Page 1

WWAATTEERR EELLEECCTTRROOLLYYSSIISS:: HHYYDDRROOGGEENN AASS AA FFUUEELL By: Jeremy Vissers, Advisor – Dr. David Kraemer

AABBSSTTRRAACCTT

The rising cost of energy in today’s society is creating demand for renewable energies and for more efficient energy demanding operations. In particular, the inconsistent prices and dwindling supplies of oil are generating a push on the automotive industry to create vehicles that either run on alternative energies, or are more fuel efficient. While the hydrogen fuel cell is being considered as one major form of alternative renewable energy, the fuel cell can actually be used to produce hydrogen fuel when we reverse the chemical process. Therefore, it is in our best interest to study this chemical reaction to explore ways of effectively obtaining hydrogen, and utilizing this fuel as a viable energy source in addition to using it in a fuel cell. Several different types of electrodes as well as electrolytes have been tested during the construction of an electrolytic cell in an attempt to maximize efficiency and minimize decomposition of cell components. Once the optimum combination is discovered, experiments are performed testing this hydroxyl fuel in applications which could decrease the fuel consumption of an internal combustion engine in a vehicle or piece of machinery. Utilizing a process like this would allow us to create and use the hydrogen upon demand, eliminating several safety concerns, and the problem of effectively storing the fuel. IINNTTRROODDUUCCTTIIOONN

The rapid consumption of an energy source of finite supply will eventually result in an

energy crisis. The expression “energy crisis” is often correlated with discussions based around

discovering new or renewable sources of energy. Another aspect many fail to consider is the

efficiency at which we consume energy. Many day to day operations responsible for vast

amounts of yearly energy consumption are very wasteful. For example, a coal-fired power plant

is approximately 32-38% efficient according to the United States Department of Energy and

Environmental Protection Agency, operating year-round to supply the nation its electrical energy

demands [1]. If such a process were improved to 40-45%, smaller amounts of coal would be

required to meet the same demands. The intention of the hydrogen booster apparatus is to try and

increase the efficiency of today’s ubiquitous internal combustion engine. The course of this

project consists of building and testing the electrolytic cell, retrofitting the cell to the test vehicle,

and making alterations to the vehicle control system while performing road tests.

Page 2

TTHHEEOORRYY At first glance, many feel this project is an attempt to violate the First Law of

Thermodynamics, which states: “Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but only converted

from one form to another” [2]. Since the apparatus draws energy in the form of electrical energy

from the battery, whose charge is maintained by the alternator, which is driven from the engine,

it is a closed energy system. The electrical energy is converted to chemical energy in the form of

hydrogen and oxygen where it is combusted in the combustion chamber. Electrical transmission

through electronic control devices and wire pose resistances, resulting in electrical losses before

the energy reaches the electrolytic cell. Additionally, the efficiency of an electrolytic cell varies

greatly with design, as one of the project tasks was to develop the most efficient electrolytic cell;

however it is not near one hundred percent. How is this add-on feature useful?

Gasoline consists of more than 500 different hydrocarbon compounds and is not a pure

substance [3]. The different compounds have different properties, including vaporization

temperature and pressure, as well as ignition temperature and flame speed. In a running engine,

not all the gasoline burns in the combustion chamber. Some of the gasoline exits the cylinder

through the exhaust manifold, where it is burnt in the catalytic converter to reduce hydrocarbon

emissions out the tailpipe. During ignition at the beginning of the power stroke, a rapid pressure

rise in the combustion chamber forces gasoline into crevice volumes in other parts of the

cylinder. Near the end of the power stroke when the pressure in the cylinder drops, the gasoline

extracts from the crevices and is pushed out through the exhaust valve during the exhaust stroke.

This occurs because the pressure wave reaches the cylinder wall before the flame front. The

flame speed of gasoline is approximately 42 cm/sec, whereas the flame speed of hydrogen is

approximately 346 cm/sec [4]. The presence of hydrogen within the combustion chamber aids in

the flame propagation across the piston, resulting in more complete combustion of the gasoline.

Page 3

More complete combustion should decrease engine emissions, while increasing power output

(combustion efficiency). It is suspected the energy released as a result of the increased

combustion efficiency will exceed the energy required to operate the auxiliary system, yielding a

net output mechanical energy gain per volume of fuel consumed.

