www.migratorysoaringbirds.undp.birdlife.org

WASTE MANAGEMENT: BEST PRACTICES TO CONSERVE MIGRATING SOARING BIRDS (MSBs)

IN THE RIFT VALLEY-RED SEA FLYWAY

JMM & Associates Prepared by:

Migratory Soaring Birds Project

© Marcus Kohler

CONTENTS

1. Executive Summary ......................................................................................................... 1

1.1. Background ............................................................................................................. 7

2. Glossary & Acronyms ...................................................................................................... 8

2.1. Glossary .................................................................................................................. 8

2.2. Acronyms .............................................................................................................. 12

3. Glossary of MSBs species ............................................................................................... 13

4. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 14

4.1. Birds and waste management ................................................................................ 14

4.2. The Rift Valley / Red Sea Flyway RVRSF and the conservation on Migrating

Soaring Birds (MSB) .......................................................................................................... 20

4.3. Waste management in RVRSF: a MSB conservation chance or a MSB

environmental risk? .......................................................................................................... 24

4.4. Why Waste management guidelines to preserve MSBs are necessary? ..................... 29

5. Review of the impacts of waste management on birds, notably migratory species ............ 30

5.1. Waste types .......................................................................................................... 30

5.2. MSBs species: Conservation status and relationship with waste management........... 35

5.2.1. Conservation status of species ......................................................................... 37

5.3. Impacts of Solid Waste........................................................................................... 39

5.3.1. Toxic impacts .................................................................................................. 40

5.3.2. Impact of diseases........................................................................................... 41

5.3.3. Impacts from waste management .................................................................... 42

5.4. Impacts of Sewage................................................................................................. 44

5.4.1. Positive impact of Wastewater ........................................................................ 45

5.4.2. Risks to MSBs.................................................................................................. 46

5.4.3. Effects of birds in sewage plants ...................................................................... 49

5.4.4. Sewage treatment in RVRSF area ..................................................................... 50

5.4.5. The future of sewage treatment in RVSRSF area and MSBs ................................ 53

5.5. Impacts of slaughterhouses and other wastes containing meat ................................ 53

5.5.1. Carcasses from illegal practices and livestock producers.................................... 56

5.5.2. Impacts of slaughterhouses ............................................................................. 58

5.6. Other waste impacts: sanitary, military, toxic and hazardous waste.......................... 62

6. Best practices guidelines on addressing migratory bird conservation in the waste

management sector ............................................................................................................. 66

6.1. Introduction and Legal framework .......................................................................... 66

6.2. Site selection of waste disposal sites, treatment and the strategic approach:

Environmental Impact Assessment. ................................................................................... 66

6.2.1. Criteria for Environmental Assessment ............................................................. 67

6.3. Guidelines on Solid Waste ...................................................................................... 73

6.3.1. Solid waste management guidelines................................................................. 73

6.3.2. Solid waste management guidelines to conserve MSBs ..................................... 75

6.3.3. Closing solid waste facilities and MSBs conservation ......................................... 76

6.4. Guidelines on Sewage ............................................................................................ 78

6.5. Guidelines on Slaughterhouses............................................................................... 79

6.6. General Risk Assessment and Allocation of Risk and Mitigation Measures and

Enhancement ................................................................................................................... 84

6.7. Assessment and Monitoring ................................................................................... 86

7. Recommendations on opportunities to engage with and mainstream migratory bird

conservation into the waste management sector ................................................................... 86

7.1. Integrated Planning Processes ................................................................................ 86

7.1.1. Identifying stakeholders .................................................................................. 88

7.1.2. Decision-Making regarding Projects within the Rift Valley Red Sea Flyway

corridor affecting designated sites (IBAs and EBAs) ......................................................... 88

7.1.3. Adaptive Management Frameworks................................................................. 89

7.2. Framework to identify good waste disposal sites. .................................................... 89

7.3. Bird watching s at properly managed waste disposal sites on the Rift Valley Red

Sea Flyway corridor .......................................................................................................... 92

8. Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... 93

9. References.................................................................................................................... 94

10. Useful websites............................................................................................................114

10.1. Websites ..............................................................................................................114

10.2. Online reports (Environmental Assessment)...........................................................114

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Main impacts of waste management sites on the MSBs. ............................................2

Table 2. MSBs within the Rift Valley-Red Sea Flyway (RVRSF) corridor. .................................. 13

Table 3. Sites that are bottleneck IBAs of regional IBA directories. Source: UNDP 2006, Birdlife

International 2013. ............................................................................................................. 22

Table 4. Solid Waste Management in the Rift Valley/Red Sea Flyway countries according to

Moemen (1999), Abou-Elsefoud (2008), Al Yousfi (2008), Khatib (2011), Arif (2012), BirdLife

(2013), Bjerkli (2013) and El-Moghrabi (2014)*. ................................................................... 34

Table 5. Main MSBs species along the RVRSF showing an intended “use of waste sites”

indicator (from low use * to higher use ***, authors unpub. data), their conservation status

after the IUCN Red List (2014): CR: Critically Endangered, EN: Endangered, NT: Near

Threatened, VU: Vulnerable and LC: Least Concern), population trends (U: unknown, S: stable,

I: increasing, D: decreasing) and estimate of their population size (mature individuals, n.a.:

data not available) after Birdlife International 2014. ............................................................. 37

Table 6. Wastewater Management in the Rift Valley/Red Sea Flyway countries according to Al-

Duais (2013), Zaid (2012), Al Mengistou (2012), Atrash et al. (2012), Hashim (2012), EMWATER-

Project (2005), FAO (2008), Abderraman (2006) and Choukr-Allah (2008). ............................. 51

Table 7. Risk Assessment and Allocation of Risk and Mitigation Measures and Enhancement . 84

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Straits of Gibraltar, the main point in the Western Mediterranean migratory route (J.

Martín 2012). ..................................................................................................................... 19

Figure 2. Map of Flyway with principal bottleneck sites and main points. 1: Gulf of Suez; 2:

Straits of Bab al-Mandab. Source: Porter 2006. .................................................................... 21

Figure 3. Example of a Rubbish dump used by MSBs (Saragosse, North of Spain (A. Camiña.

2005). ................................................................................................................................ 25

Figure 4. Rubbish dump in the Strait of Gibraltar (Los Barrios) at the Western Palearctic Flyway

(J. Martín 2012) .................................................................................................................. 29

Figure 5. View of mixed flock of Steppe Eagles with Fan Tailed Ravens at Taysut rubbish dump,

Oman (Fernando del Valle) ................................................................................................. 38

Figure 6 and Figure 7. Rubbish dump where up to 65 raptors were killed due to incidental

poisoning in Tudela municipality, Navarre, Northern Spain (R. Alfaro 2013) ........................... 40

Figure 8. White Storks; Grey Heron and Common Gulls among solid waste. Rubbish dumps are

appropriate places for monitoring of ringed or marked migrating individuals (G. Belamendía

2013). ................................................................................................................................ 42

Figure 9 and Figure 10. Poor water management in Yemen (Source FEV/FPALY 2013). ........... 48

Figure 11. Ulcinj Salina (Montenegro) a key migration point in the Adriatic Coast surrounded by

human settlements and under strong illegal hunting and tourism development pressure

(A.Camiña 2011)................................................................................................................. 49

Figure 12. Figure of the former Abattoir in Addis Ababa 2010, currently under new planning

(Yilma Abebe 2010). ........................................................................................................... 54

Figure 13. Slaughtering of cattle on the street near Homs, Syria (A. Camiña 2010) ................. 56

Figure 14. Griffon vultures at a feeding site in 2000 in Spain (R. Palomo 2004). ...................... 57

Figure 15. Carcass disposal from pig farms in Spain. Accumulation of unconsumed carcasses (A.

Camiña 1999). .................................................................................................................... 58

Figure 16. Carcass from a natural death decomposing in a water course. Spain (A. Camiña

1998) ................................................................................................................................. 59

Figure 17. Griffon Vulturess feeding from solid wastes. (M.J. Cabo 2008) ............................... 61

Figure 18. Fatalities of Griffon Vultures (birds/turbine/day) at wind farm before and after

Mitigation measures were implemented in 2008. ................................................................. 62

Figure 19. Gardelegi rubbish dump (G. Belamendia, 2012) .................................................... 77

Figure 20. Examples of fences at feeding sites. Left: fences at the same ground level as the

dropping area and right: at different level............................................................................ 80

Figure 21. Scheme of the feeding site with all the elements. ................................................. 82

Figure 22 . Different views of a feeding site. Top left: door, top right: fence, bottom left paved

area for carcass disposal and bottom right leachate collection. ............................................. 82

Figure 23. Different views of carcass collection and disposal at the feeding site (up), feeding

site, cleaning of non consumed remains and disinfection...................................................... 83

LIST OF BOXES

BOX 1. CHANGE OF WHITE STORK MIGRATORY BEHAVIOUR AS A CONSEQUENCE OF OPENING

SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL SITES ............................................................................................. 19

BOX 2. AN OASIS FOR THE MSBs.......................................................................................... 26

BOX 3. INDIAN HOUSE CROWS POPULATION INCREASING BECAUSE FEEDING ON RUBBISH

DUMPS: LEADING TO IMPACTS ON OTHER BIRD SPECIES ...................................................... 44

BOX 4. CARCASS DISPOSAL IN SPAIN, A LONG TRADITION OF CO-OPERATION WITH VULTURES

......................................................................................................................................... 57

BOX 5. MANAGEMENT OF RUBBISH DUMPS AND FEEDING SITES IN RELATION TO WIND

ENERGY DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIROMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (CASTELLON PROVINCE,

NE SPAIN) .......................................................................................................................... 61

BOX 6. AZNALCOLLAR MINING ACCIDENT NEAR TO DOÑANA NATIONAL PARK (SOUTHERN

SPAIN) ............................................................................................................................... 65

BOX 7. THE PRINCIPAL STEPS IN EIA AND KEY CONSIDERATIONS FOR MSBs ........................... 72

BOX 8. USE OF A RUBBISH DUMP FOR MSB BIRDWATCHING AND PUBLIC AWARENESS

CAMPAIGNS ....................................................................................................................... 77

BOX 9. “VULTURE RESTAURANTS”: IDEAL FUNCTIONING SCHEME ......................................... 81

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WASTE MANAGEMENT: BEST PRACTICES TO CONSERVE MIGRATING

SOARING BIRDS (MSBS) IN THE RIFT VALLEY-RED SEA FLYWAY

1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The report entitled “Best practices and Impact to conserve MSBs in the RVRSF” reviews the

current knowledge of the incidence of different type of wastes and their management on the

conservation of Migratory Soaring Birds (MSBs) along the Rift Valley-Red Sea Flyway, and

proposes an adequate management of waste disposal sites to favour the conservation of

soaring birds (migratory and resident) and other threatened species.

The RVRSF is the second most important flyway for MSBs in the world, with over 1.5 million

birds comprising 37 species migrating twice each year between their breeding grounds in

Europe and West Asia and wintering areas in Africa. Between 50-100% of the global or regional

populations of some of these species pass along this route and through narrow "bottlenecks"

in a frame time of just a few weeks. Due the biannual movement and characteristics of the

birds involved they are highly vulnerable to human threats particularly from hunting, energy

infrastructures, waste management developments, and certain agricultural practices. Soaring

birds are vulnerable; both along their migratory routes and at stopovers, reasons include

habitat destruction due to agricultural expansion and intensification, overgrazing,

inappropriate tourism development, industrial expansion, urbanization with an improper

management of waste-disposal facilities, oil pollution (Clark 1987) and hunting. All are

widespread threats to soaring birds. Twenty seven (69%) out of the 37 MSBs species found in

the RVRSF have an unfavourable conservation status and also present are the local populations

of globally threatened and vulnerable species such as the Northern Bald Ibis (Geronticus

eremita) and the Egyptian Vulture (Neoprhon percnopterus) (Porter 2006).

The improper management of waste may cause serious impacts on biodiversity and the

environment in general, but waste sites may also offer resources and habitats for biodiversity

which can be positive in terms of wildlife conservation. Rubbish dumps can constitute

appropriate feeding sites for many generalist bird species. Superabundance of organic residues

provides certain species with a predictable spatial and temporal food source that greatly

reduces the required foraging time and their feeding range. Many species have increased their

distribution range and population sizes due to the utility of these rubbish sites. Human

expansion has been used by both local and migrant species to increase and expand the

number of available places and sites for birds. Food predictability can result in large post-

breeding concentrations while migrating or wintering, increasing the number and size of

colonies or roost sites around them. Birds which have access to and can exploit predictable

food resources, lead to reduce movements and improve the individual fitness (Pons 1992,

Donázar et al. 1996 Newton 1998, Garrido & Sarasa 1999, Garrido et al. 2002b).

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Thus, there is a network of dumping sites over migration routes that periodically gather

hundreds or thousands of individuals feeding and roosting nearby. Some species have changed

their migratory pattern becoming sedentary or having highly shortened the migration routes

(Fernández-Cruz & Sarasa 1998, Garrido & Sarasa 1999, Aguirre 2012). However, rubbish

dumps may also have detrimental effects on certain species as the increase of those that are

generalists may cause the displacement of those having a reduced trophic spectrum (Garrido &

Sarasa 1999, Garrido et al. 2002a, UNDP 2006); other potential detrimental impacts are:

• the consumption of inappropriate disposed of poisoned animals;

• zoonosis (diseases which can be transmitted from animals to humans) expansion;

• impact of human infrastructures nearby;

• Artificial survival due to an excess of food abundance for individuals that otherwise

would die because of natural selection.

The demands of an increasing human population have resulted in a marked reduction of

natural wetlands and conversion for agricultural or industrial development and human

settlement. Further loss of natural wetlands is imminent, particularly the coastal ones, which

have been predicted to decline by 70% by the 2080, with a sea-level rise concomitant with the

climate change accounting for about a third by then (Murray & Hamilton 2010). Flood control

schemes, irrigation, and diversion of water for domestic and industrial consumption h ave

resulted in significant loss and degradation of wetlands in the region. The fact that rivers such

as the Jordan flow independently of national borders means that proposed irrigation schemes

in countries upstream can greatly impact upon water quality and scarce water supplies of the

river and other remaining wetlands downstream. Almost all of the original freshwater

wetlands in Syria, Lebanon and Israel were drained for agriculture in the early 1900s (Dugan

1993).

Table 1. Main impacts of waste management sites on the MSBs.

POSITIVE IMPACTS

Resting and foraging habitat

Predictable food source.

NEGATIVE IMPACTS

Intoxications for drink contaminated water and eat hazardous substances: plastics, heavy

metals, PCBs, EDCs, veterinary drugs, etc. Risk of injures (broken glass, barbed wire).

Risk of accidents (drowning in the sludge).

Accidental poisoning (control scavenging animals).

Infections and expansion of disease (botulism, salmonellosis, avian cholera, etc.).

Human disturbance

Hunting

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The relative importance of wastewater treatment wetlands for wildlife, regardless of their

intended primary purpose, has undoubtedly increased as a result of the loss of natural

wetlands, to the point they are now a significant habitat source for many waterbirds and have

an unanticipated role in conservation. Wastewater treatment systems, constructed wetlands

included, are a valuable resource for waterbirds as suitable habitat but they are not without

risks. Waterbirds may adversely affect the water treatment process and may act as vectors of

human disease, whilst wastewater treatment of wetlands could potentially have detrimental

impacts on waterbird health due to pathogens, heavy metals, chemical contaminants and

human disturbance.

Other types of waste management which can be very important for bird’s conservation are the

slaughterhouses and carcass disposal from livestock raising facilities or farms. The

management of these can greatly affect vulture populations. Declines and changes in

traditional farming and grazing practices, hunting and wild ungulate populations, that once

provided food are now absent or considerably diminished (Mundy et al. 1992), so vulture

restaurants, which this industry can additionally supply are considered as an appropriate

conservation measure, although they also have sometimes negative effects on populations as

by reducing the dispersal capacity of young birds, particularly females, leading so to

undesirable situations such as skewed sex-ratios and an overall reduction in breeding success

(Martínez-Abraín & Oro 2013).

On the other hand, although networks of protected areas provide a way of enhancing species

dispersal there is also a need to manage the wider countryside in a manner that favours

dispersal. In this context, waste management could contribute not only as a problem, but also

as adaptive management opportunity. Appropriate management of waste sites could provide a

network of alternative feeding sites along large corridors to allow birds to move among

suitable areas, functioning as stopover sites. There may also be increased attention to the

management of waste sites either beneficial or detrimental to wildlife, depending on whether

the method and timing of management included consideration of biodiversity interests.

The design and operation of solid waste disposal facilities is often also hazardous to birds.

Waste sites pose particular threats in desert environments (predominant in this flyway

corridor) where they represent an obvious and attractive source of food and water to MSBs .

An integrated waste management and conservation strategy could be a complementary way of

protecting certain species through these corridors in addition to the existing network of

protected areas. On the contrary, there are negative impacts when waste management

facilities for solid and liquid wastes are being designed and constructed without sufficient

consideration to impacts on migratory species such as creating hazards, causing intoxications,

injuries, illness and finally death.

Within the RVRSF context, waste management is a matter of concern as both human

populations and industrialization increase. Waste disposal and management are poorly

regulated in much of the region, with toxic materials often present. Currently there is minimal

sorting of organic and non-organic waste, which is often dumped in open-air pits and partially

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buried or burned. Waste water and effluents are often discharged directly into rivers without

prior anti-pollution treatment even dumped into rivers and lakes (Birdlife 2013). Within this

report, we make a review of impacts on birds of management of different types of waste

(domestic and hazardous solid wastes, sewage and slaughterhouse) with the goal of proposing

best practices guidelines for waste disposal sites which could provide valuable feeding habitats

for birds if they are properly managed. A waste management strategy that is sympathetic to

MSBs is proposed for being used as conservation tool and to preserve migrant and wintering

populations within the RVRSF.

Best practices guidelines on waste management will help to meet the Convention on

Migratory Species (CMS) key conservation priorities:

• Work to protect and retain and, where feasible, recreate / restore high quality bird

habitats on a flyway and landscape scale.

