

+enerate character patterns by pro+ram. The C@ 6' has the capacity to

store & inds o 1 2 3 dots or % inds o 1 2 45 dots. ro+rammin+ o this

character patterns is explained in C@ 6' pro+rammin+.

5. DISPLAY DATA RAM (DD RAM):

The display data 6' (DD 6') stores display data represented in &-bit

(hexadecimal) character codes. #ts capacity is &5 2 & bits, or &5 characters.

The display data 6' (DD 6') that is not used or display can be used as

+eneral data 6'. Dependin+ on the &-bit character code that is $ritten into

the DD 6'. LCD $ill select the character pattern either rom Character

@enerator 6' (C@ 6') or rom Character @enerator 6* (C@ 6*).

1!"#$ D"%&!' (NO)

4 9 8 % 1 3& 3 &5 Display position

Line-4 DD 6' address

;hen the display characters are less than &5, the display be+ins at thehome position. >or example, & characters 2 4 line $ill be lie<

4 9 8 % 1 7 3 & Display position

55 54 59 58 5% -- -- -- %D % %>

55 54 59 58 5% 51 57 53

55 54 59 58 5% 51 57 53

55 54 59 58 5% 51 57 53

55 54 59 58 5% 51 -- -- 97 93

%5 %4 %9 %8 %% %1 -- -- 77 73


75/107

DD 6' address

;hen the display shit operation is perormed, the DD 6' address mo!es

as<

(Let shit display)

(6i+ht shit

display)

2!"#$ D"%&!' (N1)

4 9 8 % 1 7 -- -- 8 %5 Display position

Line-4

DD 6' address

:ote that the irst line end address and the second line start address are not

consecuti!e. ;hen the capacity is less than %5 2 9, the 9 lines are displayed

rom the home position.

>or example 47 characters 2 9 lines $ill be lie<

4 9 8 % 1 7 3 & 45 44 49 48 4% 41 47 Display

55 54 59 58 5% 51 57 53

55 54 59 58 5% 51 57 53

55 54 59 58 5% 51 -- -- 97 93

%5 %4 %9 %8 %% %1 -- -- 77 73

%5 %4 %9 %8 %% %1 %7 %3 %& % %' %0 %C %D % %>

54 59 58 5% 51 57 53 5& 5 5' 50 5C 5D 5 5> 45

%4 %9 %8 %% %1 %7 %3 %& % %' %0 %C %D % %> 15

93 55 54 59 58 5% 51 57 53 5& 5 5' 50 5C 5D 5

73 %5 %4 %9 %8 %% %1 %7 %3 %& % %' %0 %C %D %


76/107

positio

n

Line-4

DD6'

Line-9

address

;hen display shit is perormed, the DD 6' address mo!e as<

Let

shit

R13ht $h1>t

display

INSTRUCTION CODE:

The instruction code is a command set throu+h $hich the LCD is controlled

by the /. rior to internal execution o the instruction code, control

inormation is temporally stored in the internal resisters o the LCD, to allo$

55 54 59 58 5% 51 57 53 5& 5 5' 50 5C 5D 5 5>

%5 %4 %9 %8 %% %1 %7 %3 %& % %' %0 %C %D % %>

54 59 58 5% 51 57 53 5& 5 5' 50 5C 5D 5 5> 45

%4 %9 %8 %% %1 %7 %3 %& % %' %0 %C %D % %> 15

93 55 54 59 58 5% 51 57 53 5& 5 5' 50 5C 5D 5

73 %5 %4 %9 %8 %% %1 %7 %3 %& % %' %0 %C %D %


77/107

interace rom LCDBs internal operation to !arious types o /s, $hich

operate at dierent speeds or allo$ to interace to peripheral control #Cs.

The LCD be+ins operation upon receipt o the instruction code input rom the

/. There are our types o instruction, those that<

4. Desi+nate LCD unctions such as display ormat, data len+th, etc.

9. Deine internal 6' address.

8. erorm data transer $ith internal 6'.

%. *thers.

:ormally the, 8rd cate+ory o instruction are used requently, 'utomatic

incrementin+ (or decrementin+) o LCD internal 6' address ater each data

$rite lessens the / pro+ram load. The display shit is perormed

concurrently $ith display data $rite, enablin+ the user to de!elop system in

minimum time $ith maximum pro+rammin+ eiciency. ;hen an instruction

is executin+ durin+ internal operation, no instruction other than busy

la+=address read instruction $ill be executed.