EEXXPPEERRIIMMEENNTTAATTIIOONN The heart and soul of the apparatus is based on the simple electrochemical process of

electrolysis, defined as the passing of electrical current through water [5]. To perform

electrolysis, one needs at least two electrodes, and an electrolyte. The electrode is any electrical

conductor that is placed in direct contact with the solution to transfer electrons to the electrolyte,

while the electrolyte can be any ionic solution. The combination of the electrodes, electrolyte,

and container/reservoir is referred to as the electrolytic cell. Throughout this project, two

different types of electrolytic cells were used, a wet-cell and dry-cell.

As stated earlier, electrolysis is a simple chemical process to perform; however when it is

intended to be performed efficiently, for extensive periods of time, at a high rate, without

deterioration, the term “simple” becomes more difficult to believe. Extensive testing was

performed with materials from graphite to steels, and electrolytes from salts to acids, to

determine an electrode/electrolyte combination that could fulfill the specifications. It was

determined the best electrode/electrolyte combination at this point is stainless steel electrodes

with potassium hydroxide (KOH) electrolyte. Theoretically, platinum electrodes would be ideal

due to its inert properties; however at approximately $1700 per ounce, using such a rare metal

simply is not economical [6].

Six prototype electrolytic cells were constructed throughout this experiment. Prototypes

one through five were all equipped with the same internal electrode arrangement. This

Page 4

arrangement is shown in Figures 1, 2, and 3 and consists of thirteen 22 gauge 304 stainless steel

Figure 1: Electrode Layout – Prototypes 1-5

Page 5

Figure 2: Electrode Layout - Prototypes 1-5

plates. The plate arrangement is as follows: + n n n n n – n n n n n +, where the “–” symbolizes a

negatively charged plate, the “+” symbolizes a positively charged plate, and the “n” symbolizes a

neutral plate.

The plates are positioned in such an arrangement for several reasons. The process of

electrolysis only requires approximately 1.5 volts of electrical potential to proceed. Since the

source voltage under which the apparatus will be operating is approximately 13.5 to 14 volts DC,

the cell is designed for this input. The five neutral plates between the two plates of voltage

potential give the electrolytic cell capacitor properties. A charge is induced on each side of each

neutral plate, and there exists a voltage drop across the gap from plate to plate. There are five

neutral plates, yielding six gaps. Although the voltage drop is not uniform across all of the gaps,

the average voltage drop across each gap is about 2.2 volts. This smaller voltage potential

between plate gaps yields an overall greater efficiency of the cell, which translates to less heat

generation. When a potential difference larger than the minimum required voltage is presented,

the excess potential energy is released in the form of heat. Besides wasting input energy to the

Page 6

cell, excessive heat generation can lead to vaporization of the electrolyte, which further

depreciates the cell efficiency. Although 2.2 volts exceeds the minimum required voltage, it

serves as a great potential because of two reasons: (1) The rate of electrolysis is directly

proportional to the current drawn by the electrolytic cell. To meet desired production rates, the

potential difference of 2.2 volts allows this with a weaker electrolyte concentration, (2) I have

found the efficiency of electrolysis peaks at an operating temperature of about 150 degrees F.

The heat generated by the 2.2 volt potential difference warms the electrolyte to a temperature

where the cell operates more efficiently, especially at colder

ambient conditions.

Prototypes one through five is referred to as a “wet-cell”

design because the electrode configuration is directly submerged in

the electrolyte solution. Prototype six is referred to as a “dry-cell”

because the electrodes are not submerged in a bath of electrolyte.

Rather, the parallel plates are spaced and sealed by a series of

gaskets, and the electrolyte is pumped through the cell. Similar

aspects of electrode placement, spacing, type, and configuration

from earlier prototypes are used in the design of this cell. The

significant difference between the dry cell and previous prototypes

is the exposure of the plate corners. In prototypes one through

five, the corners of the electrodes were submerged in the

electrolyte solution. Geometric properties of the plates combined

with electrical conductivity of the electrolyte causes a build-up of

charge at the corners of the plates, which has a detrimental effect

Figure 3: Electrode Layout – Prototypes 1-5

Page 7

on the cell efficiency, because of excess heat generation. The dry cell design eliminates these

inefficiencies by eliminating the corners of the electrodes.