• Work to safeguard and manage networks of critical sites, key to the migration and

survival of migratory species.

• Address specific threats that are known to threaten the survival of individual species

and species groups.

• Attempt to mitigate the effects of climate change, affording migratory species the best

possible chance of survival.

The guidelines will ensure the design of waste management facilities to consider and minimize

the impacts on soaring birds, avoiding the creation of hazards causing injury, illness and death

due to the consumption of non-organic and/or toxic waste or causing fatalities with

infrastructures nearby. They can also help to get local benefits from ecotourism development

at appropriate and bird friendly waste sites through bird-watching whilst conserving MSBs.

The main tools to solve these problems should be application of appropriated legal framework,

the use of a strategic planning framework, precise EIA guidelines, provision of financial support

and capacity building linked to sustainable development and environmental. However, it is

necessary to get that all concerned parties and key stakeholders understand and agree to goals

and benefits of getting a MSBs-friendly waste management programme and sites in operation.

At project level, developers should start their engagement with relevant stakeholders at the

earliest stages of the project development process, especially with Birdlife International and its

National Partners, to identify potential conflicts at different sites, some of which may not be

apparent to the developer or the planner.

Governments should incorporate EIA as a priority during the planning and implementation

phases of the development of any project to avoid and, when avoidance is not possible,

minimize the adverse impacts.

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Adopting such an approach makes development proposals more certain, reducing unnecessary

costs and delays. It also reduces the risks of negative publicity and potentially forges long-term

progressive relationships between industry and stakeholders to get a MSBs-friendly waste

management.

Risks and recommendations on opportunities to engage with and mainstream migratory bird

conservation into the waste management sector include

Integrated Planning Processes. Potential problems to solve through early and pro-active consultation and joint working include:

o Corruption.

o Limited technical infrastructure, plans and strategies.

o Limited human capacities and financial resources.

o Lack of incorporation of stakeholders as complete partners in the

conservation and waste management responsibilities which leads to short

term success rather than long-term, sustainable impact.

o Lack of awareness about the importance of MSBs and even biodiversity, so

they are not linked with sustainable development and most projects use to

be performed without an EIA.

o The sub-culture of unregulated income from waste management involving

poor local communities within the region

It should be clear in the process of planning and consultation that waste management

should:

o Ensure optimal use and protection of the environment.

o Clarify roles and responsibilities and separation between regulatory,

monitoring and executive duties.

o Clarify roles of each stakeholder.

o Facilitate availability of information exchange among involved stakeholders.

o Ensure transparency of institutional, financial, monitoring and administration

systems.

o Promote the principles of “polluter pays”,

o Create incentives to encourage successful practices.

o Penalize those parties that do not adhere to appropriate procedures in

dealing with solid waste.

Identifying stakeholders: An analysis was already made by UNDP (2006) in each of

the 11 countries along the RVRSF to identify and involve project stakeholders

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(beneficiaries/supporters and those who may be opposed to the project or consider

that it may have a negative impact on them.

Decision-Making regarding Projects within the Rift Valley Red Sea Flyway corridor

affecting designated sites (IBAs and EBAs): There should be a precautionary

avoidance approach to waste management development in priority areas for

conservation such as protected areas, IBAs and KBAs, Ramsar sites etc., This will help

enshrine that the precautionary principle of not affecting MSBs and their habitats is

applied in the decision-making process (however, if it is not possible to select other

sites to dispose or manage wastes, then the decision-making process must require

compensatory measures to ensure and protect the overall coherence of the goal for

which an IBA was designated).

Adaptive Management Frameworks: When a MSBs-friendly Waste Disposal Site

(WDS) becomes operational, decision-makers should require monitoring of the

efficacy of MSB friendly measures through post-construction monitoring. Ideally, an

adaptive management approach’ should be undertaken so that if adaptation and

mitigation measures to avoid impacts on MSBs are shown not to be working as

predicted, these can be modified to ensure that impacts are reduced. This adaptive

management process should be overseen by the regulator, ideally advised by a

management group comprising experts representing the developer, government

nature advisor (if one exists) and relevant nature conservation stakeholders The

management of WDS to MSBs conservation must be regarded as part of a dynamic

system whose creation and management must be constantly monitored in order to

detect any indications that will give rise to new strategies and techniques that will be

of use in the future

Definition of BirdLife and UNDP/GEF MSB Project framework to identify good waste

disposal sites. In the last points of the report there are criteria for the definition of

MSBs friendly WDS according to the UNDP/GEF MSB Project. The proposals are for

facilities of solid waste, water waste, slaughterhouses, healthcare waste, military

waste, industrial waste, mining waste and pesticides waste.

Bird watching of MSBs at properly managed waste disposal sites on the Rift Valley

Red Sea Flyway corridor. Finally, appropriated framework to make bird watching

tourism at a properly managed waste disposal sites are proposed. This approach has

the potential to provide funds and social profits for the local communities,

organizations and authorities managing WDS with conservation purposes.

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1.1. Background

In 2010, the Gulf countries generated in excess of 22.2 million tons of municipal waste and

approximately 4.6 million tons of industrial solid waste (Al Ansari 2012). It is necessary to

determine appropriated management to minimize risks of waste disposal sites for MSBs and

others birds, and to enhance the connectivity of birds populations. Thus, it is necessary to

establish first best practice guidelines on waste management and disposal and, secondly, to

design and develop a network of sites to preserve MSBs and the flyway.

Open landfill sites and waste water treatment plants can be key feeding habitats of birds if

properly managed. Rubbish dumps have been shown to provide good feeding habitats to

many’ trophic generalist species, including some MSBs such as storks and scavengers raptors

(Garrido & Sarasa 1999, Garrido et al. 2002a and 2002b). Wastewater treatment wetlands can

restore and increase natural waterbird habitats, including also MSBs such as storks, pelicans,

and cranes (Murray & Hamilton 2010). The creation of the feeding stations to remove animal

carcasses from farms is a common feature of many conservation programs of scavenger

raptors, including Black and Red Kites, Griffon, Egyptian and Cinereous Vultures (Donázar et al.

2009, Martínez-Abraín & Oro 2013).

Wildlife friendly waste sites management along MSBs flyways may improve the resilience of

some species to cope and adapt to climate change pressure.

Within this context, developing waste management guidelines to preserve MSBs are necessary

to establish a proper plan for waste management within the RVRSF.

The guidelines allow for the design of waste management facilities considering and minimizing

the impacts on soaring bird species and maximizing the potential co-benefits from ecotourism

development at bird friendly waste sites through bird-watching whilst preserving MSBs.

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2. GLOSSARY & ACRONYMS

2.1. Glossary

Abattoir Place where the animals are slaughtered for their food

Alternatives These are different ways of achieving the goals or objectives of a plan or proposal. Alternatives are also referred to as options.

Assessment Work done to determine and describe the environmental conditions against which future changes can be measured.

Avoidance Measures taken to prevent impacts from happening in the first place. Baseline studies

Bottlenecks Site specific locations where due to topographical or geographical conditions birds concentrate during migration (e.g. Gabel el Zeit; Bab el Mandib Striat, Ain Sukna)

Carcass disposal The procedure used for shepherds and livestock raisers to remove the corpses of the losses they have. It also includes the removal of by products from slaughterhouses.

Compensation Measures which may be taken to enhance, restore or create a habitat to compensate for residual impacts on a habitat and/or its associated species to achieve no-net-loss or net gain of habitat and/or species. Such measures are normally offsite, but as close as possible to the site.

Constructed Wetland

Artificial wetlands created by human activities (e. g. wastewater treatment) or natural phenomena (stormwater).

Cumulative effects

The effects that result from changes caused by a project, plan, programme or policy in association with other past, present or reasonably foreseeable future plans and actions. Consideration of cumulative effects emphasizes the need for broad and comprehensive information regarding the effects. Cumulative effects may need to be considered at a flyway scale for migratory soaring birds.

Environmental Assessment

The process of integrating environmental considerations into decision making process in assessment of a new development. The process assesses evaluates and defines the extent of environmental impacts.

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Environmental Impact

Environmental assessment as applied to projects.

Feeding site A place where carcasses are disposed of to be consumed by birds or mammals and easily removed from the landscape.

Flyway Main corridor used by migrating soaring birds when moving between breeding and wintering grounds. They are almost fixed on a wide earth band.

IBAS Important Birds and Biodiversity Areas

Intra-specific competition

Interaction among individuals of the same species competing for limited resources.

IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature that establishes the criteria on which the threatened status of species is based, as showed below:

CR: Critically Endangered

EN: Endangered

NT: Near Threatened

VU: Vulnerable

LC: Least Concern

Landfill A site where waste is disposed of by burial

Mesopredator Medium-sized predator which often increases in abundance when larger predators vanished.

Mitigation Measures which aim to minimize impacts to the point where they have the lesser adverse effects.

Monitoring Activities undertaken after the decision is made to adopt a plan, programme or project to examine its implementation. For example, monitoring to examine whether the significant environmental effects occur as predicted or to establish whether mitigation measures are effectively implemented.

Muladar/es Traditional dumping place/s in Spain where carcasses from domestic livestock were disposed of for vultures to feed on. The shepherds provide the corpses on their own without any ecological basis.

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Necrophagous species

Species that feed on carcasses either from the wild or livestock / carrion

Objective A statement of what is intended, specifying the desired direction of change in trends

Offset A wide range of measures that may be taken to compensate for residual impacts.

Plan A detailed proposal, scheme, program, or method worked out beforehand for the accomplishment of an objective.

Decision-making authority

The authority that authorizes a plan or project.

Precautionary principle

A fundamental principle of environmental assessment Taking the safe approach to an activity/ action avoiding the possibility of irreversible environmental damage in situations where the scientific evidence is inconclusive but the potential damage could be significant.

Project programme

The execution of construction works or of other installations or schemes — other interventions in the natural surroundings and landscape including those involving the extraction of mineral resources’. Defined in Directive 85/337/EEC on the assessment of the effects of certain public and private projects on the environment (as amended by Directive 97/11/EC).

Ramsar sites Sites designated as internationally important wetland habitats under the International Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (1976) (Ramsar Convention).

Residual Impacts

Impacts that remain after the effect of mitigation measures have been accounted for.

Rubbish dump A place where people dispose their rubbish.

Scoping The process of pre-planning level of detail of an SEA or EIA, including the environmental effects and alternatives which need to be considered, the assessment methods to be used, and the structure and contents of the report.

Screening The process of deciding whether a plan or programme requires SEA or

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whether a project requires EIA.

SMART objective

Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound (specific) objective.

Soaring birds Birds that use upcurrent air drafts for flying with low energy expenditure.

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA)

Generic term used to describe environmental assessment as applied to policies, plans and programmes. This is usually a pre-cursor to EIA and is taken on a regional or national level

Sustainability Appraisal (SA)

An appraisal of the economic, environmental and social effects of a plan from the outset of the preparation process to allow decisions to be made that accord with sustainable development.

Sustainable Development

A widely-used and accepted international definition of sustainable development is ‘Development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’.

Tiering The linking of assessments for policies, plans, programmes and projects to achieve a logical hierarchy and avoid unnecessary duplication of assessment work.

Trophic spectrum

Diversity of types of food Items consumed by one animal species

Zoonosis A disease transmissible from animals to humans under natural conditions

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2.2. Acronyms

AEWA Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds BOD Biological Oxygen Demand BSE Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy CMS Convention of Migratory Species CW Constructed Wetland EIA Environmental Impact Assessment GHG Green House Gases IBAS Importan Bird and Biodiversity Areas

ISWM Integrated Solid Waste Management MSB Migrating Soaring Birds OIE Organization of Animal Health PCB Polychlorinated biphenyls PV Photovoltaic Plants RVRSF Rift Valley-Red Sea Flyway SMART Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound (specific) objective SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment SA Sustainability Appraisal SWM Solid Waste Management TOR Terms of Reference IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme WDS Waste Disposal Site WHO World Health Organization WSP Waste Stabilization Pond WTP Water Treatment Plant

13

3. GLOSSARY OF MSBS SPECIES

The Migration Soaring Birds (MSBs) project it is focused on 37 species, mostly raptors

belonging to six families, Table 1. Five of them are Globally Threatened: The Egyptian Vulture

(Neoprhon percnopterus), Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca), Greater Spotted Eagle

(Aquila clanga), Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug) and Northern Bald Ibis (Geronticus eremita). Later

in the text we will deal with the IUCN category status, population sizes and trends, using such

information to discuss the different waste use and the proposed management techniques.

Thus, here we will only sort the species according to their taxonomic groups.

Table 2. MSBs within the Rift Valley-Red Sea Flyway (RVRSF) corridor.

Species Scientific Name Species Scientific name

Family Accipitridae

Eagles Eastern Imperia l Eagle Aquila heliaca Booted Eagle Aquila pennata

Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga Short-toed Snake eagle Circaetus gallicus

Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina Osprey Pandion haliaetus

Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis White-ta i led Eagle Haliaetus albicilla

Buzzards European Honey-buzzard Pernis apivorus Orienta l Honey-Buzzard Pernis ptilorhychus

Common Buzzard Buteo buteo Long-legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus

Kites Red Ki te Milvus milvus Black Ki te Milvus migrans

Harriers Montagu’s Ha rrier Circus pygargus Western Marsh-harrier Circus aeruginosus

Northern Harrier Circus cyaneus Pal l id Harrier Circus macrourus

Vultures Egyptian Vulture Neoprhon percnopterus Euras ian Gri ffon Gyps fulvus

Hawks Levant Sparrowhawk Accipiter brevipes Goshawk Accipiter gentilis

Euras ian Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus

Family Falconidae

Falcons Saker Fa lcon Falco cherrug Lanner Fa lcon Falco biarmicus

Eleonora’s Fa lcon Falco eleonorae Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni

Euras ian Hobby Falco subbuteo Peregrine Fa lcon Falco peregrinus

Red-footed Fa lcon Falco vespertinus Sooty Fa lcon Falco concolor

Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus

Fam. Ciconidae

Storks White Stork Ciconia ciconia Black Stork Ciconia nigra

Fam. Pelicanidae

Pelicans White Pel ican Pelicanus oncrotalus

Fam. Threskiornithidae

Ibises Northern Bald Ibis Geronticus eremita

Fam. Gruidae

Cranes Euras ian Crane Grus grus

14

4. INTRODUCTION

4.1. Birds and waste management

The improper management of waste has the potential to cause serious impacts on the

environment and biodiversity. Pollution can accumulate and procedures employed for

elimination cause atmospheric and water contamination. Their management requires

regulation.

However, waste sites may also be of value for biodiversity and migrating species. They can

serve as stop over sites and a source of food for many species of birds, especially in those

altered or heavily human transformed habitats (Garrido & Sarasa 1999).

Rubbish dumps constitute appropriate feeding sites for many generali st bird species.

Superabundance of organic residues provides species with a predictable spatial and temporal

food source that greatly reduces the species both foraging time and home range. Within this

frame, rubbish dumps have a high carrying capacity (Isenmann 1978, Donázar 1992, Sampietro

et al. 1997, Garrido & Sarasa 1999). In addition, domestic waste has a high energetic content

(Sibly & Mc Cleery 1983). Rubbish dumps in southwestern Europe have been shown to provide

key habitats for at least twenty one1 bird species (Garrido et al. 2002a) where they feed

directly from organic wastes.

An additional twenty two species2 also use rubbish dumps as a foraging habitat as they

indirectly provide food sources such as mice, rats and invertebrates that also concentrate for

feeding at these sites. The more food available results in higher survival and productivity rates

(Donázar 1992, Garrido & Sarasa 1999, Serrano & Cantos 2013) . Thanks to the key role of

rubbish dumps during the breeding season many species have increased their distribution

range and population sizes.

Food predictability can result in large post-breeding concentrations while migrating or

wintering, increasing the number and size of colonies or roost sites around feeding sites. Birds

have enough, predictable and ensured food, reducing their movements and improving the

individual fitness (Pons 1992, Donázar et al. 1996, Newton 1998, Garrido & Sarasa 1999,

1 Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis), Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea), White Stork (Ciconia ciconia), Black Kite (Milvus migrans), Red Kite

(Milvus milvus), Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus), Eurasian Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus), Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo), Red-legged Partridge (Alectoris rufa), Caspian/Yellow-legged Gull (Larus cachinnans/michaellis), Herring Gull (Larus argentatus), Black-headed Gull (Larus ridibundus), Lesser Black-backed Gull (Larus fuscus), Rock Pigeon (Columba livia), Common Wood Pigeon (Columba palumbus), Common Raven (Corvus corax), Black-billed Magpie (Pica pica), Eurasian Jackdaw (Corvus monedula), Carrion Crow (Corvus corone), Eurasian Tree Sparrow (Passer montanus), House Sparrow (Passer domesticus). 2 Black Stork (Ciconia nigra), Cinereus Vulture (Aegypius monachus), Short-toed Snake-eagle (Circaetus gallicus), Booted Eagle

(Hieraetus pennatus), Common Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni), Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), Little

Owl (Athene noctua), Barn Owl (Tyto alba), Common swift (Apus apus), Pallid Swift (Apus pallidus), Eurasian Hoopoe (Upupa

epops), Crested Lark (Galerida cristata), Wood Lark (Lullula arborea), Barn Swallow (Hirundo rustica), Northern House-martin

(Delichon urbica), Grey Wagtail (Motacilla cinerea), White Wagtail (Motacilla alba), Common Stonechat (Saxicola torquata),

Common Starling (Sturnus vulgaris), Spotless Starling (Sturnus unicolor), Eurasian Chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs).

15

Garrido et al. 2002b). Several studies have demonstrated the key role of rubbish dumps in the

expansion of the distribution and demography of the Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis) and the White

Stork (Ciconia ciconia) in the Iberian Peninsula over the past 20 years (Garrido & Sarasa 1999,

Garrido & Fernández Cruz 2001, Molina & Del Moral 2005, Aguirre 2012, Garrido et al. 2012).