The busy la+ is set toB4B $hile the LCD is internally processin+ an

instruction. LCD si+nals that it is ready to accept the instruction by resettin+

the 0usy la+. #t is thereore to be ensured that the instructions are $ritten

to the LCD only $hile the busy la+ is A5B. There are t$o $ays o doin+ this<

4. 6ead the 0usy la+ and ensure it is A5B beore $ritin+ any instruction to

the LCD.

9. ro!ide a suiciently lar+e delay bet$een instructions to the LCD.


78/107

INSTRUCTION TABLE:

I#%*+,

-*"#

C/$ D$%-+"&*"# E0$-

$ *"

('

6" 6=; D03 D07 D01 D0% D08 D09 D04D05

Clear

display

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

5 4

Clears all displa and returns cursor to 'ome

position (address 0).

4.7%

Cursor

at

home

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

4 E

Returns t'e cursor to t'e 'ome position

(address 0). &lso returns t'e displa 5eing

s'ifted to original position. DDR&M contents

remain unc'anged.

4.7%


79/107

ntry

mode

set

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 #=D

"

%ets t'e cursors mo*e direction and specifies

s'ift of displa. "'ese operations are

performed during data 4rite and read.

%5µ

Display

*:=*>>

control

5 5 5 5 5 5 4 D

C 0

%ets OOFF of all displa (D) cursor

OOFF (C)+ and 5lin, of cursor position

c'aracter (


80/107

0usy

la+=ad

d-ress

read

5 4 0> 'C 6eads busy la+ (0>) indicatin+

internal operations are bein+

perormed and reads address

counter contents.

%5µ

C@6'

=DD6'

$rite

4 5 ;rite data ;rites data into DD6' or

C@6'.

%5µ

C@6'

=DD6'

read

4 4 6ead data 6eads data rom DD6' or

C@6'.

%5µ

DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUCTION CODE:

1. CLEAR DISPLAY:

6" 6=; D03 D07 D01 D0% D08 D09 D04 D05

;hen this instruction is executed, the LCD display cleared and returned to

its ori+inal status i it is shited. The cursor +oes to let ed+e o the display

(the let end o the irst line i 9-line mode). "pace code A95B (hexadecimal)

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 #=D "


81/107

(character pattern or character code A95B is blan pattern) is $ritten into all

DD 6' addresses. "ets DD 6' address 5 in address counter ('C). "ets

#=D F A4B (#ncrement ode) o ntry ode. " o ntry ode DoesnBt chan+e.

2. RETURN HOME:

6" 6=; D03 D07 D01 D0% D08 D09 D04 D05

Code

?i+her order bits Lo$er order bits

:* eect

The cursor or blin +oes to the let ed+e o the display (to the let end o the

irst line in the 9 line display mode). The display returns to its ori+inal status

i it $as shited. DD 6' contents do not chan+e. "ets the DD 6' address

5 in address counter.

>& ENTR MODE SET6

6" 6=; D03 D07 D01 D0% D08 D09 D04 D05

Code


5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 #=D "

5 5 5 5 5 5 4 D C 0


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ID: $hen the #=D is set, the &-bit character code is $ritten or read to and

rom the DD 6', the cursor shits to the ri+ht by 4 character position (#=D

F A4BG increment) or to the let by 4 character position (#=D FB5BG decrement).

The address is incremented (#=D F A4B) or decremented (#=D FB5B) by 4 at

this time. !en ater the character pattern code is $ritten or read to end

rom the C@ 6', the address counter ('=C) is incremented (#=D F A4B) or

decremented (#=D F A5B) by 4.

S: "hit the entire to the ri+ht or to the let $hen s is 4G to the let $hen #=D

F4 and to the ri+ht $hen #=D F 5. Thus it loos as i the cursor stands still

the display mo!es. The display does not shit $hen readin+ rom the DD

6' $hen or $hen $ritin+ in to or readin+ out rom the C@ 6' $hen "F5.

4. DISPLAY ONOFF CONTROL:

6" 6=; D03 D07 D01 D0% D08 D09 D04 D05

Code


D: The display is *: $hen D F A4B and *>> $hen D F A5B. ;hen o due to D

F A5B, display data remains in the DD 6'. #t can be displayed immediately

by settin+ d F A4B.

5 5 5 5 5 5 4 D C 0 5 5 5 5 5 4 "=C 6=L E E


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C: The cursor is displayed $hen C F A4B and +oes o $hen C F A5B. !en i

the cursor disappears, the unction o #=D, etc. does not chan+e durin+

display data $rite. The cursor is displayed usin+ 1 dots in the & th line $hen

the 1x3 dot character ont is selected and 1 dots in the 44 th line $hen the

1x45 dot character ont is selected.