The dry cell design and system layout can be seen in Figures 4, 5, and 6. The electrodes

are octagon shaped 18-gauge 316 stainless steel and the end pieces are 3/8” thick high density

polyethylene (HDPE).

The placement of the reservoir is vital to the operation of the dry-cell design. The static

head introduced by placing the reservoir above the electrode configuration, in addition to the low

density gas production within the cell, creates a pumping loop of liquid through the cell. This

also has an affect on the performance of the cell because it keeps the electrodes exposed to the

electrolyte. The moving solution removes the bubbles from the plates as soon as they form,

minimizing the amount of surface area consumed by bubbles sticking to the electrodes. If space

is limited, the reservoir can be placed below the plate configuration with the addition of a small

centrifugal pump to the system.

Figure 4: Dry cell electrolyser and system

Page 8

Figure 5: Dry cell electrolyser

Figure 6: Dry cell reservoir

The selected test vehicle is a 1992 Ford Taurus, shown in Figure 7. This vehicle is

chosen for various reasons: (1) the vehicle’s long range maintenance history is known, (2) the

engine is a healthy running engine despite its age, (3) room is available under the hood, and (4)

the economic value of the vehicle is significantly depreciated should something unexpected

occur during experimentation that causes significant damage. The vehicle is equipped with an

EFI 3.0 Liter OHV Vulcan V6 engine and a four-speed automatic transmission with overdrive.

The engine is rated at 145 horsepower at 4800 RPM, and 165 ft-lbs of torque at 3600 RPM [7].

The engine was introduced in 1986, and is still used by Ford today in some models of the Ford

Fusion and Mercury Milan. The engine has become very well-known for its durability and

reliability. The vehicle is also equipped with the OBD I diagnostic system, which allows

retrieval of engine codes with an analog voltmeter.

Page 9

Figure 7: Test vehicle - 1992 Ford Taurus The apparatus is installed under the hood in the engine compartment and is operated by a

switch within the cabin so the driver can easily disable and operate the vehicle without the

apparatus engaged. Before and after pictures of the engine compartment are shown in Figures 8

and 9. Experimentation was performed to determine the best cell to engine interface. After a

series of tests, the best arrangement was to integrate the electrolytic cell into the manifold

vacuum loop through the positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) valve. In this arrangement,

manifold vacuum pulls air through the cell, which aids in dispersion of the hydroxyl gas. An

additional PCV valve is added to the supply line of the cell to help avoid a flashback explosion in

the event the engine backfires.

The addition of the hydroxyl gas to the combustion chamber yielded a different response

than originally suspected. During initial testing, the vehicle seemed to operate normally, with

the exception of the occasional “check engine” light illumination. Additionally, the fuel

economy appeared to be rather unaffected, if anything made slightly worse. The “check engine”

Page 10

light illumination became more frequent as testing continued. After further investigation of this

issue, it was determined the vehicle diagnostic system was attempting to “correct” the operating

state of the vehicle. The feedback loop from the oxygen sensors were seen by the engine control

unit (ECU) as invalid. The oxygen sensors are small voltage generators which measure the

amount of oxygen in the exhaust manifold of the engine by comparing that to the oxygen present

in the environment surrounding the sensor [8]. A catalytic reaction takes place within the sensor

between the different oxygen concentrations, generating a small voltage. The ECU uses this

closed loop feedback voltage signal to control the pulse width on the fuel injectors to obtain

optimum fuel economy while minimizing tailpipe emissions. When the ECU receives an invalid

signal, it assumes the sensor is malfunctioning, and returns to “open loop” control, where it

illuminates the “check engine” light, uses inputs from the mass air flow (MAF) sensor, and refers

to the pre-determine fuel map programmed within its memory to control the fuel injectors.