However, despite the key role of rubbish dumps during the migrating season, it is quite also

important during the breeding and wintering time. Then, they act as stop-over sites along the

route. The best examples of the importance of rubbish dumps on the conservation of some

birds species in Europe are the increase of populations of Black Kite (Milvus migrans), Red Kite

(Milvus milvus), Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) Common Raven (Corvas corax), Carrion Crow

(Corvus corone), Magpie (Pica pica), White Stork, Black-headed (Larus ridibundus), Lesser Back-

backed (Larus fuscus) and Yellow-legged (Larus cachinans) gulls and Cattle Egret (Sunyer 1988,

Donázar 1992, Pons 1992, Sampietro et al. 1997, Garrido & Sarasa 1998 and 1999, Garrido et

al. 2002a and 2002b, Molina & Del Moral 2005, Oro & Martínez-Abraín 2007, Aguirre 2012;

Garrido et al. 2012, Serrano & Cantos, 2013). Studies revealed that for migrating birds which

feed from rubbish dumps, they act as stop-over sites on the route, increasing survival during a

highly stressful and mortality susceptible phase of their lives. In Spain and some North African

countries (pers. obs.) there is a network of dumping sites over the migration routes gathering

hundreds or even thousands of individuals feeding and roosting nearby (Sunyer 1988, Donázar

1992, Sampietro et al. 1997, Garrido & Sarasa 1998 and 1999, Garrido et al. 2002a and 2002b,

Serrano & Cantos 2013). Sometimes, birds have become sedentary or have greatly reduced

their migration routes, as it is the case of the White Stork in Spain (Fernández-Cruz & Sarasa

1998, Garrido & Sarasa 1999, Aguirre 2012). Rubbish dumps can thus provide new wintering

grounds for some species because of the resources they provide (Fernández-Cruz & Sarasa

1998, Garrido & Sarasa 1999, Aguirre 2012, and Global Interflyway Network 2012. See Box 1).

This is a key issue to be considered. At the migration bottleneck sites as the Strait of Gibraltar

is in the Western Palearctic migration corridor, some rubbish dumps meet the criteria as to be

designated as IBA in Europe according to the Birdlife International criteria

(http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/info/ibacriteria, Fernández-Cruz & Sarasa 1998, Garrido &

Sarasa, 2002b). Also in India there were large vulture concentrations of Genus Gyps and

Pseudogyps species feeding from organic waste sites in certain regions (Satheesan 2000).

From the demographic point of view, rubbish dumps provide a resource with nearly unlimited

food availability. They represent an adaptive advantage for juvenile and immature birds, less

experienced when getting food and also suffering from intra specific competition with adults.

Juvenile survival is then higher and results on exponential population growths (Donázar et al.

1996, Garrido & Sarasa 1999, Igual et al. 2000). Migratory species feeding at rubbish dumps

during migration or wintering times where there are adequate food resources and an absence

of additional hazard may have a mortality rate due to starvation nearly equal to zero. In

addition, individuals would return to the breeding grounds in a supposed good body condition,

favouring high clutch sizes and productivity rates (Serrano & Cantos 2013). Finally, use of

rubbish dumps also reduces the predation rates because of human presence. This is the case

of game species such as the Red-Legged Partridge (Alectoris rufa) during the hunting season in

Spain (Garrido et al. 2002a).

16

Rubbish dumps may also have detrimental effects on the species attending (Garrido et al.

2002a), despite mortalities being compensated from the exponential growth of the

populations, at least it has been the case in gulls, Cattle Egrets or White Storks (Garrido &

Fernández-Cruz 2003, Molina & Del Moral 2005, Oro & Martínez-Abraín 2007, Aguirre 2012,

Garrido et al. 2012, Serrano & Cantos 2013). Among other negative impacts (Garrido et al.

2002a, UNDP 2006) we must highlight the increase of certain species that are generalists (for

example Caspian/Yellow-legged gulls (Larus cachinnans and L. michaellis), Herring Gull (L.

argentatus) and Indian House Crow (Corvus splendens) and may cause the displacement of

those with a more reduced trophic spectrum (Garrido & Sarasa 1999, Garrido et al. 2002a,

UNDP 2006).

Rubbish dumps may also act as trap-habitats (“habitats that birds perceive as favourable, but

being unsuitable, by virtue of some feature to which birds are unresponsive”, Newton 1998)

because the presence of toxic substances at sub lethal levels are not perceived as detrimental

by the birds. This includes the consumption of inappropriately-disposed of poisoned animals

(e.g. rodents) at rubbish dumps (Tavares 2013), zoonosis expansion, impact of human

infrastructures nearby or artificial survival (due to an excess of food abundance for individuals

that otherwise would die) because of natural selection. These individuals could suppose a

genetic degeneration for the species (Garrido et al. 2002a). Birds feeding from rubbish dumps

may roost at wetlands or artificial dams that supply humanized populated areas. Thus, they

could act as vectors of pathogens present in the disposed and unprocessed waste. However, to

date no cases have been described. This could be due to the fact that waste on which birds

feed has no pathogens at all, as it comes from healthy human food discards dropped at

rubbish dumps (Serrano y Cantos 2013).

Coupled with this expansion of waste sites the demands of an increasing human population

have resulted in a marked reduction in natural wetlands and conversion for agricultural

development, human settlement and industrial development (Murray & Hamilton 2010). This

could be disastrous for bird species which rely on those areas providing critical habitats and

important stopover sites for many migratory species (Murray & Hamilton 2010). Further loss of

natural wetlands is imminent, particularly coastal wetlands, which have been predicted to

decline by 70% by the 2080, with a sea-level rise concomitant with the climate change

accounting for about a third by then (Murray & Hamilton 2010). Sewage treatment plants with

waste stabilization ponds have been documented as significant habitat for waterbirds (Murray

& Hamilton 2010). The relative importance of wastewater treatment wetlands for wildlife,

regardless of their intended primary purpose, has undoubtedly increased as a result of the loss

of natural wetlands, such that they are now a significant habitat source for a number of

species and have an unanticipated role in conservation (Murray & Hamilton 2010).

Waste stabilization ponds (WSPs) are open-water earthen basins that exploit natural processes

to treat waste-treatment technology in many countries. They are also promoted in the World

Health Organization’s wastewater re-use guidelines as a pragmatic and effective means of

treating wastewater (WHO 2006). This is significant, because UN projections suggest significant

increases in sanitation, particularly in Africa and Asia by 2015. Increased need for adequate

17

sanitation in the region will lead to increase waste water treatment (Murray & Hamilton 2010)

and new WSPs could be used by waterbirds.

However, in many countries wastewater management through waste stabilization ponds has

led to a problem because it leads to the eutrophication of receiving waters. WSPs have been

replaced with more intensive (and less accessible for waterbirds) treatment systems, such as

the trickling filters, up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactors, and activated sludge plants

(Murray & Hamilton 2010).

In summary, wetlands use as wastewater management is a valuable resource for many bird

species but they are not without risks. Waterbirds may adversely affect the water treatment

process and may act as vectors of human disease, whilst wastewater on wetlands could

potentially have detrimental impacts on waterbirds health due to pathogens, heavy metals,

chemical contaminants and human disturbance (Murray & Hamilton 2010). Despite these

possible adverse effects it is important to recognize the value of wastewater treatment

facilities for waterbirds habitat.

Another example of waste management which can be very important to conservation of

soaring birds is slaughterhouses and carcasses disposal. Traditional sources of food for vultures

and other scavengers have declined dramatically in the last century in certain regions

(Meretsky & Mannan 1999). Declines and changes in traditional farming and grazing practices,

hunting and wild ungulate populations, that once provided food are now absent or diminished

(e.g., Mundy et al. 1992, Mateo-Tomas & Olea 2010). Lack of food is considered to affect not

only reproductive strategy and success (e.g., Wilbur & Jackson 1983, Donázar & Fernández

1990, Mundy et al. 1992) but it also results in increased mortality of fledglings and free-ranging

adults (Court et al. 1997, Ferro 2000). However, see Houston (1977) to regard about the role of

livestock on vultures when adapting to human environments, because in absence of threats

such poisoning or electrocutions, vulture populations increase as a consequence of the higher

domestic livestock ungulate densities as compared with those form wild species.

Alternative strategies have been developed over the last decades to support vultures and

other scavengers by means of providing supplemental food at "restaurants" (Friedman &

Mundy 1983, Parra & Tellería 2004) with livestock carcasses, offal or bone remains. For

example, in Spain leaving carcasses in the field at traditional dumping si tes, which are referred

as “muladares”, was a common practice for decades despite being banned since the 50s. The

effects of this superabundant food supply (Camiña 2004) together or in addition with the

supplemental feeding of Eurasian Griffons, Red Kites, Egyptian Vulture (Neophron

percnopterus) and Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus) within their ranges in Western

Europe have resulted in increased survival and reproduction and higher densities and fledging

success (Donázar 1987, Donázar & Fernandez 1990, Camiña & Yosef 2012) . It has also led to

behavioural changes (e.g., Gilbert et al. 2007, Zuberogoitia et al. 2010) and, in fact,

supplementary feeding may be the only way of providing these birds with sufficient food

supply (Donázar et al. 2009).

18

However, carrion eating birds can be threatened through the implementation of sanitary

regulations. Since 2000, the appearance of the Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE),

commonly known as “mad-cow disease” in Europe resulted in the implementation of the

1774/2002 Regalement of the European Commission that required the removal and

incineration at processing plants of any livestock carcass within the European Union (Official

Journal of the European Union 2002). This measure resulted in a reduction of food availability

for scavengers (Tella 2001) and consequently had negative effects in the Griffon Vulture

population (Donázar et al. 2009, Camiña & Yosef 2012).

Although historically vulture restaurants have been considered as an appropriate conservation

measure, they can also have negative effects on populations as they can reduce the dispersal

willingness of young birds. This leads leading so to undesirable situations such as skewed sex-

ratios because the i.e. increase of trios (differential recruitment of inmmature females that

remain in the vicinity without dispersal because food easily available) and an overall reduction

in breeding success (Martínez-Abraín & Oro 2013). Feeding stations can also promote nest

predation by non-target facultative scavenger predators of ground-nesting species that breed

nearby and produce changes in top and mesopredators dynamics (Martínez-Abraín & Oro

2013).

Finally, carrion eating birds may die because of the presence of different chemicals which act

as poisons. This could impact on the population level. Poison may also be secondary through

the consumption of poisoned animals at rubbish dumps (e.g. rodent control), or lead poisoning

by feeding on carcasses of previously shot game (Gangoso et al. 2009, Hernández & Margalida

2009). The last question of concern it is the consumption of dead livestock previously treated

with veterinary drugs. Diclofenac has been proved to reduce the Indian population of Gyps

vulture species by 99% since 2000 (Oaks et al. 2004, Cuthbert et al. 2011).

19

BOX 1. CHANGE OF WHITE STORK MIGRATORY BEHAVIOUR AS A CONSEQUENCE OF OPENING SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL SITES

In a recent Swiss project using GPS satellite transmitters it has been proved that tracked White Storks modify the migration routes to feed in open rubbish dumps (http://storkmigration2es.wordpress.com/project/). The recorded migratory behaviour for White Storks along the Western European/ Western African flyway has changed, with shortstopping in Spain and now no longer reaching Africa. Several thousand of "Western migrants" have ceased their migration to Africa, standing in Spanish rice fields, and especially in large open landfills.

This study showed a significant and growing dependence on landfills as a food source, so they select this habitat as feeding sites during breeding season, at migratory stop-over and wintering sites. Thus, Spanish landfills can get to concentrate up to 10,000 storks during pre and post nuptial migration (Alés 1995, Marchamalo 1995, Martínez 1995, Tortosa et al. 1995, Blanco 1996, Medina et al. 1998, Fernández-Cruz & Sarasa 1998). Results are similar to those obtained in 2001-2002, when nearly half of Swiss storks did not continue their route, staying in southern Spain. The same picture occurs twelve years later.

One of the causes of this behaviour may be the fact that being “nutrition opportunists”, White Storks know how exploit the all-year-round of food availability at landfills. That project also marked non-migrating storks in Spain, which flew to waste disposal sites which could be long distances away in order to find nutrition and fed mainly or even exclusively on waste.

Feeding on waste disposal sites is an adaptive behaviour because it shorts migratory journey and decreases young mortality during the migration and wintering time. Storks are coming back to the breeding areas in good physiological condition and even before than the long-distance migratory Storks. They can set in the best breeding territories and it could be the main reason of the high breeding population increase in Western Europe (Garrido & Sarasa, 1999, Garrido y Fernández-Cruz 2001, Molina & Del Moral 2005).

Figure 1. Straits of Gibraltar, the main point in the Western Mediterranean migratory route (J. Martín 2012).

20

4.2. The Rift Valley / Red Sea Flyway RVRSF and the conservation on Migrating

Soaring Birds (MSB)

Conserving MSB populations is particularly challenging. They occupy a range of habitats during

the course of their annual cycle and the added threats that they may encounter whilst moving

between their breeding and wintering areas is manifold. MSBs use thermals, the up currents of

air to soar and gain altitude, and then move on to the next thermal by a long, shallow,

downward glides. Such birds tend to follow regular flyways that provide good opportunities for

soaring flight, whilst minimizing energy expenditure and shortening migration distances.

As a result, soaring birds will concentrate along their migration routes, particularly at

‘bottleneck sites’, such as mountain passes, land-bridges and peninsulas. Migratory

populations of soaring birds are therefore particularly vulnerable at these “bottlenecks”

because it may affect a large proportion of their populations. Soaring birds face a range of

other potential impacts: Re habitat loss through agricultural expansion and intensification,

overgrazing, inappropriate tourism development, industry particularly energy infrastructure,

urbanization desertification; improper management of waste-disposal facilities, oil pollution

and hunting. All are widespread threats to migratory raptors (Newton 2004, UNDP 2006).

Soaring birds are particularly at risk because they are generally large, long-lived (and thus slow

to reproduce) and often naturally scarce.

The RVRSF is the second most important flyway for MSBs in the world with over 1.5 million

birds comprising 37 species migrating twice each year between their breeding grounds in

Europe and West Asia and wintering areas in Africa. Between 50-100% of the global or regional

populations of some of these species pass along this route and through the narrow

"bottlenecks" in a frame time of just a few weeks. This makes them highly vulnerable to a

number of human threats particularly from hunting, energy infrastructures, waste

management developments and certain agricultural practices (UNDP 2006).

A significant proportion of the soaring birds as listed in Table 2 use the RVRSF, including White

Pelican (Pelecanus oncrotalus), Common Crane (Grus grus), Black Stork (Ciconia nigra), White

Stork, Honey Buzzard (Pernis apivorus), Short-toed Eagle (Circaetus gallicus), Levant Sparrow

Hawk (Accipiter brevipes), Steppe Buzzard (Buteo buteo vulpinus), Lesser Spotted Eagle (Aquila

pomarina), Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis) and Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca). Certain

species, notably the harriers and falcons, migrate more on a broad front, though they

frequently engage in soaring and will join those species that follow historical routes which they

also use for their return journey in spring (Porter 2006).

The knowledge of these migratory routes seems limited, as it is based on a few species and

studies that have uncovered with the same intensity all geographic areas of interest. Either

way, it seems that the RVRSF has two main points of entry/exit between south-west Asia

(Middle East) and the African continent: the Gulf of Suez in Egypt (Eastern Mediterranean,

River Jordan to Nile valley corridor) and the Straits of Bab al -Mandab at the southern end of

the Red Sea between Yemen and Djibouti. In the first, the birds fly through Syria, Lebanon,

Palestine and Jordan; the Jordan Valley is a particularly important part of the corridor. Another

21

branch from central and eastern Asia joins the flyway in Jordan (see Figure 2). The raptors

branch westwards across the northern Sinai to skirt round the north of the Gulf of Suez before

crossing the eastern desert to reach the Nile Valley. White Storks head due south across the

Sinai and bridge the Gulf of Suez from the south-west shore of the Sinai to make landfall

around Gebel el Zeit before heading over to the Nile valley and then turning southward. About

1.5 million soaring birds regularly pass along this route each season largely following lines of

hills and concentrating at the bottleneck sites of Aqaba, Suez and south Sinai.

Some birds do, however, track along the western shore of the Gulf of Suez and it is thought

that they continue on south along the Red Sea coast into Sudan and Eritrea (Porter 2006).

Figure 2. Map of Flyway with principal bottleneck sites and main points. 1: Gulf of Suez; 2: Straits of Bab al-Mandab. Source: Porter 2006.

In Arabia the migrant’s stream increases with the addition of migrants from further east and

these birds then flow across Bab al Mandab into Djibouti. This strait is an important migration

bottleneck because it is the shortest water crossing south of Suez. Over 250,000 raptors of 28

species cross these straits in autumn (Welch & Welch 1988, Hilgerloh 2009 and 2011), mostly

Common Buzzard and Steppe Eagle, but also the Pallid Harrier, the Greater Spotted Eagle

(Aquila clanga), Eastern Imperial Eagle and the Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni); in spring large

numbers of Egyptian Vultures and Booted Eagles return through the straits to their breeding

22

areas (Welch & Welch 1991). This stream crosses Ethiopia to reach the eastern edge of the

northern highlands -where the birds may be joined by those migrating along the western shore

of the Red Sea -before following the Rift Valley southwards.

On their journey towards South, the migrant soaring concentrate on the line of the Rift Valley

and the Red Sea coastal mountains. They generally follow lines of hills and the cliffs of valley

edges and this is where most of the bottleneck sites are found. These sites vary greatly in their

characteristics but all are either at points where the sea is at its narrowest or along the lines of

hills, mountains or cliff-edges that provide thermals for soaring birds to maintain height for

their migration.

Such sites are therefore of particularly high international importance for bird conservation and

qualify as Important Bird Areas (IBAs) as defined by BirdLife International using globally

consistent criteria (Evans 1994, Fishpool & Evans 2001, Heath & Evans 2000). There are three

main categories by which a site may qualify as an IBA in the Middle East3, one of which,

“Congregations”, includes the following criterion relating to migratory bottlenecks for the

region: “site where over 5,000 storks, or over 3,000 raptors or cranes regularly pass on spring

or autumn migration”.