B: The character indicated by the cursor blins $hen 0 F A4B. The blin is

displayed by s$itchin+ all blac dots and display characters at %5.7 ms

inter!al $hen C or *"C F 915 ?H. The cursor and the blin can be set to

display simultaneously. (The blin inter!al chan+es accordin+ to thereciprocal o C or *"C. %5.7 2 915=935 F 83.9 ms $hen C I 935?H).

5. CURSOR OR DISPLAY SHIFT:

6" 6=; D03 D07 D01 D0% D08 D09 D04 D05

Code


E :o eect

"hits cursor position or display to the ri+ht or let $ithout $ritin+ or

readin+ display data. This unction is used to correct or search or the

display. #n a 9-line display, the cursor mo!es to the second line $hen it is

5 5 5 5 5 4 "=C 6=L E E


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passes the %5th di+it o the 4st list. :otice that the 4st and 9nd line displays

$ill shit at the same time. ;hen the displayed data is shited repeatedly

each line only mo!es horiHontally. The 9nd line display does not shit into

the 4st line position.

"=C 6=L

5 5 "hits the cursor position to the let.

('C is decremented by one).

5 4 "hits the cursor position to the ri+ht

('C is incremented by one).

4 5 "hits the entire display to the let.

The cursor ollo$s the display shit.

4 4 "hits the entire display to the ri+ht.

The cursor ollo$s the display shit.

'ddress counter ('C) contents do not chan+e i the only action perormed is

shit display.

. FUNCTION SET:

6" 6=; D03 D07 D01 D0% D08 D09 D04 D055 5 5 4 '1 '% '8 '9 '4 '5


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Code


E :o eect

DL: "ets interace data len+th

;hen DL FB4B, the data input=output to and rom the / is carried out by

means o & bits D03 to D05. ;hen DL F5B, the data input=output to and

rom the / is carried out in t$o steps throu+h the % bits D03 to D0%.

N: "ets number o display lines

The 9-line display mode o the LCD is selected $hen : FB4B, $hile the 4-Line

display mode is selected $hen : F A5B

F: "ets character ont

The 1x3 dots character ont is selected $hen > FB5B, $hile the 1x45 dots

character ont is selected $hen > F A4B4 and : FB5B.

;& SET 'G RAM ADDRESS6

6" 6=; D03 D07 D01 D0% D08 D09 D04 D05

Code

5 5 5 5 4 DL : > E E

5 5 5 4 '1 '% '8 '9 '4 '5

5 5 4 07 01 0% 08 09 04 05

5 4 0> C7 C1 C% C8 C9 C4 C5


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"ets C@ 6' address in to the 'ddress Counter in binary '1 to '5. #n the 1

2 45 ont mode '1 '% deine the C@ 6' bloc number $hile '8-'o deine

the ro$ $ith in the bloc. #n the 1 2 3 ont mode the C@ 6' bloc is

deined by '1-'8 $hile '9- '5 deine the ro$.

. SET DD RAM ADDRESS:

6" 6=; D03 D07 D01 D0% D08 D09 D04 D05

Code


"ets the DD 6' address into the address counter in binary 07 to 05. Data

then $ritten or read rom the LCD pertains to the DD 6'. ?o$e!er, $hen

:F A5B (4-line display), 07 to 05 is A55B A%>B (hexa). ;hen : F A4B (9-line

display), 07 to 05 is A55B A93B (hexa) or the irst line, and A%5BB73B (hexa)

or the second line.

6. READ BUSY FLAG AND ADDRESS:

6" 6=; D03 D07 D01 D0% D08 D09 D04 D05

5 5 4 07 01 0% 08 09 04 05

5 4 0> C7 C1 C% C8 C9 C4 C5

4 5 D D D D D D D D


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Code


6eads the busy la+ (0>) that indicates the system is no$ internally

executin+ a pre!iously recei!ed instruction. 0> F A4B indicates that internal

operation is in pro+ress. The next instruction $ill not be accepted until 0>

+oes A5B. Chec the 0> status beore the next $rite operation.

't the same time, the !alue o the address counter expressed in binary C7

toC5 is read. The address counter is used by both C@ and DD 6'

addresses, and its !alue is determined by the pre!ious instruction.