The hydroxyl gas caused an increase in oxygen in the exhaust, yielding a “lean” signal

from the oxygen sensors. The ECU attempted to “correct” the reading by adding fuel; however

the reading still appeared to be invalid, sending the unit into open-loop. To fix this problem, the

ECU had to be corrected. To do this, a simple resistor circuit powered by two AA batteries was

constructed. The signals from the oxygen sensors were intercepted and routed across one of the

Figure 8: Engine compartment before modifications Figure 9: Wet-cell installed in engine compartment

Page 11

Figure 10: Oxygen sensor signal corrector

variable resistors in the circuit, adjusting the signal to an

acceptable value for the ECU to prevent open-loop

operation. This device, shown in Figure 10, is located

inside the glove compartment of the vehicle and is fully

adjustable. The addition of this device resulted in

noticeable results in fuel economy, and no noticeable

changes in performance were noted while operating the

vehicle.

The gas production rate of the electrolytic cell is

directly proportional to the current it consumes. By Ohm’s Law, the current drawn is dependent

upon the resistance of the cell, which is a function of not only the concentration of the

electrolyte, but also the temperature of the electrolyte. This variability in the output of the cell

required some sort of operator interface to provide control of cell activity. To control the current

drawn by the cell, pulse width modulation is used. A pulse width modulator (PWM), shown in

Figure 11, is a electrical device which is often used to

control motor drives, and generates a square-wave

signal of “on” and “off” signals at frequencies

ranging from 100-3000 hertz. The PWM control

varies the duty cycle of the power signal, which is a

ratio of the time “on” to the time “off.” This concept

is what allows the PWM to control the current drawn

by the cell.

The first five prototypes were not controlled Figure 11: 30 Amp pulse width modulator

Page 12

by a PWM. Geometrical properties of the electrode configuration did not allow control with a

PWM. When installed on the wet-cell, the apparatus would experience a large instantaneous

current spike, significant enough to blow the fuse on the circuit approximately thirty seconds

after initiation. Although a few attempts were made to try and correct this issue, the reason for

the current spikes remains unknown. For the first five prototypes, the activity of the cell was

monitored, but uncontrollable by the operator while driving. Careful calibration of these

prototypes was performed at installation. On the other hand, the dry-cell design yielded a much

better response to the PWM.

The dry-cell is installed in the same general vicinity of the engine compartment as its

predecessors, and is shown in Figure 12. Additionally, the PWM is used to control the dry-cell

activity from inside the cabin by the operator. Other connections and vehicle alterations from the

wet-cell installation remain consistent.

Considering the electrolysis of water is being performed, the temperatures associated

with the winter season have to be considered. The electrolyte freezing is not a problem; however

the physical property of water expanding when if freezes is a threat to the construction of the

cell, as this is the case in many instances when dealing with water in cold temperatures. With

Figure 12: Dry cell electrolyser installed in the engine compartment

Page 13

this in mind, it is necessary to prevent the electrolyte from freezing during winter’s coldest

temperatures. Allowing the electrolyte to turn slushy is deemed acceptable, however freezing

completely is something to be avoided to protect the structural integrity of the cell.

The perfect additive is capable of depressing the freezing point of the electrolyte without

disrupting the electrolytic reaction. Typical alcohols such as methanol, ethanol, and isopropanol

are considered as possibilities in addition to ethylene glycol, which is typically used in engine

coolant systems. After a long discussion with Scott Brielmaier, a former chemistry/physics

teacher, the list was narrowed to isopropanol and ethanol due to some possibly hazardous

reasons associated with methanol. Before testing was performed with either of these alcohols,

the physical properties of potassium hydroxide were considered. It was discovered that the

correct concentration of potassium hydroxide would depress the freezing point of the electrolyte

significantly lower than desired [9]. Figure 13 is a graph showing the relative freezing point of

potassium hydroxide at different concentrations on a mass percentage basis [9]. By increasing

the concentration (significantly) from what was previously being used (approximately 0.5% by

weight) to twenty percent by weight, the freezing point would be lowered to -11.2ºF (-24ºC).

Page 14

Figure 13: Phase diagram for different concentrations of KOH

Page 15

The ability to lower the freezing point by increasing the concentration, without any additives is a

great solution to the freezing problem, except it brought about a different problem. The

electrolyte of this concentration is extremely conductive, thus making the cell incredibly difficult

to control, even with a PWM.