Along the Eastern Mediterranean, River Jordan to Nile valley corridor and the eastern sector of

the Africa-Eurasia flyway a total of 308 IBAs have so far been identified in the countries that

make up this migratory route; of these 28 are bottleneck IBAs that support soaring birds on

migration (see Table 3).

Table 3. Sites that are bottleneck IBAs of regional IBA directories. Source: UNDP 2006, Birdlife International 2013.

Country Site name Notes

Ethiopia

Abyata-Shala Lakes NP One of narrowest parts of rift valley. Importance confirmed for many other

species

Lake Zeway Many soaring birds recorded - numbers and therefore status need confirmation

Awash NP Many soaring birds recorded - numbers and therefore status need confirmation

Koka Dam and Lake Gelila Man made dam and lake - 18 soaring bird species occur there. Numbers to be

confirmed

Lake Langano

Egypt

Hurghada Archipelago Archipelago of uninhabited islands. Appear to play important role as a stepping

stone for migrants crossing mouth of Gulf of Suez

Upper Nile Appears to be an important landing and drinking site for White Stork during

autumn migration

Aswan Reservoir This site and Lake Nasser appear to be important migration sites for soaring birds,

particularly White Storks - resting and drinking area

3 The other two are: Species with an unfavourable conservation s tatus in the Middle East and Species with a

favourable conservation s tatus but concentrated in the Middle East. For more information, see

http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/info/ibacritme.

23

Country Site name Notes

Lake Nasser See above

Safaga It seems to be an important migration corridor in autumn for soaring birds

entering Asia into Africa after crossing from Ras Mohammed, South Sinai -

especially storks but also raptors.

Ein Mousa Probably major route in spring and autumn, especially raptors

Sharm El Sheik Status to be confirmed

Hurghada Status to be confirmed

Djibouti Sept Frères islands Collection of volcanic islands that may be important stepping stones assisting

migrants crossing Bab el Mandeb straits.

Eritrea

Dahlak islands and Massawa coast Large populations of raptors observed - further survey is needed to confirm status

Hazommo plain Large plain in agricultural area visited by White Storks

Jordan

Yarmouk valley Steep-sided valley, several soaring birds species recorded but status as bottleneck

must be confirmed

Maghtas/Sweimeh Status for soaring migrants must be confirmed

Safi – Fifa Status for soaring migrants must be confirmed

Wadi Ibn Hammad-Haditha Several migrants regularly recorded but numbers are not known and status as

bottleneck must be confirmed

Azraq The only permanent wetland in the eastern desert. Status as bottleneck must be

confirmed

Syria

Jabal Abdul Aziz Status must be confirmed

Al-Layat Status must be confirmed

Abo Rujmien Status must be confirmed

Abo Gubres Status must be confirmed

Yemen

Al-Mokha-Al-Khokhah, Taiz Status must be confirmed

Hodiedah Wetlands (Al-Urj),

Hodiedah

Status must be confirmed

Nukhaylah-Ghulayfiqah, Hodiedah Status must be confirmed

All the species previously listed at Chapter 3 (Glossary of MSBs species) migrate using soaring

flight. However, other species (see Appendix E) either only use this migration system for part

of the time or are low altitude flapping fliers. However, all are concentrated at bottleneck IBAs.

24

4.3. Waste management in RVRSF: a MSB conservation chance or a MSB

environmental risk?

Waste management may result in positive impacts for birds creating suitable habitats as

feeding sources. Food superabundance and predictability favours generalist and necrophagous

species. As previously noted (4.1), this may increase their survival by decreasing juvenile

mortality during migration. Examples of MSB species that may benefit in this way are White

Stork, Griffon and Egyptian Vultures, Black and Red Kites (Blanco 1994, Camiña unpublished).

As a result, some exponential increases have been noticed (Camiña & Montelio 2005; Jubete

2005; Tortosa et al. 2003; Garrido & Sarasa 1999).

A second positive impact would be the increase of species survival in geographic areas with

heavily altered habitats through the migration route. Some species may reduce the longitude

of migration routes and reduce associated risks by using waste disposal sites as wintering

grounds closer to the breeding ones (i.e. White Stork and probably Griffon Vulture) (Garrido et

al. 2002b; Stork Switzerland 2014). In addition, appropriate management of liquid waste may

be of great value to aquatic species migrating through dry and arid regions (i.e. Pelicans and

Ibises). Sabkhat al-Fasl and Al-Hasa in Saudi Arabia, Ramtha lagoons in UAE and Khirbat al

Samran in Jordana are examples of IBAs whose origin are fully or partially linked to sewage

management. A regional interesting case is Aqaba in Jordan, where the adaptation of some

ponds at the waste water treatment plant has resulted in the creation of an important wetland

for migratory birds, including some MSBs (see Box 2).

There are also negative impacts when waste management facilities for solid and liquid wastes

are being designed and constructed without sufficient consideration to potential impacts on

migratory species creating hazards causing intoxications, injuries, illness and death. This has

been the case for MSBs such as White Stork (Peris 2003), Black Kite (Blanco 1994, Garrido et al.

2001) and Egyptian Vultures (Donázar 1992) in Southern Spain. Furthermore, toxicosis and

damage to birds has also occurred by consumption of plastic remains or ropes (Peris 2003). An

analysis of the diet of Egyptian Vultures in the Ebro Valley, Northern Spain, showed that plastic

material appeared in a range of 1.6-51% from the analysed pellets. The highest frequency was

found at those roosting sites closely located to rubbish dumps (Donázar 1992). Plastic

ingestion may obstruct the digestive tract causing ulcers and dilution of toxic substances such

as PCBs (Iñigo 1987). Birds are also injured by glass pieces, barbed wire and other sharp

materials. Open air burning of garbage is known to cause injuries to birds (see

http://kucb.org/news/article/burned-bald-eagles-draw-federal-scrutiny-in-adak/). The soot

soils the plumage of birds impairing their flight capabilities (BioMAP 2005). Wastewater

treatment ponds (domestic and industrial) have often been constructed with steep sides and

have resulted in birds drowning. Sludge is often not regularly dredged and birds become

coated or drown in the sludge (Porter 2006). Water at some of the plants is of poor quality and

potentially toxic to birds and other wildlife. Untreated liquid waste has been proved to be fatal

to waterbirds through botulism infections and other diseases. Birds could be responsible for

spreading these infections as they move between wetlands (Murray & Hamilton 2010).

25

In addition, negative effects may increase if the concentrations at waste management sites are

located near close to infrastructures which could cause negative impacts such as power lines

and windfarms. This is normally linked with their movements to and from waste disposal site

(Camiña 2008 and 2010).

Figure 3. Example of a Rubbish dump used by MSBs (Saragosse, North of Spain (A. Camiña. 2005).

Within the RVRSF context, waste management is becoming a matter of concern along the

flyway as human populations rise and industrialization increases. Waste disposal and

management are poorly regulated in much of the region, with toxic materials often present.

There is frequently no sorting of organic and non-organic waste, which is dumped in open-air

pits and partially buried or burned, with waste water and effluents usually discharged directly

into rivers without prior anti-pollution treatment even dumped into rivers and lakes (UNDP

2006). The design and operation of solid waste disposal facilities is often also hazardous to

birds. Waste sites pose particular threats in desert environments (predominant in this flyway

corridor) where they represent an obvious, only and attractive source of food and water to

MSBs (Kirby 2010).

Although efforts have been made to address the waste disposal issue in some countries, it is

often only the aesthetic aspect of the problem that is addressed whilst ecological impacts are

ignored (UNDP 2006). In Egypt and Sudan there are unregulated discharges of industrial

effluents into the River Nile, Suez Canal and coastal areas, where much of both countries

industries are based, such as a manufacturing and industrial zone and the port at Ain Sukhna,

Suez, Egypt, which is a very important bottleneck IBA for MSBs, and many other areas

identified for future industrial development, e.g. El Qah Plain in Egypt.

In Egypt, the proliferation of garbage has contributed to the increase in the Indian House Crow

(Corvus splendens) population at Suez and other sites along the Red Sea coast, estimated in

hundreds of thousands. Indian House Crows have been observed harassing migrating birds of

prey and roosting in, the area and are thought to be a factor contributing to the declining

numbers of MSBs migrating through Suez (Nyari et al 2006; Ryall & Meier 2008; Suliman et al.

2011; GISD 2015).

26

Unregulated dumping and waste management results in large amounts of exposed waste

which then attract scavenging animals, causing the deaths of hundreds, if not thousands, of

raptors every year (UNDP 2006) within the RVRSF. Systematic and quantitative data relating to

the problem along the flyway is again lacking, but there are some sites where waste

management is known to be a threat and their negative effects probably have been

underestimated.

Large numbers of dead storks have also been reported at poorly managed waste water

treatment facilities (domestic and industrial) due to drowning, entrapment in sludge (due to

inappropriate pond designs) or from drinking contaminated water (UNDP 2006). Large waste

sites pose a particular threat in desert environments where they represent an attractive source

of food and water to storks. The solid waste dump at Sharm El Sheikh has been responsible the

death of hundreds of White Storks that die every season at the sewage ponds there due to

water contamination. Entrapment in sewage is known at Suez, where because of the

construction of the tanks, raptors which dropped-in to drink were unable to take off from the

plant because of the steep sides (Baha El Din 1997, BIOMAP 2005).

In a study, the 60-year old Bet Giorgis landfill on the eastern outskirt of Asmara, Eritrea, (at the

top of the eastern escarpment, an important bottleneck) was shown to contain 546,000 m 3 of

solid waste increasing at a rate of 1.2%/year. Samples taken from the site showed a high

concentration of heavy metal -lead, cadmium, mercury, zinc, and chromium- along with

hydrocarbons, pesticides, dyestuffs, and radioactive substances. Many birds and other wild

animals, e.g. baboons, feed at the site and frequent deaths of MSBs have been reported by

local people, though there is no quantitative data on mortality (UNDP 2006).

BOX 2. AN OASIS FOR THE MSBs

The Jordanian Society for Sustainable Development (JSSD) decided in 2003 to establish lagoons for birdwatching at the natural waste water purification plant in cooperation between the Aqaba Water Company and the Aqaba Special Economic Zone authority.

It was agreed to supply the facultative and maturation ponds, as well as the evaporation ponds with water throughout the year to receive migrating birds. These lagoons have formed an ecological model that combines preserving unique bird species and using the tanks supplied with the reclaimed water by Aqaba Water.

The man made wetland which is now the Aqaba Bird Observatory (ABO) was founded in 2008. It is located at the Old Wastewater Treatment Plant of Aqaba and the adjacent Peace Forest, just 2 km north of the city and just off the road to the King Hussein Internati onal Airport at the road of Aqaba-Eilat crossing border point. (See the Map)

The pools at the sewage plant at Aqaba will be partly maintained even after the development of a new, modern plant. The construction of the new plant started recently, and action was taken to move the local authorities to maintain several pools at the old site, which attracts large numbers of migrants every spring and autumn. The JSSD and the local authority (ASEZA) reached an agreement to maintain the sewage/water sources by feeding several pools. They

27

will develop a management plan for conservation, ecotourism, education and research.

The observatory is in an area of flat alluvial fans at the southern end of Araba Valley near the tip of the Gulf of Aqaba. The observatory area is divided into two zones, the open water ponds, which form two thirds of the total area, and a dense vegetated tranquil forest.

There are five ponds; three of them are cement lined, while the others are semi -natural with aquatic vegetation, used as evaporation ponds. These are separated by sandy walkways. The total area of the open ponds is about 40 ha and the maximum depth of these is 1.5 meters.

The adjacent area of woodland is composed of planted rows of trees that have a maximum height of 10 meters. These trees belong to native and introduced species that tolerate high salinity and high temperatures of the Aqaba climate. The total area of the open ponds is about 22 ha.

The green areas of Aqaba, particularly the relatively dense vegetation and open ponds at the waste water treatment plant attract hundreds of thousands of migratory birds every spring and autumn comprised of more than 350 different species. In the spring, migrants tend to land at any suitable habitat in the region; Aqaba is the first station they encounter after a long journey over the deserts of North Africa.

A Visitor's Centre has been constructed with an education room where the majority of the educational and awareness programs are implemented. The observatory has a research facility that is used as a research centre. Walking trails in the observatory lead to the bird's hide for watching birds. The observatory includes a nature garden that educates visitors about the native plants found in the Aqaba area giving support to resident birds dependent on such habitats.

The main objectives of establishing the Aqaba Birds Observatory are to:

Maintain and preserve habitats of global importance for birds.

Develop Aqaba as focal point for birdwatching and ecotourism activities on both

national and international levels.

Environmental education for increasing the public awareness of locals and visitors

toward the importance of Aqaba for global bird’s migration.

Scientific monitoring & Research to create database for birds and their migration.

The current observatory designs and landscaping are based on two fundamental rules: To introduce the minimal required infrastructure to achieve the goals of the observatory establishment, and create landscaping that does not affect the visual character of the area and support the observatory capability to improve the habitats for birds.

Since 2000, the site has been included in RSCN’s annual national bird census program. Results showed a total of 103 bird species belonging to 29 families use the site, including >80% of migratory species that occur in the country.

The majority of birds species reported from the site over 2000 and 2011 belong to the family

28

Anatidae with a total of 19,096 individuals representing 13 species. This was followed by the family Laridae (Gull) with a total of 6,517 individuals comprising eight species, and after that the family Rallidae (Rails) with a total of 3,895 birds representing two species, and lastly Alcedinidae was the least family with a single species recorded at the site.

Altogether ABO, with 47 species, and Karameh dam, with 46 species, are the richest sites in term of species in the country. Since Jordan was identified as a key country for waterbirds in the 1990s, there have been efforts to conserve the important sites for waterbirds or at least try to influence their management. The site at Aqaba is the first to have a “Bird Observatory” and its development is still ongoing, with the aim to attract birdwatchers from across the world and to raise awareness amongst Jordanians of the responsibility to conserve migratory waterbirds.

Some endangered species visiting the ABO:

Lesser White-fronted Goose (Anser erythropus).

Falcated Duck (Anas falcata).

Marbled Teal (Marmaronetta angustirostris).

Ferruginous Duck (Aythya nyroca).

White-headed Duck (Oxyura leucocephala).

Corncrake (Crex crex).Black-winged Pratincole (Glareola nordmanni).

Sociable Lapwing (Vanellus gregarius).

Great Snipe (Gallinago media).

Black-tailed Godwit (Limosa limosa).

White-eyed Gull (Ichthyaetus leucophthalmus).

Audouin's Gull (Ichthyaetus audouinii).

The a ABO can followed in their facebook page: www.facebook.com/pages/Aqaba-Birds-Observatory-ABO

Sources: Eid et al. 2013.

http://muslimenvironment.wordpress.com/tag/aqaba-birds-observatory/ http://aqabawater.com/eng/?page_id=110

29

4.4. Why Waste management guidelines to preserve MSBs are necessary?

Friendly waste management for soaring birds could be a powerful conservation tool to

preserve migrant and wintering populations within the RVRSF and as proactive mechanism of

adaptation against negative effects of climate change. In 2010, the Gulf countries generated in

excess of 22.2 million tons of municipal waste and approximately 4.6 million tons of industrial

solid waste (Al Ansari 2012). It is necessary to determine appropriate management to minimize

risks of waste disposal sites for MSBs and others birds, and to enhance the connectivity of bird

populations.

Thus, it is necessary to establish first best practice guidelines on waste management and

disposal and, secondly, to design and develop a network of important WDS to preserve MSBs.

Open landfill sites and waste water treatment plants can be key feeding habitats of birds when

properly managed. Rubbish dumps have been shown as good feeding habitats to many birds

notably trophic generalist species, including some MSBs as storks and scavengers raptors

(Garrido & Sarasa 1999, Garrido et al. 2002a and 2002b) and wastewater treatment wetlands

provide an alternative to natural waterbird habitats, including also MSBs such as storks,

pelicans, and cranes (Murray & Hamilton 2010). The creation of feeding stations to remove

animal carcasses from farms is a common feature of many conservation programs of scavenger

raptors, including Black and Red Kites, Griffon, Egyptian and Cinereous vultures (Donázar et al.

2009, Martínez-Abraín & Oro 2013).

Figure 4. Rubbish dump in the Strait of Gibraltar (Los Barrios) at the Western Palearctic Flyway (J. Martín 2012)

Wildlife friendly waste site management along MSBs flyways improve the resilience of some

species to cope and adapt to climate change and they can prevent gases emissions feeding

organic waste in landfills or dead livestock in slaughterhouses.

Within this context, developing waste management guidelines to preserve MSBs are necessary

because the lack of technical information to direct managers in this issue. These guidelines

help to meet the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) key conservation priorities (Kirby

2010):

30

• Work to protect and retain and, where feasible, recreate / restore high quality bird

habitats on a flyway and landscape scale.

• Work to safeguard and manage networks of critical sites, key to the migration and

survival of migratory species.

• Address specific threats that are known to threaten the survival of individual species

and species groups.

• Attempt to mitigate the effects of climate change, affording migratory species the best

possible chance of survival.

The guidelines allow for the design of waste management facilities to consider and minimize

the impacts on migratory species of hazards that cause injuries, illness and death. They can

also maximize opportunities for migrating birds and help develop local benefits from

ecotourism development at appropriate and bird friendly waste sites through bird-watching.

5. REVIEW OF THE IMPACTS OF WASTE MANAGEMENT ON BIRDS, NOTABLY MIGRATORY

SPECIES

5.1. Waste types

For practical purposes according to their origin, management and possible effect on MSBs

wastes have been differentiated in four types: solid waste, sewage (waste water),

slaughterhouses and other waste.

1. Solid Waste. It includes solid waste generated from combined domestic, industrial and

commercial activities in a given area. They are deposited in landfills or rubbish dump and

they can be generally considered as non- hazardous wastes. They are those commonly

known as “domestic waste” that come from households (residential and commercial),

institutional, and industrial sources mainly consisting of paper, wood, food and other

organic residuals, plastics, leather, rubber, and other combustible materials. It also

includes non-combustible materials such as metal, glass and rock and slaughter animal

waste (when it is not dumped in a specific slaughterhouse). In the context of these

guidelines solid waste is equivalent to municipal solid waste, and it can also include

demolition and construction debris and small quantities of hazardous waste, such as

electric light bulbs, batteries, automotive parts and discarded medicines and chemicals,

though they might also be considered as other waste and hazardous waste.