7:& WRITE DATA TO 'G TO DD RAM6

6" 6=; D03 D07 D01 D0% D08 D09 D04 D05

Code


;rites binary & data DDDDDDDD to the C@ or the DD 6'. ;hether the C@

or DD 6' is to be $ritten in to is determined by pre!ious speciication o

C@ 6' or DD 6' address settin+. 'ter $rite, the address is automatically

incremented or decremented by 4 accordin+ to entry mode. The entry mode

also determines display shit.

4 5 D D D D D D D D

4 4 D D D D D D D D


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11. READ DATA FROM CG OR DD RAM:

6" 6=; D03 D07 D01 D0% D08 D09 D04 D05

Code


6eads binary & bit data DDDDDDDD rom the C@ or DD 6'. The pre!iousdesi+nation determines $hether the C@ or DD 6' is to be read. 0eore

enterin+ the read instruction, you must execute either the C@ 6' or DD

6' address set instruction. # you do not, the irst read data $ould be

in!alid.

COMPARATOR:

In t"is $ro,e-t .e #se l* >>9 )s ) -o*$)r)tor %or roo*li/"t %ro* .in!o.& L* >>9 is -o*$)rtor i- )n! t"ere is

%o#r -o*$)r)tor is insi!e t"e l* >>9

The LM139 series consists of four independent precision voltage

comparators with an offset voltage specification as

low as 2 mV max for all four comparators. These were designed specifically

to operate from a single power supply

4 4 D D D D D D D D


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over a wide range of voltages. Operation from split power supplies is also

possible and the low power supply current

drain is independent of the magnitude of the power supply voltage. These

comparators also have a unique characteristic

in that the input common-mode voltage range includes ground, even

though operated from a single power supply

voltage. Application areas include limit comparators, simple analog to

digital converters; pulse, squarewave and time delay generators;wide range

VCO; MOS clock timers; multivibrators and high voltage digital logic gates.

The LM139 series was

designed to directly interface with TTL and CMOS. When operated from

both plus and minus power supplies, they will

directly interface with MOS logic— where the low power drain of the LM339

is a distinct advantage over standard

comparators.


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Feature$

%,-*arat,r O*erati,

"'e follo4ing dra4ing s'o4 t'e t4o simplest configurations for *oltage comparators. "'ediagrams 5elo4 t'e circuits gi*e t'e output results in a grap'ical form.

For t'ese circuits t'e REFERECE *oltage is fi6ed at one'alf of t'e suppl *oltage 4'ile t'e

I:" *oltage is *aria5le from =ero to t'e suppl *oltage.


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In t'eor t'e REFERECE and I:" *oltages can 5e an4'ere 5et4een =ero and t'e suppl

*oltage 5ut t'ere are practical limitations on t'e actual range depending on t'e particular de*ice

used.

!a/ic %,-*arat,r O*erati,

$*ut &/. Out*ut Re/ult/

1. Current 8ILL flo4 t'roug' t'e open collector 4'en t'e *oltage at t'e

:L% input is lo4er t'an t'e *oltage at t'e MI% input.

/. Current 8ILL O" flo4 t'roug' t'e open collector 4'en t'e *oltage att'e :L% input is 'ig'er t'an t'e *oltage at t'e MI% input.


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$*ut &/. Out*ut Re/ult/

$*ut Off/et &,lta#e @oltage comparators are not perfect de*ices and t'eir performance ma suffer from t'e effects

of a parameter ,no4n as t'e Input Offset @oltage. "'e Input Offset @oltage for man

comparators is onl a fe4 milli*olts and in most circuits can 5e ignored.

:ro5lems related to t'e Input *oltage normall occur 4'en t'e Input *oltage c'anges *er

slo4l.

"'e net result of t'e Input Offset @oltage is t'at t'e output transistor does not full turn on or

off 4'en t'e input *oltage is close to t'e reference *oltage.

"'e follo4ing diagram attempts to illustrate t'e effect of t'e input offset *oltage 4it' a slo4lc'anging input *oltage. "'is effect increases as t'e output transistor current increases so ,eeping

t'e *alue of RL 'ig' 4ill 'elp reduce t'e pro5lem.


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Effect Of $*ut Off/et &,lta#e

"'e effects of t'e input offset *oltage can 5e countered 5 adding 'steresis to t'e circuit. "'is

causes t'e reference *oltage to c'ange 4'en t'e comparators output goes 'ig' or lo4.