Experimentation was performed with isopropanol to determine its potential as an additive

for the application. A thirty-eight percent solution of isopropanol in KOH had a freezing point

below -13º F, suggesting that isopropanol would meet specifications. Because of denaturing

regulations, ethanol is typically more difficult to purchase in a pure form. Isopropanol was

chosen as the additive due to its availability and relatively low cost compared to ethanol.

The test vehicle had 201,500 miles at the installation of the first prototype in May 2010.

The vehicle has operated in all Wisconsin extreme weather conditions from very hot and humid,

to blustery cold and windy. The vehicle odometer currently reads about 214,500 miles and still

operational with the latest dry-cell prototype.

RREESSUULLTTSS//EECCOONNOOMMIICCSS The vehicle was purchased in 2001 with 102,000 miles for $3100.00 and currently has

214,500 miles and retains a private party re-sale value of $800 as suggested by Kelly Blue book

[10]. Associated with devices of a similar stature, many are suspicious of the payback period of

such a gadget. The principal investment, as well as the heart and soul of the cell, are the stainless

steel components. Many of the other major costs associated with the construction of the

apparatus are summarized in Table I below. Prices on particular items vary with time for various

reasons including the basic laws of supply and demand.

Up to this point in testing, the electrolytic cell has shown an average increase of fuel

economy of approximately 15%. Baseline testing established an average fuel economy of the

Page 16

test vehicle to be about 27 miles per gallon over a period of approximately five months. After

the apparatus is installed, and the appropriate alterations are made to the engine control unit

(ECU) to accommodate the addition, the average fuel economy of the test vehicle is established

at about 30.5 miles per gallon. Numerous non-constant variables affect the fuel economy

throughout all testing; however efforts are put forth in attempt to hold many of these

IItteemm IInniittiiaall CCoosstt 316L Stainless Steel Plates $75.00 PTFE (Teflon) Gaskets $56.00 HDPE Sheet $23.00 30 Amp Pulse Width Modulator $40.00 12 Gauge Wire $25.00 18 Gauge Wire $15.00 Fuses/Holders $10.00 Wire Connectors/Switches $15.00 30 Amp Relay $5.00 KOH Flakes $3.00 PVC Fittings $25.00 PVC Cement $8.50 Nylon Fittings $8.00 Vinyl Hose $15.00 Hose Clamps $7.50 PCV Valve $3.50 EFIE Board $15.00 50 Amp Current Shunt $25.00 Digital Multimeter $35.00 Retrofitting Bracket $20.00

Total $429.50

outside variables as “constant” as possible. A few of these efforts include: (1) running the

headlights, and accessories (radio, fan, etc.) at all times, (2) using a limited number of fuel

suppliers with gasoline containing up to 10% ethanol (the same pump when possible for fill-ups),

(3) checking tire pressure often, (4) maintaining consistent driving style. The numerous

uncontrollable variables are responsible for a range in results from 21 to 31 miles per gallon

Table 1: Material Costs for Booster Apparatus

Page 17

without the apparatus and from 26 to 38 miles per gallon with the apparatus. Despite the endless

number of variables, a distinct increase in fuel economy is noticed.

What is the payback of such an apparatus? The payback period is directly related to the

price of fuel and the number of miles driven per year. Table 2 shown below represents the

payback period of this add-on feature over a range of fuel prices for consumers who drive an

average yearly mileage, and consumers who drive significantly more miles every year, assuming

a baseline fuel economy of 27 miles per gallon.

This project is a work in progress and due to the widespread spikes in fuel economy I’ve

experienced thus far, leads me to believe that with continued efforts and alterations, I will be able

to further increase the average percent increase of fuel economy to at least 25%. Additionally,

installing such a device on a newer vehicle with slightly more advanced onboard diagnostic

systems may give one the ability to take improvements to a new level. Table 3 is a compilation

of calculations similar to Table 2 displaying the impacts a 25% increase in fuel economy would

have on the payback period.