Management of solid waste also includes management of sludge from a wastewater

treatment plant or water supply treatment plant, or air pollution control facility and other

discarded material, including solid, liquid, semi-solid, or contained gaseous material, which

comes from deposited solid waste in a landfill site or rubbish dump. It is very important to

consider the management of leachate that percolate material through and/or been

generated by decomposition of waste into the surface and groundwater (i.e. see

31

Palestinian Wildlife Society 2013a). Leachate includes water that comes into contact with

waste and is potentially contaminated by nutrients, metals, salts and other soluble or

suspended components and products of decomposition of the waste.

Solid waste sites can have large amounts of exposed dead animals and organic waste

which attract scavenging birds including Storks, Vultures, Eagles and other soaring raptors.

2. Sewage or Wastewater. It includes any type of contaminated water generated from

households and commercial areas. This includes water that becomes dirty through use. It

can be differentiated in:

Domestic sewage: A mixture of drinking water, organic and inorganic materials in

both solid and dissolved form, including human faecal matter, hair, food waste,

cleaning agents and detergents, different wash water, as well as various types of

chemicals, papers, rags and sand.

Industrial sewage: Water from manufacturing or chemical processes usually

containing specific and readily identifiable chemical compounds, depending on

the nature of the industrial process.

Domestic sewage is the primary source of pathogens (disease-causing microorganisms)

and putrescible organic substances. Because pathogens are excreted in faeces, all sewage

from cities and inhabited areas is likely to contain some type of pathogens and potentially

having a direct threat to public health. Putrescible organic matter presents a different sort

of threat to water quality. As organics are decomposed naturally in the sewage by bacteria

and other microorganisms, the dissolved oxygen content of water is depleted. The latter

endangers the quality of lakes and streams, where high levels of oxygen are required for

fishes and other aquatic organisms to survive. Domestic sewage is also the major source of

plant nutrients, mainly nitrates and phosphates. The excess of nitrates and phosphates in

water promote the growth of algae, sometimes causing unusually dense and rapid growths

known as algal blooms.

Industrial sewage can also include hazardous materials such as toxic chemicals, oil, and

radioactive substances.

Finally, sewage sludge is a solid, semisolid, or liquid that results after sewage (human and

other waste from households and industries) and can contain volatiles, disease -causing

pathogenic organisms, bacteria, heavy metals, inorganic ions along with toxic chemicals

from industrial wastes, chemicals and pesticides Sewage sludge may also cause erosion

and runoff sludge, which would negatively affect to wastewater treatment facilities.

In certain areas worldwide, where strong and concentrated rainfalls occur, storm sewage

is another type of wastewater. It forms from the precipitation that is collected in a system

of pipes or open channels. Storm sewage carries organic materials, suspended and

dissolved solids, and other substances picked up as it travels throughout the ground.

32

Traditionally surface water has been removed from built up sites using underground pipe

systems, which prevent flooding locally by conveying the water away as quickly as

possible. This has led to alterations of natural water flow patterns which, in turn, often

lead to problems elsewhere in the catchment area. Sustainable urban drainage systems

(SUDS) are made up of one or more structures built to manage surface water runoff, used

in conjunction with good management of the site. However this is not considered in this

document.

3. Slaughterhouses waste: It includes animal body parts cut off in the preparation of

carcasses for use as food. The wastes from slaughter houses are similar chemically to

domestic organic waste, but they are considerably more concentrated. They are almost

wholly organic, chiefly having dissolved and suspended material. The principal deleterious

effect of these wastes on streams and water courses is their de-oxygenation. Slaughtering

of animals generates wastes consisting of blood and offal such as lungs, stomachs, large

intestines and their contents, organs and even body parts, dung or bones. All these types

of wastes are required to be disposed by adopting methods like rendering, controlled

incineration, burial, composting or anaerobic digestion.

This waste is often deposited in landfills together solid waste and sometimes dumped in

uncontrolled and unhygienic places. This produces clogging of drains due to this illegal

dumping of animal waste.

4. Other waste. Sanitary, military, toxic and hazardous waste: They include all other waste,

originating from specialized technologies and facilities. Hazardous waste is so called

because of the capacity to affect human health. These waste types are currently mixed and

disposed together with the aforementioned waste types (1-3). Notable types of this waste

are:

Sanitary waste: includes discarded materials generated from hospitals in

diagnosis, and treatment of human beings or animals, in research pertaining

thereto, or in the production or testing of biological treatments.

Military waste: Among which can be found generally used and outdated

conventional ammunition and all related material, excluding nuclear and chemical

ammunition. It also comprises remains from military operations and entire

armament production plants and military facilities dismantled after conflicts. They

can be abandoned without being used or destroyed, and can be buried or even

dumped without any environmental safety precautions (Teaf et al. 2006). Many

substances present in military waste are thus still active and can cause problems

for nature and human health if not properly managed.

Toxic waste: includes liquids, solids, gases, sludge, discarded commercial products

(e.g., cleaning fluids or pesticides), generated from commercial, industrial, and

institutional activities.

33

Hazardous waste: includes cleaning solvents, acids and bases, metal finishing

wastes, painting, sludge from air and water pollution control units, and many

other discarded materials. It also includes many items that would not be normally

thought of being hazardous; such as batteries (containing acids, bases and metals

like lead and cadmium), electronic waste such as CRT-based computer monitors

(Lead), thermostats and fluorescent lamps (Mercury) and renovation and

demolition waste (lead-based paint). The mining and extractive industrial wastes

(overburden, rock, tailings) can also be hazardous and have high contamination

levels. Obsolete pesticides also belong to this group, as they have probably

decomposed into other chemical components which are sometimes more toxic

than the original pesticide. Most pesticides expire two years after production

which means they cannot be used unless they are tested and proved stable.

All these hazardous wastes might be disposed of in special landfills or incineration

may also be practiced for healthcare wastes. However, in many countries within

the RVRS flyway (Table 4), where uncontrolled open dumps are common, all waste

tends to be dumped together, regardless of their origins or its hazardous nature .

The leachate from hazardous industrial wastes may be toxic to the bacteria

naturally present, delaying the biodegradation of organic substances in the

leachate.

34

Table 4. Solid Waste Management in the Rift Valley/Red Sea Flyway countries according to Moemen (1999), Abou-Elsefoud (2008), Al Yousfi (2008), Khatib (2011), Arif (2012), BirdLife (2013), Bjerkli (2013) and El-Moghrabi (2014)*.

YEMEN EGYPT LEBANON PALESTINE SAUDIA ARABIA SYRIA JORDAN SUDAN DJIBOUTI

Population: 23 million 78.2 million 4.5 million 4.1 million 23 million 21.9 million 5,8 million 37,1 million 327000

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)

Generation: 3.6 million tons 19.7 million tons (2009) 1.57 million tons 1.2 million tons 13.4 million ton 4,5 million ton 1.96 million ton 4,5 million ton 146,000 ton

Per Capita MSW Generation:

0.6 kg/day (urban areas) 0.7 – 1.0 kg/day (urban areas) 0.85 - 1.1 Kg/day (urban

areas) 0.8-2.0 kg/day (urban areas)

1.8 kg/day

0,6-0,7 kg/day (urban areas) 0,95 kg/day (urban areas) 0.6 kg/day (urban

areas)

1.2 kg/day (urban

areas)

0.35 kg/day (rural areas) 0.4 – 0.5 kg/day (rural areas) 0.7 Kg/day (rural areas) 0.5-0.7 kg/day (rural areas);

0.4-0.6 kg/day (refugee camps) 0,5-0,8 kg/day (rural areas) 0,85 kg/day (rural areas) data not available

MSW Generation Growth: 3% per year 3.4% per year 1.65% per year 4% per year data not available 2,5 % per year 3,3 % per year data not available data not available

Medical waste generation 3,692 tons (year 2009) 40,000 tons/year ~25,040 tons/year 14,424 tons/year 18.860 tons/year 5,000 tons/year 3,285 tons/year data not available data not available

Municipal Waste Composition

(%)

65% Organic materials 55% Organic materials 59% Organic materials 59% Organic materials 37% Organic

materials 62% Organic materials 63% Organic materials data not available

31 % Organic

materials

10% Plastics 8% Plastics 8% Plastics 12% Plastics 5% Plastics 7% Plastics 17 % Plastics data not available 16 % Plastics

7% Paper and cardboard 18% Paper and cardboard 18% Paper and cardboard 15% Paper and cardboard 29% Paper and

cardboard 4% Paper and cardboard 11% Paper and cardboard data not available

10% Paper and

cardboard

6% Metals 5% Metals 2% Metals 4% Metals 8% Metals 6% Metals 2 % Metals data not available data not available

1% Glass 3% Glass 8% Glass 4% Glass 5% Glass 4% Glass 2% Glass data not available data not available

11% other 11% other 5% other 6% other 10% other 6% other 5% other data not available 43% other

Industrial waste: data not available 6.2 MT/year 188,380 tons/yea) 200,000 Tons/year– 15-20%

MSW. data not available data not available data not available data not available data not available

Hazardous waste: data not available 0.2 MT/year 3,380 tons/year 62,621 ton/year. 220,000 ton/year 41,400 ton/year 15,000 tons /year data not available data not available

Agricultural waste: data not available 23 MT/year data not available 120,000 ton/ year 8-12% of

total waste production. data not available data not available 1.56 million tons/year data not available data not available

MSW Collection Coverage:

5 % in rural areas, 70% in

urban area; only 38% of the

generated waste is collected

and disposed of

0 - 35% in rural areas, 40 - 90%

in urban areas

99% in rural areas; 100% in

urban areas

80% in rural areas; 100% in

urban areas data not available

60-90 % in rural areas, 90-100

% in urban areas

70% in rural areas, 90% in

urban areas data not available 46%

MSW Final Destination:

0% : Composted 9% : Composted

9% : Composted (several

treatment plants already

constructed will be put in

operation soon, hence

increasing percentage)

0 % Composted data not available 1-2% : Composted 0 % : Composted data not available data not available

6% : Recycled 2.5% : Recycled 8% : Recycled 2% : Recycled 57% Recycled 2-3 % Recycled 10 % : Recycled data not available 0% : Recycled

26% : Landfilled 5% : Landfilled 53% : Landfilled 22% : Landfilled -% Landfilled ~20% Landfilled 85 % : Landfilled 35% Landfilled 35% Landfilled

68% : Open dumped 83.5% : Open dumped 30% : Open dumped 76% : Open dumped -% Open dumped ~80% Open dumped 5 % : Open dumped 65% Open dumped 65% Open dumped

Number of operational

sanitary landfills:

21 controlled and semi

controlled landfill sites in use.

3 under construction, 5

constructed, 5 operational 3 constructed, 3 operational 3 constructed, 3 operational data not available 33 1 operational data not available 1

Hazardous and industrial

Waste:

No hazardous waste landfills

or plants are in place 1 constructed, 1 operational

No hazardous waste landfills

or plants are in place

No hazardous waste landfills

or plants are in place data not available

14 under study, 1 under

construction, 1, constructed, 1

operational

1 under construction, 1

operational data not available data not available

Types of disposal and

treatments for medical waste:

Medical waste is disposed with

other municipal waste in the

same landfill and in the same

way as other waste. A project

to introduce the first medical

waste treatment system in

Sana’a City is under

development.

Incineration: 151 units;

Sterilization (Autoclave): 48

units

part of waste (60%) treated by

autoclaving and shredding

Autoclaving in some health

care centres, Final disposal

with the municipal waste;

Mainly disposed in random

dumpsites.

data not available

Autoclave

1 unit in Damascus

2 units in Dara’a and Al-

Hassaka

Incineration and autoclave

followed by landfilling data not available data not available

*N data available from Ethiopia

35

5.2. MSBs species: Conservation status and relationship with waste management.

MSBs can be broadly grouped into similar ecological guilds according to their biology. All the

Eagles (Booted, Lesser Spotted, Short-toed Snake and Eastern Imperial) rely on prey of a

certain size like mammals, birds, amphibians or reptiles that they must actively search. Kites

are extremely versatile with many food sources ranging from small animals to organic waste,

with a close relationship with humans that probably reflects the success of certain species as

the population grows and expands (Del Hoyo et al. 1994). Harriers and small falcons, despite

feeding from small vertebrates, obtain much of their biomass at wintering areas from

ephemeral invertebrates (Brown et al. 1982); all of them are active flying predators. The

Northern Bald Ibis has a broad diet spectrum of animals and vegetation (Hancock et al. 1992,

Aghnaj et al. 2001), thus it is susceptible to being affected by both solid waste and sewage. The

White Pelican it is entirely piscivorous. However, it has been also registered at rubbish dumps

in South Africa (A. Camiña pers. obs.). Storks have varied and opportunistic diets (Del Hoyo et

al. 1992, Hancock et al. 1992) that makes them susceptible to use either solid waste or

sewage. All of them can be considered generalists. Cranes are omnivorous with a diet where

plants comprise an important percentage (Cramp and Simmons 1980, Urban et al. 1986) Finally

vultures rely either on dead corpses from medium and big size livestock or wild ungulates in

certain areas where they are abundant, or find small food scraps even capturing little preys.

Apart from these “guilds” of species, there are other species with very specific feeding habits

that do not fall into the above mention such as Oriental and European Honey Buzzards and

Osprey.

Breeding comprises a time in the year that requires from a great investment of the parents to

support the fledglings with food of good quality. They must also get enough amounts to

maintain themselves. It must be remembered that despite being active predators, any animal

would scavenge if it has the possibility (Houston 1979). In addition, landfills are a highly

predictable food source and birds only need to move between sites to find the most suitable

each day. This is the way vultures feed every day in Northern Spain (Camiña & Montelio 2012).

The relationship of MSBs with the different types of waste is thus based on the above

mentioned feeding habits and also on gregariousness of the species.

Birds must re-fuel along the migration flyway though they only need to obtain enough food for

an individual basis as not on breeding grounds. Birds tend to concentrate at easy places to

locate where food superabundance may occur as their extensive travels within a

predominantly arid landscape with reduced and limited resources would require time to locate

prey. Thus, rubbish dumps or any waterbody may be the most attractive way of obtaining

food. Birds adapt to these resources as effort required for taking food becomes minimal. In the

case of juveniles, much less experienced than adults on obtaining food by themselves,

predictable feeding points let them to reduce inter and intraspecific competition to some

extent.

36

Excepting vultures, which only feed from medium and big size wild or domestic ungulates

(Houston 1979, Mundy et al. 1992), all remaining MSB’s must actively search for prey.

However, scavenging may offer an alternative food source when the only need during

migration is to maintain individual fitness and physical condition for the long journey.

In Table 5 it has been classified species according their use of WM sites, establishing a ranking

of those species which are attracted to such sites. This is based according to recorded use from

rubbish dumps. The Northern Bald Ibis has been considered occasional at waste facilities (its

population is now as small as >10 individuals in the region) that this could not be qualified but

the feeding habits of the species would suggest it. The third columns concerns conservation

status and the population trend stated by Birdlife: I- Increase, D-decrease, U-unknown and S-

Stable. Finally, the last column expresses the size of the population and the last year for which

information is available.

37

Table 5. Main MSBs species along the RVRSF showing an intended “use of waste sites” indicator (from low use * to higher use ***, authors unpub. data), their conservation status after the IUCN Red List (2014): CR: Critically

Endangered, EN: Endangered, NT: Near Threatened, VU: Vulnerable and LC: Least Concern) , population trends (U: unknown, S: stable, I: increasing, D: decreasing) and estimate of their population size (mature individuals, n.a.:

data not available) after Birdlife International 2014.

Species Use of

waste sites Conservation status

Population

trend Population

Eurasian Griffon Vulture

*** LC I n.a. (2009)

Egyptian Vulture *** EN D 13,000-41,000 (2007)

Eastern Imp. Eagle *** VU D 2,500-9,000 (1999) Greater Spotted Eagle *** VU D 3,300-8,800 (2004) Lesser Spotted Eagle *** LC U 42,000-57,000 (2007) Steppe Eagle *** LC D 16,000 (2009)

Black Kite *** LC U 1-6 mill ion (2009) Red Kite *** NT D n.a. (2009) White Stork *** LC I n.a. (2009)

Black Stork ** LC U n.a. (2009) Booted Eagle * LC D n.a. (2009) Short-toed Eagle * LC D n.a. (2009)

Common Buzzard ** LC I 4 mill ion (2009)both

Common and Steppe Steppe Buzzard * LC I

Long-Legged Buzzard * LC S 100,000 (2008) Oriental Honey Buzzard * LC S n.a. (2009)

European H. Buzzard * LC S n.a. (2009) White Pelican ** LC U n.a. (2009) Eurasian Crane * LC U n.a. (2009)

Eleonora´s Falcon * LC D 11,800-12,400 (2009) Red-footed Falcon * NT D n.a. (2009) Sooty Falcon * NT D n.a. (2009) Peregrine Falcon * LC S n.a. (2009)

Osprey ** LC I 500,000 (2009) Pallid Harrier * NT D n.a. (2009) Northern Harrier * LC D n.a. (2009) Montagu’s Harrier * LC D n.a. (2009)

Western Marsh Harrier * LC I n.a. (2009) Lanner Falcon * LC I n.a. (2009) Goshawk * LC S n.a. (2009)

Eurasian Hobby * LC D n.a. (2009) Eurasian Sparrowhawk * LC S n.a. (2009) Lesser Kestrel * LC S n.a. (2007) Levant Sparrowhawk * LC S n.a. (2009)

Common Kestrel * LC D n.a. (2009) Northern Bald Ibis **

CR D 200-249 (2006)

Saker Falcon * EN D 12,800-30,800 (2012)

5.2.1. Conservation status of species

There is one Critically Endangered-CR species, Northern Bald Ibis which has been annotated

with a medium value for using waste sites, as it primarily uses wetlands for feeding. Saker

38

Falcon and Egyptian Vulture are Endangered (EN). Saker Falcon does not normally use waste

sites and, as other falcons, could be present but in such low numbers that the real impact on

the populations is negligible compared with other threats. However, the Egyptian Vulture

makes an intense use of feeding sites and rubbish dumps. In Northern Spain, roosts involving

non breeding and immature birds nearby existed whilst provided with poultry or pig carcasses.