$*ut Off/et &,lta#e A" H/tere/i/

For most comparator circuits Hysteresis is t'e difference 5et4een t'e input signal *oltages at

4'ic' a comparators output is eit'er full O or full OFF. #steresis in comparators is

generall undesira5le 5ut it can also 5e added to a circuit to reduce t'e sensiti*it to noise or aslo4l mo*ing input signal.

"pical 'steresis causes t'e output of t'e comparator to go from OFF to O and *ice*ersa

relati*el slo4l.

"'e effect of added 'steresis is t'at as t'e input *oltage slo4l c'anges+ t'e reference *oltage

4ill 3uic,l c'ange in t'e opposite direction. "'is gi*es t'e comparators output a snap action.


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& mec'anical analog of added 'steresis can 5e found in man toggle s4itc'es; &s t'e 'andle

mo*es past its center point+ a spring in t'e s4itc' forces t'e contacts of t'e s4itc' to open or

close+ ensuring t'at t'e s4itc's contacts snap to t'e O or OFF position.


95/107


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"'e 4idt' of t'e loop outlined 5 an offonoff ccle is t'e input 'steresis *oltage.

"'e 'steresis *oltage for most comparators is onl a fe4 milli*olts and usuall onl affects

circuits 4'ere t'e input *oltage rises or falls *er slo4l or 'as *oltage spi,es ,no4n as noise.

A""i# H/tere/i/ T, A %,-*arat,r %ircuit

& comparators #steresis range can 5e increased 5 adding a resistor 5et4een t'e comparators

output and t'e :L% input terminal. "'is creates a feed5ac, loop so t'at 4'en t'e output ma,esa transition t'e feed5ac, c'anges t'e *oltage at t'e positi*e 4'ic' increases t'e *oltage

difference 5et4een t'e :L% and MI% inputs.

"'e feed5ac, can onl 5e made to t'e :L% input terminal.


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$crea/i# T0e $*ut 0/tere/i/ Ra#e

If t'e comparators output is initiall OFF+ t'e MI% input *oltage 'as to 5ecome a5o*e t'e

:L% input *oltage 5 t'e 'steresis *oltage range 5efore t'e comparator output turns O.


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If t'e comparator is O+ t'e MI% input *oltage needs to drop slig'tl 5elo4 t'e :L%

input *oltage 5 t'e 'steresis *oltage range 5efore it turns OFF.

"'e 'steresis *oltage range can also 5e made 3uite large in order to force t'e comparatorsoutput to c'ange as 3uic,l as possi5le. "'e FLI:FLO: circuits s'o4n later on t'is page ma,e

use of an e6aggerated 'steresis to create t'e memor effect 4it' large input *oltage c'angesneeded to trigger a c'ange in t'e output.

Wi",w %,-*arat,r

%,-*arat,r O/cillat,r %ircuit

Comparators can also 5e used as oscillators 5ut are not 4ell suited for t'is tpe of application.

O/cillat,r Ma"e Fr,- A %,-*arat,r

!a/ic %,-*arat,r %ircuit/

"'e follo4ing diagrams are of some 5asic comparator circuits. Most 'a*e a Cadmium %ulfide

p'otocell input 5ut could Hust as easil use a p'ototransistor or a *oltage signal from anot'er


99/107

circuit as an input. "'e resistance *alues are not critical 5ut s'ould 5e used as a guide. In most

comparator circuits t'e ratio of t'e resistances is more important t'an t'eir actual *alues.

P0,t,cell %ircuit/

P0,t,cell %ircuit/ Sc0e-atic

If 'ig'er current loads are to 5e dri*en a :: transistor can 5e added to t'e comparators output

t'is 4ill allo4 loads of up to >00Ma. to 5e controlled.


100/107

Rela river Out*ut Sc0e-atic


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SOFTWARE!

.# Appe(&1 #6

Ho. to -o*$ile t"e !e*o $ro/r)*

7& St)rt t"e so%t.)re Ke10 uV1$1%(*&

8& In t"e *en# sele-t Pr%e8t Ne: Pr%e8t&


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?& Sele-t Devi-e %or T)r/et& 'li-2 P"ili$s P


104/107

@& Pro,e-t O$tions %or T)r/et& Sele-t t)1 \Output&

'li-2 -"e-2 1o

\'re)te HE File& 'li-2 OK&


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;& o# -)n $ress F; or sele-t Pro,e-t B#il! T)r/et to

-o*$ile t"e '

$ro/r)* )n! lin2 t"e o1,e-t 0le to HE 0le&


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r% a1( .ill $ro*$t o#t&


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