Miles Per Year 12,000 25,000 12,000 25,000 12,000 25,000 12,000 25,000 Fuel Price $3.00 $3.00 $3.50 $3.50 $4.00 $4.00 $5.00 $5.00 Percent Increase 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 Payback Period (yrs) 1.61 0.77 1.38 0.66 1.21 0.58 0.97 0.46 Payback Period (months) 19.33 9.28 16.57 7.95 14.50 6.96 11.60 5.57

Miles Per Year 12,000 25,000 12,000 25,000 12,000 25,000 12,000 25,000 Fuel Price $3.00 $3.00 $3.50 $3.50 $4.00 $4.00 $5.00 $5.00 Percent Increase 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 Payback Period (yrs) 2.47 1.19 2.12 1.02 1.85 0.89 1.48 0.71 Payback Period (months) 29.64 14.23 25.40 12.19 22.23 10.67 17.78 8.54

Table 3: Payback period over a range of fuel prices with a 25% increase (Assuming a 27 mpg baseline)

Table 2: Payback period over a range of fuel prices (Assuming a 27 mpg baseline)

Page 18

In addition to saving one money at the pump, it is assumed that such a device will reduce

tailpipe emissions from a vehicle. It is yet to be confirmed or tested; however, plans exist to

make use of a chassis dynamometer and emission gas analyzer to experimentally determine the

impacts the apparatus has on tailpipe emissions and power output.

CCOONNCCLLUUSSIIOONN Energy crisis severity can be reduced substantially by increasing the efficiency at which

energy is consumed. If every passenger vehicle on the road achieved 50 miles per gallon of fuel

the amount of energy consumed per day would be decreased dramatically. Discovering new and

renewable sources of energy is important, but we must also work to develop ways to make our

processes more efficient. In this experiment, I took a vehicle with over 200,000 miles and

technology nearly twenty years old, and forced it to change its ways to make it run more

efficiently. Imagine the potential impacts such an apparatus could have on a vehicle with more

sophisticated diagnostics and an engine and ECU designed to operate with this add-on feature.

AACCKKNNOOWWLLEEDDGGEEMMEENNTTSS Scott Brielmaier – Hortonville High School Physics/Chemistry Teacher

James Hamilton, Ph.D. – University of Wisconsin Platteville Chemistry and Engineering Physics Department

RREEFFEERREENNCCEESS

[1] “Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the Generation of Electric Power in the United States.” United States Department of Energy and Environmental Protection Agency. U.S. Energy Information Administration. http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/page/co2_report/co2report.html

[2] Moran, Michael. Shapiro, Howard. Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics.

6th Ed, Wiley. March 2007

Page 19

[3] Hamilton, Bruce. “FAQ: Automotive Gasoline.” The Turbo Site. Jan. 1995

http://www.turborick.com/gsxr1127/gasoline.html

[4] Gupta, Ram. Hydrogen Fuel: Production, Transport, and Storage. Taylor & Francis Group. Boca Raton, FL. 2009

[5] Granger, Jill. “The Chemistry of Water.” SciLinks. 2002

http://witcombe.sbc.edu/water/chemistryelectrolysis.html

[6] Kitco Precious Metals. “Kitco Gold Index.” http://www.kitco.com/market/ Retrieved March 27, 2011

[7] “Ford 3.0 Vulcan V-6.” The Ranger Station. 959 Media LLC. 1999

http://www.therangerstation.com/tech_library/3_0performance.html

[8] Brown, Bill; Lafon, Travis; Schonbrod, Chris. “Oxygen Sensors – Theory & Operation.” 2003 Linn-Benton Community College. http://www.linnbenton.edu/auto/scope/o2.htm

[9] “KOH Solution Freezing Point Calculator and Phase Diagrams,” Olin Chlor Alkali

Products. Olin Corporation. http://koh.olinchloralkali.com/TechnicalInformation/PhaseDiagram.aspx

[10] Kelly Blue Book. www.kbb.com Retrieved February 7, 2011

Page 20

Payback Period for 15% Increase in Fuel Economy for Different Fuel Prices at 12,000 Miles per Year

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

3.50

$2.50 $2.75 $3.00 $3.25 $3.50 $3.75 $4.00 $4.25 $4.50 $4.75 $5.00 $5.25

Fuel Price ($/gal)

Payb

ack

Peri

od (y

rs)

14 MPG Baseline

18 MPG Baseline

22 MPG Baseline

27 MPG Baseline

32 MPG Baseline

AAPPPPEENNDDIIXX

Figure 14: Electrode oxidation after approximately two months of operation

Figure 15: Relative payback period for various baseline fuel economies with a 15% increase over a range of fuel prices