Muladares greatly contributed to the survival of an important part of the non breeding

population (Grande et al. 2006, Donázar 1992, Camiña pers. obs.). After the appearance of the

Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy-BSE it has been demonstrated that the closure of almost

all of the muladares led to the disappearance of Egyptian Vulture roosts.

Near Threatened species-NT: Red-footed and Sooty Falcons and Red Kite. Falcons have already

been discussed. However, Red Kite makes intensive use of rubbish dumps and also carrion

feeding sites (if they are provided with small pieces of meat and there are not other large

carrion eating birds such as vultures present). The survival of part of their populations in Spain

relies on feeding stations and associated roosting sites accounting for a high number of

individuals (Cardiel 2006, Viñuela et al.1999, A. Camiña pers. obs. 2014).

Two eagle species are classified as Vulnerable-VU, Eastern Imperial and Greater Spotted

Eagles.

28 species (75.68%) of migratory soaring birds are classified as Least Concern-LC category.

White Pelican and Osprey at very small numbers would use waste-water wetlands in smaller

numbers.

At rubbish dumps, mixing organic wastes with carcasses would attract Griffon Vulture, Black

Kite, Lesser Spotted and Steppe Eagles and storks, with the White Stork the most prominent

due to its population size.

Figure 5. View of mixed flock of Steppe Eagles with Fan Tailed Ravens at Taysut rubbish dump, Oman (Fernando del Valle)

39

5.3. Impacts of Solid Waste

Solid waste is mainly disposed of at rubbish dumps or landfills just because these sites are the

simplest, easiest, cheapest and most effective method of waste disposal. Though the storage

of waste in a disposal facility serves to minimise impacts upon the wider environment, it also

creates environmental impacts of its own that require appropriate management. Impacts of

solid waste have been largely described (see e.g. Taylor & Allen 2006a, 2006b) and they usually

include:

(1) Groundwater contamination by leachate derived from waste, mainly in case of disposal

sites located in the vicinity of sources of drinking-water

(2) High concentrations of pathogenic organisms associated with organic waste

(3) A mix of hazardous and non-hazardous waste

(4) Green House Gas (GHG) emissions from bacterial decomposition of organic waste that also

are explosive and flammable (especially methane)

(5) Bad and occasional toxic odour emissions

(6) Concentrations of fauna that may affect operations close to airports nearby or human

populations (such as: birds, rats or feral dogs)

(7) Causing injuries and poisoning incidents to people wandering and searching the waste sites

within a (largely illegal) sub-economy in recycling for subsistence living.

All these impacts are more critical if large human population are within close proximity. When

the existing waste collection and transport systems cannot handle the amount of waste

generated by large cities with growing populations, waste can be disposed of at uncontrolled

dumps or openly burned.

This type of unmonitored and uncontrolled waste disposal has the most negative

consequences on human health and the environment according to EPA (2002), and it is the

most frequent type of waste management in the area along the RVRSF (Table 4).

Impacts on MSBs can be positive, including the increasing of local bird (kites storks etc.)

populations and supporting MSBs populations of different stages of their annual cycle.

However, solid waste sites have been designed and constructed without sufficient

consideration to the range of potential impacts on migratory species. Birds that land and

consume organic materials can become entangled in waste, ingest plastic bags, consume toxic

materials, drink contaminated water from leachate or become injured by broken glass, barbed

wire and other sharp materials. All these impacts are more important in areas where natural

habitats have been largely transformed and rubbish dumps are the only available feeding

habitat.

40

5.3.1. Toxic impacts

Management facilities for solid waste constitute attraction points for scavenging birds

including soaring raptors. However, where there is a mix of organic and non-organic wastes,

foraging birds can ingest toxic substances. Along the RVRSF it is common that solid waste is

disposed in open landfills, often mixing domestic and hazardous and industrial waste where

there can be thousands of storks and raptors feeding (UNDP 2006, BirdLife 2013, and Table 4).

Within this context, rubbish dumps can be “trap habitats” (Newton 1998) to birds, because the

negative impacts are not apparent to the bird which only sees a food resource . These species

swallow toxic or sharp debris that can poison or lodge in and penetrate the gut. The low

breeding success of Griffon Vultures in Israel, Jordan and Palestine and Armenia has been

attributed to nestlings dying after eating metal objects (Ferro 2000, Houston et al. 2007,

BirdLife 2008).

Additionally, accidental poisoning of raptors at rubbish dumps from baits set to control

scavenging foxes, jackals and feral dogs is an issue of concern in some areas of the Middle East

(UNDP 2006), as it is also the consumption of inappropriately disposed poisoned animals (e.g.

rodents) at rubbish dumps (Tavares 2013). Such baits are the cheapest way to control

predators at waste sites and risks to other animals are not recognised by, or are unimportant

to, site managers (UNDP 2006).

Figure 6 and Figure 7. Rubbish dump where up to 65 raptors were killed due to incidental poisoning in Tudela

municipality, Navarre, Northern Spain (R. Alfaro 2013)

Leachate usually percolates into the surface and groundwater typically and it includes dozens

of biological, organic and inorganic pollutants. Sometimes leachate produces small and

medium size ponds within the same waste site where birds go to drink and bath after feeding

and then they become intoxicated. This can include a high concentration of heavy metals,

hydrocarbons and agricultural pesticides, including 12 Persistent Organic Pollutants, called the

"Dirty Dozen” by the United Nations Environment Programme. These 12 chemicals include

eight pesticides (aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, mirex, and toxaphene),

two industrial chemicals (polychlorinated biphenyls and hexachlorobe nzene) and two

unintended by-products: dioxins and furans.

41

Intoxications can be very serious not only locally but globally, by causing sub-lethal

intoxications during migration at stop-over rubbish dumps that could produce a global

population decrease in the medium to long-term due to reduced productivity, breeding

success and fitness (Kirby 2010).

5.3.2. Impact of diseases

Feeding from solid waste sites could lead to MSBs to spreading infection because of the speed

of migration between breeding and wintering grounds. Landfills are rich in microorganisms

because the organic content of the waste is decomposed anaerobically. Most of the organisms

that carry out these processes are harmless saprophytes, but a small percentage of the

population may be opportunistically pathogenic microorganisms coming from households,

poor managed sanitary waste, veterinary practices, industrial sites, other domestic waste

(bloodstained materials, such as sanitary pads, tampons and discarded wound dressings) and

animal waste, such as dog faeces and soiled cat litter. The potential for pathogens within this

mixture of sources is extremely high. Pathogens may also be transported to landfill sites by

vermin (rats) and other scavengers, including birds, and specially seagulls (Taylor & Allen

2006). The fate of pathogens in landfills is not well understood. Although it is generally

assumed that most are rapidly inactivated by the conditions that prevail in the landfill

environment, the potential of leachate and run-off from landfill sites to transport pathogens

into local water resources should be addressed in situation assessment (Taylor & Allen, 2006).

The dumping sites can increase the risk of disease transmission because of the higher numbers

of resident and migrant birds feeding together (Garrido et al. 2002a, 2002b). Weber (1979)

reported that birds associated with rubbish dumps could suffer from more than 60 diseases

transmissible to humans and domestic animals. In 2006 a mass death of wild birds, including

wild pigeons and vultures, was reported in Yemen (BirdLife 2013) during a “Newcastle disease”

outbreak in chickens. Wild birds died as a result of the improper dumping of chickens killed by

this disease; Newcastle Disease is now endemic in domestic birds and could potentially have

an impact on MSBs (BirdLife 2013). Dead animals dropped off at WDS may have died from

infections that could cause mortality among MSBs, including avian influenza, common in the

Middle East (Williams & Peterson 2009). Wild birds could potentially transmit diseases along

migratory routes, especially because it is expected that infectious diseases will emerge more

frequently and in new areas due to climate change (Kirby 2010), as it is the case of the avian

influenza or West Nile Virus (Epstein 2001, Willians & Peterson 2009, Pradier et al. 2012).

Similarly, other species like storks, herons and egrets could reduce the water quality of

reservoirs where they roost from carrying pathogenic micro-organisms coming from waste into

thee systems. However, it should be noted that to date pathogenic pollution has never been

cited worldwide, because (according to Serrano & Cantos (2013) most organic waste is

removed from water through appropriate management before being used by people.

42

5.3.3. Impacts from waste management

Within the RVRSF it is common to find uncontrolled management of solid wastes (Table 4). The

UNDP/GEF Migratory Soaring Birds Project unpublished report which undertook Situation

Analysis of the five key productive sectors (energy, hunting, agriculture, tourism and waste

management; BirdLife 2013) indicated that most solid waste is disposed in open landfills

around big cities and towns, whilst in rural villages waste is either thrown into open pits,

burned, or dumped into rivers and lakes, without any further management (Table 4). The

waste is often disposed indiscriminately on open fields and roadsides, with only up to 50% of

waste collected for landfill, the rest accumulates and is distributed by wind and floods. Plastics

tend to remain, which form a nuisance and a potential threat for the environment and animals.

In the wet season, waste (plastics) may be flushed into rivers together with other surface

contamination (as a result of waste water discharge). No separation of waste products occurs

at the point of collection (residential or industrial) or at the landfill itself, that are generally

poorly managed (Table 4). All these actions harm public health and the environment.

In the absence of adequate solutions, solid waste is being openly burned near human

populations in order to reduce the volume of waste. Smoke from burning may contain toxic

gases, including H2S, ammonia, volatile organic compounds and dioxins, causing health damage

primarily to people, but also to birds. Furthermore, feeding on landfills may lead to inhalation

or plumage impregnation of a variety of toxic compounds all typically found at rubbish dumps

and listed by Humprey et al. (1997), Pérez (2000) and Schmid et al. (2000). These compounds

are an issue for public health in the vicinity of rubbish dumps, include several kinds of cancer,

embryo malformations, infertility and low neonates weight (Humprey et al. 1997, Pérez 2000,

Schmid et al. 2000). Some of these toxic substances have damaged birds (Peakall, 1985,

Whitley 1989, Donázar 1993, Newton 1998) and inhalation and impregnation could affect their

fitness and cause breeding problems to both local and migrant populations.

Figure 8. White Storks; Grey Heron and Common Gulls among solid waste. Rubbish dumps are appropriate places

for monitoring of ringed or marked migrating individuals (G. Belamendía 2013).

43

Birds feeding on dumps frequently become entangled in plastic, wire, and other debris, or are

injured by metal scrap or fire. Similarly, birds can inadvertently ingest plastics, ropes and

elastic bands, leading to possible medium term fatalities away from the site, sometimes

through the cumulative effect of repeated ingestion. In Spain, deaths of globally threatened

White-Headed Duck (Oxyura leucocephala) have been found due to secondary ingestion,

swallowing elastic bands and entangling plastic remains which had come originally from White

Storks and Cattle Egrets pellets. These birds, having gathered at a communal roost near the

waterbodies, had released some of the plastic they have ingested at a local WDS during

roosting and became a risk for the White Headed Duck population feeding on the lake

(Garrido, pers. obs.).

5.3.4 Other impacts

Solid waste can also have some biological impact on MSB species. Landfills can result in the

exponential increase of some avian species such as gulls which compete and even prey on

other species.

In Egypt, the proliferation of rubbish has led to a dramatic increase in the Indian House Crow

(Corvus splendens) population at Suez and other sites along the Red Sea coast, estimated to be

up to tens of thousands individuals. Indian House Crows have been observed harassing

migrating birds of prey both flying through and roosting in the area and are thought to be a

factor contributing to the declining numbers of MSBs migrating through Suez (Nyari et al 2006;

Ryall & Meier 2008; Suliman et al. 2011; GISD 2015).

Feeding in landfills could be influencing natural selection in some migrating species like White

Stork and Griffon Vulture, allowing differential survival of those specific migrating phenotypes

as compared to other wintering in natural areas (Garrido & Sarasa 1999, Garrido et al. 2002a,

2002b). Accordingly, as Kokko (1999) suggested, in avian migration MSBs wintering at rubbish

dumps near to breeding areas will have an advantage for recruitment to the reproductive

cohort over those populations whose phenotype encourages further migration. Rubbish

dumps can thus increase the chances of survival for poorly adapted individuals and produce

artificially increasing breeding populations that would crash again if the WDS were closed or

relocated (Garrido et al. 2002a, 2002b).

Finally, hunting of birds of prey and many migratory species remains to be a significant threat

in the Mediterranean region (Giordano et al. 1998, Camiña pers. obs.) and certain areas of the

Middle East (e.g. Baumgart et al. 1995 and 2003, Bijlsma 1990, Portelli 1994, van Maanen et al.

2001). It is possible that concentration of migrant soaring raptors in some rubbish dumps could

increase the risk of illegal killing of some species.

44

BOX 3. INDIAN HOUSE CROWS POPULATION INCREASING BECAUSE FEEDING ON RUBBISH

DUMPS: LEADING TO IMPACTS ON OTHER BIRD SPECIES

Solid waste can lead to increase in undesirable carrion species such as House Crows Corvus

splendens in Middle East. This species is native to the Indian subcontinent but has expanded

its range due in part to the proliferation of open rubbish dumps. House Crows are omnivores,

scavenging on human waste and stealing food. This dependence on man, accounts for their

widespread recognition as a pest. House Crows are now common introduced residents in

many human settlements, towns and cities in coastal areas of the Arabian Peninsula and the

Gulf. Its distribution in Arabia shows a strong preference for the coastal strip, as is the case

elsewhere in its range, which reflects the distribution of human settlements on which the

species is dependent. Adverse impacts to threatened MSBs can include food theft and

harassing migrating birds of prey flying through and roosting. House crows could be a

potential vector of human disease as West Nile Fever and bird flu; because cases of H5N1

infected House Crows have been found in the Middle East, making this an important public

health issue. Introduced house crows continue to spread across the region with negative

effects on agriculture, tourism, human health, and biodiversity. Crows can also be responsible

for the reduction or severe depletion of small reptiles and amphibians, birds and mammals,

insects, fish and domestic animals (see Suliman et al. 2011).

There have been numerous attempts at controlling House Crow numbers, but none to date,

successful. It would be necessary to study specific behavioural investigations e.g. foraging

behaviour and spread of other species to combating the House Crow invasion.

Extracted information from Nyari et al 2006; Ryall & Meier 2008; Suliman et al. 2011; GISD 2015.

5.4. Impacts of Sewage

Sewage receives all types of hazardous waste from households, industry and hospitals. There

are a range of substances disposed of from modern society. Many elements such as heavy

metals, organic contaminants, pathogen microorganisms, are potentially dangerous to

environment and human health (Smith & Scott 2005). If sewage is not treated, all the afford-

mentioned substances end up in rivers, lagoons or coastal areas provoking hazardous

concentrations for humans and the environment.

Wastewater treatment refers to the treatment of sewage and water used by residence s,

resorts, business, and industry to a sufficient level that it can be safely returned to the

environment. It is important to treat wastewater to remove bacteria, pathogens, organic

matter and chemical pollutants that can harm human health, deplete natural oxygen levels in

receiving waters, and pose risks to animals and wildlife. Wastewater treatment plants (WTP)

are issued with permits permitting discharges of solids, oxygen (as biological oxygen demand,

45

or BOD), bacteria, nutrients, and other regulated pollutants on a plant-by-plant basis,

depending on their receiving waters.

5.4.1. Positive impact of Wastewater

The construction of Waste Stabilization Ponds (WSPs) and artificial wetlands for the treatment

of wastewater has been developing fast over the last decades and now represents a widely

accepted and an increasingly common treatment alternative. The many advantages offered by

constructed wetlands (CWs), such as simplicity of design and lower costs of installation,

operation, and maintenance, make them an appropriate alternative for both developed and

developing countries (Dordio et al. 2008). This is the preferred option, providing simplicity

operation and maintenance, a good level of treatment at low capital and which undoubtedly

play a crucial role as these countries strive to reduce poverty levels (Varon & Mara 2004).

Furthermore, the advantage of these systems in terms of removal of pathogens is an

important reason for its use in warm climate areas, such as within the RVRSF.

The system can also provide a variety of indirect benefits, such as wildlife habitat, areas for

educational or even recreational purposes. The wetland areas can also be used for growing

crops with direct economic value, such as biomass for energy or agricultural purposes.

WSPs and CWs can attract many birds, mainly waterbirds, working as real wetlands especially

in places where natural ones have disappeared or are scarce. The importance of artificial

wetlands can be very high if situated on migration routes, becoming outstanding stop overs

(Anika & Parasharya 2013).

In many places, limited disturbance within the surrounding habitat and the traditional aversion

that humans have for sewage coupled with the offensive odour create a relatively safe place

for the birds in and around the sewage stabilization ponds (Akinpelu 2006).

A high level of pollution of treatment wetlands would appear to be disadvantageous for

waterbirds. However, it has been found that artificial ponds with high levels of pollution over

many years can continue to provide habitat for birds, despite the still risk of negative effect on

waterbirds (Shutes 2001).

After continuous monitoring over 20 years at 300 Australian wetlands it was noticed that

waste stabilization ponds significantly supported higher numbers of birds than all other

wetland types. The species composition of waterfowl communities within waste stabilization

ponds was also distinctly different from others (Murray et al. 2012). In dryer areas worldwide

with erratic rainfall, such as most of Australia, the permanence of water makes WSPs

particularly useful for waterbirds and these findings are likely to correspond to arid regions

within the RSRV flyway. Many Australian waterfowl species breed on ephemeral inland

wetlands and migrate to perennial coastal ones for the non-breeding period and WSPs are

important refuges at this time (Hamilton & Taylor 2004).

46

Even for those areas with many natural wetlands, sewage lagoons may attract large bird

concentrations (Kipkemboi et al. 2006). The reason that so many bird species congregate at

sewage lagoons is directly related to the constant input of organic matter (human sewage). A

wetland with a high organic base provides suitable conditions particularly for the production of

many aquatic insects. Some investigations have found that overall arthropod biomass

(availability) can be higher on sewage lagoons than on natural wetland habitats. Therefore,

sewage lagoons are a favourite stopover site for shorebirds and waterfowl during migration as

they feed on the exposed sludge flats and in the shallow water (Zimmerling 2006).

Wastewater treatment wetlands are not natural systems and therefore need to be well

understood and actively managed to effectively and safely achieve the dual objectives of

wastewater treatment and waterbird habitat (Murray & Hamilton 2010).

The situation at each facility will differ, so waterbird use of some treatment wetlands may be

inappropriate, even to the point of requiring deterrents. This review has highlighted the need

for further research directed to improving our knowledge of:

The global distribution of wastewater treatment wetlands.

Means of mitigating disease outbreaks in waterbird populations frequenting

wastewater treatment wetlands.

The effect of wastewater contaminants and diseases on waterbirds.

5.4.2. Risks to MSBs

Large congregations of birds may gather at artificial wetlands from sewages, especially in dry

environments. The gregarious nature and communal roosting behaviour of many species

create ideal conditions for the transmission of disease, which, especially in the case of toxins,

can kill large numbers of birds in a single event. Thus, although birds may benefit from sewage

treatment works, these sites may also have microbial, chemical and mechanical hazards to

birds (Hamilton 2007). The range of potential chemical effects on t birds includes acute

mortality, sub-lethal stress, reduced fertility, suppression of egg formation, eggshell thinning,

and impaired incubation and chick rearing behaviour (Fry 1995).

a) Pathogenic and toxin-producing microorganisms

Botulism. It is produced for the bacterium Clostridium botulinum, the most significant

microbiological hazard for waterbirds using wastewater treatment wetlands, most

commonly ducks (Newton 1998). Higher temperatures and high invertebrate biomass,

which are common to WSPs, appear to provide conditions that increase the risk of

botulism outbreaks.

47

Salmonellosis: The causative agent is Salmonella. As a consequence of the infected

birds discarding Salmonella in their faeces, outbreaks of the disease commonly occur

in concentrated groups of birds, such as are found at roost sites (Friend 1999).

Harmful algal blooms: They mainly appear when there are high nutrients levels

(phosphorous and nitrogen particularly). Such blooms are common in waste

stabilization ponds and can kill large numbers of waterbirds (Matsunaga et al. 1999).

Avian cholera: This is a highly infectious bacterial disease. Pasteurella multocida is the

causal agent, which can lead to mass mortality of birds, particularly waterfowl. The

disease is transmitted through direct contact with infected birds, contact with

secretions or faeces or infected birds and ingestion of contaminated food or water.

Avian influenza: Avian influenza is a highly contagious disease caused by influenza A

viruses, affecting many species of birds, most commonly ducks, geese, swans,

waders/shorebirds and gulls. The viruses are passed out with the faeces and/or

respiratory secretions and exposed birds then ingest or inhale viruses and, if

susceptible, will become infected.

Other diseases: Campylobacteriosis, duck virus enteritis, leptospirosis, west Nile virus

disease.

b) Metal and chemical contaminants

Selenium. It can appear in sewage sludge. Plants and invertebrates in contaminated

aquatic systems may accumulate selenium in concentrations that are toxic to birds

(Friend & Franson 1999).

Mercury. This metal can reach ponds from industrial sewage and accumulate in

aquatic organism and sediments. Its presence could cause a diffuse mortality difficult

to detect in the case that it occurs (Friend & Franson 1999).

Lead. It is toxic to all vertebrate taxa, acting as a non-specific poison that affects all

body systems. Absorption of high concentrations of lead may cause mortality while

that of low concentrations may result in a wide range of sub-lethal physiological,

biochemical and behavioural effects (Franson & Pain 2011).

PCBs. These toxics can cause very negative effects in birds even at low concentrations.

E.g., it has been found that low-level PCBs exposure may have widespread behavioural

effects, included changes in the structure of song in songbirds (De Leon et al. 2013).

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and pharmaceuticals. This is a diverse group of

chemical compounds which can alter endocrine function in exposed animals. It was

found that these substances can be present in sewage treatment ponds and

potentially transfer to birds (and other animals such as bats) through consumption of

48

contaminated prey items developing in sewage sludge and waste water at sewage

treatment works (Park et al. 2009; Markman et al. 2011). Something similar occurs

with pharmaceuticals like the common antidepressant fuoxetine, which at

environmentally relevant concentrations can significantly alter behaviour and

physiology of birds (Arnold et al. 2014).

Figure 9 and Figure 10. Poor water management in Yemen (Source FEV/FPALY 2013).

c) Physical hazards

A less obvious hazard to birds at sewage treatment plants (STPs) is the infrastructure

itself. Steele (2008) reported a series of events in which over 700 ducks died. The deaths

ceased when a drainage structure was modified, and it is probable that they resulted from

drowning following entrapment. Such incidents are probably under-reported so, in spite

of the dearth of such events in literature, careful consideration needs to be given to

infrastructure design and maintenance to avoid unintended hazards for birds.

d) Human disturbance

Human activities in close proximity to birds may cause disturbance (Woodfield &

Langstone 2004). The lagoons and ponds of sewage plants are under continuous human

presence of people working at the facilities but also other occasional visitors attracted by

the large bird’s gatherings. These visitors may disturb the birds, which move into other

areas for certain time periods. When these wetlands are located along migration corridors

that are the only available sites where to roost, disturbance may cause a great energy

loss. This problem may not be too significant in a large scale, but it would be important at

local scale.

49

In many CWs legal and illegal hunting can disturb waterbirds. Overall, such effects are

likely to be widespread and, local effects may be significant. Large-scale field experiments

(see Madsen 1998a, 1998b, Mainguy et al. 2002) have demonstrated the potentially

important effects of hunting disturbance in depressing the size of bird populations

(examples in Kirby et al. 2004).

Disturbance may frequently cause displacement, either between or within sites, influence

feeding and resting behaviour, result in overall increased daily and seasonal energy

expenditure and chances of predation (reviewed by Kirby et al. 2004). This may affect the

condition and fitness of migratory species. However, at present we do not know of any

evidence that displacement has affected non-breeding birds at the population level.

e) Other mortality factors

In sewage plants there is frequent intense movement of vehicles. These movements

together with the large concentrations of birds may cause at the worst road kills or

injured individuals.

Hunting (both legal and illegal) is also a practice which can occur at sewage plants, as it is

the case of the Ulcinj Salina in Montenegro, a salt plant surrounded by a large local

population with no other wetland available for migrating birds (Camiña, pers. obs.).

Figure 11. Ulcinj Salina (Montenegro) a key migration point in the Adriatic Coast surrounded by human

settlements and under strong illegal hunting and tourism development pressure (A.Camiña 2011).

5.4.3. Effects of birds in sewage plants

Sometimes, the primary function of sewage facilities, which is treatment waste water, is in

conflict with the provision of bird habitat. It may be possible that birds are responsible for a

reduction in water quality, contrary to the main objective of wastewater treatment plant.

50

There are two possible negative influences of birds on water quality: nutrient input and human

diseases introduction.

Nutrient importation. The birds, particularly large waterfowl concentrations, can

significantly contribute to nutrient input in wastewater treatment ponds, especially if

waterbirds are feeding away and roosting within the plant (Marion et al. 1994).

Disease vectoring. Waterbirds that inhabit wastewater treatment wetlands are

potential sources of pathogens (Ghermandi, Bixio & Thoeye 2007). While there are not

studies reporting the vectoring of disease by birds at wastewater treatment wetlands,

waterbirds, and gulls in particular, have the potential to act as disease vectors. It may

occur through feeding on contaminated waters and defecating at wastewater

treatment wetlands to use as roosting sites. Salmonella has been found to infect

ducks. Faecal coliform bacteria Campylobacter, tick-borne pathogens, fungal spores,

and the human tapeworm Taenia saginata also may all be disseminated by gulls

(Murray & Hamilton 2010).

5.4.4. Sewage treatment in RVRSF area

The treatment of sewages within the countries of RVRSF share several characteristics. In rural

areas, most people have not access to sewage systems or wastewater treatment facilities.

Septic tanks are frequently used. Other times, there are sewage systems directly spilling into

water courses (Al-Duais 2013, Zaid 2012, Al Mengistou 2012, Atrash et al. 2012, Hashim 2012).

As a general rule, sewage treatment plants are located in the big cities. Countries such as Saudi

Arabia have very modern and contemporary facilities. Many sewage treatment plants simply

treat the wastewater with sedimentation and aerobic-anaerobic lagoon using commodious

land, and do not meet effluent standards. Wastewater treatment is increasingly utilized as a

water source. However, treated wastewater is reused mainly for irrigating fodder crops,

gardens, highway landscapes and parks. E.g., wastewater represents 10% of Jordan’s total

water supply and up to 85% of its treated wastewater is being reused (El -Ashry et al. 2010).

Sometimes, the flows of municipal wastewaters greatly exceed the design capacity of the

plants and this overload results in a poor effluent quality. Wastewater in the region is

increasingly loaded with further potentially harmful substances such as heavy metals, trace

pollutants including organic and inorganic compounds, and emerging contaminants such as

pharmaceutical substances, all of which must be removed prior to wastewater re-use (El-Ashry

et al. 2010).

Thus, through the RSRVF corridor, exist numerous both artificial and natural wetlands with a

poor water quality, which are used by the MSBs and could be a risk for their populations. Table

6 shows a summary of the existing information for the countries in the region.

51

Table 6. Wastewater Management in the Rift Valley/Red Sea Flyway countries according to Al-Duais (2013), Zaid (2012), Al Mengistou (2012), Atrash et al. (2012), Hashim (2012), EMWATER-Project (2005), FAO (2008), Abderraman (2006) and Choukr-Allah (2008).

COUNTRY

WASTEWATER TREATED

(million m3/year) MAIN PROBLEMS

EGYPT 2.971

Rural areas, most of people have not access to sewage systems or wastewater treatment facilities . Septic tanks are mostly frequently used.

Areas where wastewater treatment facilities exist, the flows of municipal wastewaters greatly exceed the design capacity of the plants. Overload results in a poor effluent quality.

Urban areas, many sewage treatment plants simply treat the wastewater with sedimentation and aerobic-anaerobic lagoon us ing commodious land, and do not meet effluent standards.

JORDAN 107

The demand for water in Jordan exceeds the available resources, and as time passes, the gap between both demand and supply is widening. The surface water resources have been developed to be mainly used in i rrigation. Dams, channels and

advanced i rrigation systems were introduced to make the best use o f the available resources . Water sources , which have not yet been developed, are very l imited and i t is expensive to make them available.

LEBANON 4

Frequent disposal of sewage and industrial effluents into the sea and rivers, followed by abstraction from the rivers at downstream level for i rrigation uses.

Most of the wastewater collected through sewer networks flows to the sea.

Wastewater generated from building not connected to a sewer network flow into septic tanks or into the rivers. Many farmers use untreated wastewater in an informal manner for i rrigation. No accurate data of the amount of

wastewater used for i rrigation. According to FAO i t could reach around 2 million m3/year. The illegal and uncontrolled reuse

of raw sewage, di rectly or indirectly, is sometimes a common practice in Lebanon as in ancient times . Re-use for agricul tural

i rrigation dominates , crop restrictions are not respected. Farmers or workers who handle untreated wastewater do not a lways follow public health recommendations and often neglect to wear protective boots and gloves

SYRIA 550 Semi-arid country with scarce water resources. The largest water consuming sector in Syria is agriculture.

The domestic water uses s tand only at about 9% of total water use (before the on-going war). All treated wastewater is reused for i rrigation.

PALESTINE No data

The total available groundwater in Is rael and the Palestinian Terri tory is 1,209 million cubic metres mcm/ year out of which 1,046 mcm/year Palestinians have permitted to use only 259 mcm/year. The imbalance of current water use translates into an imbalance in water consumption.

The Palestinian domestic per capita consumption of 35-80 l/day is far below the WHO standards, which assign a minimum of 100 l /capita/day

ETHIOPIA No data

Pollution of Akaki River Sub-basin Southern margins of Addis Ababa with high levels of pollution of fresh water sources due to uncontrolled solid and liquid

wastes discharged into open water systems. Water is contaminated by heavy metals and some other inorganic pollutants : nitrates account for the high rate of health

52

COUNTRY

WASTEWATER TREATED

(million m3/year) MAIN PROBLEMS

hazard in this area. Dissolved and suspended particulate matter (SPM) bound Cu, Zn, Ni, As, Pb, Mn and Fe are common.

Erosion and sedimentation

Erosion and sedimentation in reservoirs and lakes will bring eutrophication in the water bodies which will bring pollution. Point sources of pollution include domestic or industrial discharges via pipe connections to the system. Non -point (Di ffuse) sources of pollution include runoff from the agricul tural land and waste damping sites . Both point and diffuse sources of pollution have resulted in two problems in surface waters : eutrophication (nutrient enrichment) and contamination by

hazardous organic compounds . From field observation in Gilgele Gibe-I watershed area, the reservoir creates a new habitat for aquatic birds but on the other hand i t also creates problems of eutrophication related to erosion and sedimentation.

SAUDI

ARABIA 547

Total municipal water use in Saudi Arabia has been estimated at 2.1 cubic kilometres per year in 2004, or 9% of total water use.

Agriculture accounts for 88% of water use and industry for only 3%. Demand has been growing at the rate of 4.3% per annum (average for the period 1999-2004), in tandem with urban population growth (around 3%).

Water supply is usually not metered, nei ther at the source nor the distribution point. Water reuse in Saudi Arabia is growing, both at the level of buildings and at the level of ci ties.

YEMEN 46

Several wetlands in Yemen (e.g. Hiswah in Aden, Hodeidah, Ya rim, Dhamar, and Sanaa, among others ) have been created from sewage effluent and are highly attractive to MSBs and other migrant and resident bird species.

Given the primitive standards of sewage treatment in Yemen, the possible accumulation of heavy metals and other toxins in sediments at these wetlands is highly likely. Al though the prevalence of these materials and their impacts on MSBs has

not been studied, it i s expected that they can and do enter the food chain with negative consequences for MSBs.

The lakes and wetlands from partially treated or untreated wastewater around the big ci ties were reported as a source for groundwater contamination, which is confi rmed by other researches and publications . Some of the larger sewage treatment plants are overloaded.

The polluted wetlands attract MSBs , especially during bad weather. Thus , harmful effects on MSBs are highly anticipated in

such dirty areas.

SUDAN No data Man-made wetlands represent sewage disposals surrounding Khartoum and the ponds resulting from extracted water

during oil production. The ponds attract both domestic livestock and water birds.

DJIBOUTI 0

The main challenge for Djibouti lies with increasingly scarce water resources combined with urban population growth.

Country’s si tuation is particularly worrying as sustainable water resources are estimated at only 50 cubic metres per capita per year, compared with an average of 1,000 cubic metres per capita per year for the water-stressed Middle East and North

Africa region.

Almost all of Djibouti ’s water supply is sourced from underground wells, and most of these wells are old and close to exhaustion.

53

5.4.5. The future of sewage treatment in RVSRSF area and MSBs

WSPs are also promoted in the World Health Organization’s wastewater re -use guidelines as a

pragmatic and effective means of treating wastewater (WHO 2006) and predict significant

increases in sanitation. This has clearly implications. If increased sanitation is used as a rough

surrogate for increased use of WSPs, the expected increase in these wetlands will probably

occur in RVRS region. Most of countries in Middle East, Asia and Africa have an increasing

human population coupled with improved standards of living, which means increasing

pressure on natural ecosystems. Alteration and decrease in natural wetlands are expected in

these countries. Thus, an increase of sewage treatment plants it is expected throughout the

RVRSF together with the increasing loss of natural wetlands. This will result in an increase of

the importance of sewage treatment plants for migratory species. It is even more important in

such an arid region as the RVRSF, where many natural wetland habitats have been degraded or

lost and where climatic conditions dictate a natural scarcity of water rich habitats. With the

global loss of natural wetlands waterbirds and some species of MSB have become increasingly

dependent on alternative and artificial aquatic habitats.

These areas could also provide some economic income for local populations as a tourist

resource for birdwatching activities. Birds can be used for the development of environmental

and awareness activities. There are examples within the RVRSF (see Box 2) where

sewage/wastewater plants have become a resource for both resident and migratory birds and

developed as a tourism facility.

5.5. Impacts of slaughterhouses and other wastes containing meat

“Slaughterhouse” includes abattoirs and any place where cattle, sheep, swine, or other

animals are killed for subsequent use as food for human consumption. Options for the disposal

of slaughterhouse remains or by-products are usually considered in the following order of

priority

1. Processing at a rendering plant.

2. If a rendering plant is not available or cannot accept the waste, incineration in a facility

permitted to accept the waste.

3. Disposal at landfill.

4. Burial of the waste on the owner’s property.

54

Figure 12. Figure of the former Abattoir in Addis Ababa 2010, currently under new planning (Yilma Abebe 2010).

There are different definitions of slaughterhouses according to final products (Bos & Wit 1996)

or different meat processed products (such as canned, smoked or cured meat or carcasses

only). There are also cultural and religious considerations that play a significant role in

procedures for producing meat. The World Organization of Animal Health-OIE international

standards are compatible with the requirements of Islamic Sharia, which call for the protection

of animals against cruel practices and make specific provisions for humane slaughter. Due to

religious beliefs in certain instances (i.e. lack of pre-stunning) and lack of veterinary inspections

either ante- post-mortem, slaughtering cannot be done in adequately equipped slaughter

houses. This leads to illegal slaughtering of animals at a very high level and also to illegal

carcasses or remains disposal.

Local bodies are mainly responsible for day-to-day operation/maintenance of slaughter

houses. Most are service-oriented and, as such, perform only the killing and dressing of

animals without an on-site rendering operation. Most slaughterhouses are old without

adequate basic equipment like proper flooring, ventilation, water supply or transport. In

addition, slaughterhouses can suffer from low hygiene standards posing public health and

environmental hazards due to inappropriate disposal of waste and risk of highly polluted

effluent discharge. Slaughterhouses are classified according to the type of animals they

process, as large (i.e. cattle, buffalo etc.), middle-medium (goat, sheep and pig) or small

(poultry). They can also be sorted with respect to number of animals slaughtered per day

(again large, medium or small scales). Large ones are located mainly in big cities, the medium

in district/towns while small scale slaughter houses are scattered all over the country.

55

The different steps of slaughtering are:

Collection of blood (bleeding): there are bleeding areas having blood drains where

collection is immediate.

Evisceration: this generates the maximum amount of waste. Butchers who carry out

illegal slaughtering of animals generally dispose of visceral material in community bins

and leading to local pollution. This type of waste is required to be disposed by

adopting methods such as rendering, controlled incineration, burial, composting or

anaerobic digestion. Care has to be taken to ensure that intestines are not punctured

during evisceration to avoid contamination of carcasses.

Dressing: Each slaughterhouse should have adequate tools for dehiding of animals.

Hides and skins are normally immediately transported out of slaughtering area in

closed wheel barrows. In some occasions, the hides and skins should be spread on the

floor of the slaughtering area for inspection. Legs, bones, hooves etc., should also be

removed immediately from the slaughtering area through a spring load floor chute or

closed wheel-barrow.

Due to inadequate facilities at the slaughterhouses and scattered illegal slaughtering of

animals, very few slaughterhouses collect blood. In both the above methods of slaughtering,

blood collection is not done immediately on slaughtering and most goes down into municipal

drains causing pollution. This resource, which can be collected for making use in

pharmaceutical industry, is thus by and large lost. Due to lack of means and tools, illegal

dehiding of the carcasses is carried out even on the street (see Figure 13) which causes meat

contamination. Hides and skins are spread on the floor out of the slaughtering area whilst

bones limbs and hooves, legs, etc. are not removed immediately.

56

Figure 13. Slaughtering of cattle on the street near Homs, Syria (A. Camiña 2010)

Water is required for cleaning at slaughterhouses. The wastewater is discharged into

freshwater courses without proper treatment. It contains high levels of Total Organic Toxic

carbon (TOC) that reduces the Oxygen level in water. Other compounds such as Nitrogen and

Phosphorous (Steinfeld 2006) are released. Wastewater also contains remains from

slaughtered animals such as rumen contents, intestines or blood.

Current methods for routine disposal of carcasses include burial, incineration, composting and

rendering:

• Burial is sometimes not permitted, and its use will diminish with increased regulatory

pressures and concerns for groundwater quality.

• Incineration is a biologically safe method, but it tends to be slow and expensive and

may create air quality issues.

• Composting serves as a suitable and innovative technique and has gained favour in

areas where burial and incineration have become restricted.

• Rendering involves conversion of carcasses into three end products—namely, carcass

meal (proteinaceous solids), melted fat or tallow, and water—using mechanical

processes (e.g., grinding, mixing, pressing, decanting and separating), thermal

processes (e.g., cooking, evaporating, and drying), and sometimes chemical processes

like solvent extraction (Kalbashi & Ahmed 2004). However, under the current

development of the countries in the RVRSF area, rendering is not used or at best very

restricted, with carcass disposal at landfills the most commonly used method. This is

the case in Sudan (UNIDO 2010) where animal carcasses rejected from

slaughterhouses for health reasons and the remains separated during the slaughtering

process are collected and dispose of with municipal waste and finally burned.

5.5.1. Carcasses from illegal practices and livestock producers

Animals dying naturally in the cities are often carried away to city limits by the people who

perform the job of dehiding carcasses. After dehiding these carcasses are frequently left out in

open. Vultures and other animals feed on meat of these carcasses. This can have public health

implications and attract MSBs to areas where they come into conflict with people such as close

to airports. Losses from domestic livestock may supply necrophagous birds with high amounts

of meat from animals dying naturally.

However, carcass incineration plants usinga dry rendering process, could be provided to all

major towns to process these carcasses in the proper manner. These plants should process the

solid waste generated from the slaughterhouses as well as the places of illegal slaughter. The

products of the rendering plants are widely used as meat meal/bone meal. The slaughter

house waste can also be subjected to bio-methanation as resources recovery. In that case, a

57

balance between the food requirements of necrophagous birds and carcasses to be processed

at incineration plants is a major challenge.

BOX 4. CARCASS DISPOSAL IN SPAIN, A LONG TRADITION OF CO-OPERATION WITH VULTURES Carcass disposal has been regulated in Spain since the early 50’s, whatever its origin (Slaughterhouses or livestock producers) made the burial process mandatory. However, people saw in vultures a friendly association: they drop off carcasses for the birds and vultures reduced amounts of meat to just skin and bones in minutes. Thus, burial of carcasses was a practice constantly overlooked for a long time in Spain. Slaughterhouse remains and carcasses were dropped off usually together at “muladares”. These were specific places, usually in the vicinity of inhabited villages (< 2 km away), where a wide range of producers dropped off the bodies and remains of dead or slaughtered livestock. In other circumstances, each slaughterhouse or big farm had their own dumping place due to the amount of by product produced. For a long time, since the first breeding censuses in the 70’s, Spain is the only European country where the griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) population is quite large and plays an important Ecosystem service (Camiña 2004, Robles 2010) permitting birds to process large amounts of meat. Egyptian Vulture (Neoprhon percnopterus) and even Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus) in certain specific locations could also support this process.

Figure 14. Griffon vultures at a feeding site in 2000 in Spain (R. Palomo 2004).

However, carcass disposal at rubbish dumps or feeding sites sometimes does not have

expected results with carcasses not consumed. Reasons for this are varied, but often related to

a seasonal or infrequent presence of vultures in the area; carcasses not being appropriately

sited and preventing birds from landing or taking off. Figure 15 shows an example of carcasses

not consumed by scavengers in Northern Spain. In this area, it was not common to see vultures

between November and May, which led to animal corpses building up and a potential range of

environmental problems.

58

Figure 15. Carcass disposal from pig farms in Spain. Accumulation of unconsumed carcasses (A. Camiña 1999).

5.5.2. Impacts of slaughterhouses

a) Negative Impacts

Spread of zoonosis:

The term “zoonosis” refers to a process whereby an infectious disease is transmitted

between animals and humans or vice versa. Transmission of zoonosis usually occurs

through a vector. Up to three different categories of zoonosis have been defined

(International Livestock Research Institute 2012). Firstly,

Endemic zoonoses affect many people and animals are responsible for the

great majority of human cases of illness (estimated in a 99.9%) and deaths

(96%) and reduction in livestock production as well. Examples are: brucellosis,

leptospirosis, and salmonellosis.

Epidemic zoonosis is those that typically occur as outbreaks like anthrax,

rabies, Rift Valley fever or leishmaniasis. They are much more sporadic in

temporal and spatial distribution than endemic zoonosis but may be more

feared because of their unpredictability and in some cases, severity.

Finally, there are the emerging zoonosis newly appearing in a population or

have existed previously but are rapidly increasing in incidence or geographical

range.

59

Ethiopia is among the top 20 countries in the world; for prevalence of endemic

zoonosis (2nd), livestock keepers’ poverty (3rd) and protein energy malnutrition (2nd).

The two other countries from the RVRSF region present within these rankings are

Sudan and Egypt. Human workers at slaughterhouses have been considered as

sentinels against the spread of the Rift Valley Fever Virus (RVF) because the high

prevalence among that group (Al-Azraqui et al. 2013). In some domestic animals, the

mortality attributable to RVF can approach 10%. In addition, spontaneous abortion

occurs in almost all pregnant livestock if infection occurs during pregnancy. It is

transmitted by contact with contaminated body fluids of infected livestock during

animal husbandry or processing.

Carcasses or remains from slaughterhouses directly into water courses:

There is at least one known case of a carcass incineration plant in Spain that was fined

for dropping processed meat collected under the BSE surveillance programme into a

stream (A. Camiña, pers. obs.).

Sick animals often die near water sometimes carcasses may lay inside the water

streams or wetlands (Figure 16).

Figure 16. Carcass from a natural death decomposing in a water course. Spain (A. Camiña 1998)

Poisoning and veterinary drugs:

This considers both intoxication (unintentional) and poisoning (intentional) .

Intoxication of MSB’s is likely less common within the RVRS flyway. However,

unintentional may be more widespread because the different nature of the lethal

substances for birds. These substances involve rodenticides or poison employed to

fight against small rodents and other pest supposed species present on rubbish dumps

or veterinary drugs used for livestock treatment. The use of Diclofenac in India (Oaks et

al. 2004) reduced the population of Gyps vulture species by 99% within a few years

(Cuthbert et al. 2011). A low percentage of that drug in a corpse was enough to kill

vultures feeding on it leading to the decimation of local colonies. Within the RVRSF

60

twenty five probably poisoned raptors have been reported at slaughterhouses in

Sudan (Hasnim 2013).

b) Positive impacts:

Ecosystem services:

It is probably the best example of how MSBs in large numbers may contribute to the

removal of large amounts of meat at minimal costs for humans whilst also avoiding the

emission of greenhouse gas that otherwise would be generated by means of

incineration. In Spain, Camiña (2004) calculated that the entire Griffon Vulture

population required 23% of the total amount of carcasses (tons of meat) available in

the entire country for surviving and rearing their offspring each year.

After the appearance of BSE in Europe in 2000, the European Commission established

several mandatory regulations to the EU Member States in order to control the use of

animal by-products. BSE was considered a health problem for people. It included

control of any carcass remains from both slaughterhouses and livestock producers that

must be destroyed at specific incineration plants. The main reason was to prevent the

prion (pathogenic cause of the disease) entering into the food chain and thus the

potential spread to humans.

Carcass removal programmes were established at regional level with the purpose of

destroying corpses through incineration. Well designed trucks collected all remains

from farms or specific locations where producers brought their carcasses. In the case

of slaughterhouses; due to the higher amount of residuals generated, a specific vehicle

was devoted for each single facility. Carcass removal affected cattle, sheep, goats and

pigs. Costs of all this process was subsidized by the EU, National and Regional

Governments. This system was blamed on encouraging zoonosis spread via trucks

displacement between different locations and farmer producers, and also affecting

biodiversity by reducing food available for scavengers (Tella 2001) and increasing GHG

emissions through incineration. Robles (2010) compared the costs of destroying

carcasses at incineration plants –despite being subsidized- with those provided by

vultures.

61

BOX 5. MANAGEMENT OF RUBBISH DUMPS AND FEEDING SITES IN RELATION TO WIND ENERGY DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIROMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (CASTELLON PROVINCE, NE SPAIN)

This is an example of the interaction of several key productive sectors into the waste management. It involves EIA process, wind energy development and the management of both rubbish dumps and feeding sites for vultures involving local communities.

In 2004-2005, 265 turbines were deployed at Castellon province (NE Spain). The area hosts an important Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) population of nearly 250 breeding pairs. The EIA and preconstruction studies predicted a low collision risk and impact on vultures. Turbines became operational in early 2006. However, by time of deployment, BSE had appeared and the carcass removal programme was under implementation. Since late 2005 all livestock carcasses were collected and transported to an incineration plant.

After two years of operation of the turbines in early 2008, up to 360 Griffon Vultures had collided and a decrease in the local breeding vulture population recorded. Suggested reasons for this there were 1) lack of available food for vultures in the field because of carcass removal 2) closure of all the feeding sites –illegal or not- in the area 3) vultures had started to feed on a rubbish dump just located a less than 800 metres from the turbines. As a consequence the Court of Justice in the region decided to shut down the turbines until mitigation measures would be implemented. The existing fatality rates were illegal under the Birds Directive in Europe.

Mitigation measures involved: the sealing of the rubbish dump covering the waste to deter vultures from feeding close to the wind farm; and the opening of two vulture restaurants far from the turbines to avoid collisions and attract birds away from the site. It also included a daily monitoring programme of birds feeding at vulture restaurants, using the rubbish dump and breeding surveys to assess the effectiveness of these measures. It took 2.5 years for the developer to get the permit to put the wind farm operational again.

Since then, the vulture restaurants are provided with a 3,000 kg of pigs per week. After provision and vultures be feeding there, all the remains of carcasses such skins and bones are removed.

Figure 17. Griffon Vultures feeding from solid wastes. (M.J. Cabo 2008)

62

By 2010 the Griffon Vulture breeding population already recovered to the levels previous to the deployment of turbines. The percentage of fatalities has been reduced by 68%. The rubbish dump has been partially sealed and the number of griffons feeding there was almost zero.

Figure 18. Fatalities of Griffon Vultures (birds/turbine/day) at wind farm before and after Mitigation measures were implemented in 2008.

Sealing the rubbish dump required key decisions regarding its closure and its placement in a different location. It also affected local communities as taxes would be levied to pay for the additional costs of waste management into the new location.

Source: Camiña et al. (2011) and unpublished data.

5.6. Other waste impacts: sanitary, military, toxic and hazardous waste

As it has been described in 5.3 solid waste is mainly disposed of at landfills, and mixing

hazardous and non-hazardous waste has very dangerous consequences on human health and

the environment (Table 4). This waste type must be properly disposed in special hazardous

waste landfills, and specialized disposal or incineration may also be practiced for healthcare

wastes. However, in many parts of the world, where uncontrolled open dumps are still

common, all waste tends to be dumped together, regardless of its origins or its hazardous

nature. Given this mixture of material, it is possible for MSBs to ingest food that is

contaminated with toxic substances and succumb to poisoning elsewhere, though this has not

been recorded yet within the RVRSF. They can poison birds causing sub lethal impacts on

physiology, behaviour and fitness, so MSBs can be intoxicated along the flyway and suffering

consequences on breeding areas. This impact could be underestimated because some birds of

prey may have died from biologically accumulative and persistent toxic chemicals (especially

heavy metals) which were in intoxicated prey species. In the case of obsolete pesticides, they

are extremely toxic chemicals and are improperly stored or discarded in abandoned sites,

posing serious risks to human health and the environment. Through soil, water, and the food

chain, the pollutants accumulate in the fatty tissue of both humans and animals, and residues

find their way into the blood stream. Some of these chemicals are proven to cause cancers,

birth defects, and neurological problems (Lagnaoui et al. 2010).

0

0.0002

0.0004

0.0006

0.0008

0.001

0.0012

0.0014

0.0016

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

63

Primarily, high-volume generators of industrial hazardous waste are the chemical (includi ng

solvents), petrochemical, petroleum, metals, wood treatment, pulp and paper, leather, textiles

and energy production plants (coal-fired and nuclear power plants and petroleum production

plants) and pesticides waste. Small- and medium-sized industries that generate hazardous

waste include auto and equipment repair shops, electroplating and metal finishing shops,

textile factories, refrigerators, paint, a range of cleaning products, batteries and such

automotive products as lubricants, hospital and health-care centres, dry cleaners and pesticide

users. Uncontrolled dumping of industrial waste can be stored on permeable ground, and

aquifers underlying dump site can be heavily polluted by toxic chemicals as heavy metals or

high chloride, nitrate and sulphate compounds. Some of the countries within the RVRSF have

industries that frequently dispose of their wastes into rivers, lakes and or wetlands directly or

indirectly through the drainage lines (Birdlife 2013, UNDP 2006).

Health-care facilities can contaminate groundwater through wastes and wastewater containing

infectious pathogens and pharmaceuticals (Taylor & Allen 2006). Research institutions may

also employ solvents, other chemicals and radiochemical, some of which are very hazardous to

human health. If these wastes are dumped in open landfills, they could intoxicate or infect

feeding birds, which could be then vectors of diseases.

Military waste includes fuels, solvents and other chemicals, and with the possible exception of

high explosives and ammunition, a large number of potential organic and inorganic impacts for

these types of waste are coincident with industrial waste (Teaf et al. 2006). Military waste also

includes groundwater and surface pollution resulting from deployment of explosives in military

conflicts, including damages to industry, traffic facilities, water supply infrastructures and

municipal sewage.

Finally, plant treatment, agricultural and pest control products were used in large quantities as

defoliants or to keep strategic militarily sensitive areas clear of vegetation or nuisance insects.

And on many military properties, illegal and/or uncharacterized waste dumps were

established, so that no information is available about the chemical composition of the waste

dumped or the length of time the dumps were in use and they could be being used by MSBs

with consequent risk of intoxication.

A number of activities associated with mining operations could produce high impacts to birds

using wetlands through direct impact on groundwater quantity and quality for open pit o

surface mines, as well as oil and gas mining (via wells) because mobilization of metals and

metalloids due to low pH values in acid mine drainage, leaching of toxic substances and

activities directly linked to mining operations, often in their direct vicinity, such as

inappropriate usage, handling, storage or spillage of chemicals employed in ore treatment,

underground or surface traffic, heavy mining machinery, workshop or refining work

operations. Waste rock piles from halite mining commonly contain large amounts of easily

dissolved salt and groundwater and surface water bodies are commonly impacted by salty

waste water during active mine operations (Teaf et al. 2006). Likewise, when an open mine is

fully excavated and subsequently closed, it often fills with groundwater, forming a lake that

64

can attract waterbirds. It can be a serious problem when water with dissolved toxic waste from

metal mining is deposited in non-sufficiently waterproofed or well-constructed ponds.

Breaking toxic waste ponds can produce toxic sludge avalanches which can destroy several

kilometres of rivers and natural wetlands, affecting many species, including MSBs, as it

happened near Doñana National Park in Spain in 1998 (Box 6).

65

BOX 6. AZNALCOLLAR MINING ACCIDENT NEAR TO DOÑANA NATIONAL PARK (SOUTHERN SPAIN)

In the early hours of 25th April 1998, a failure of the tailing dam wall occurred at “Los Frailes” open-pit pyrite mine, near to the Doñana National Park. A spill of 5-6 million m3 of toxic tailings (sludge and acid water) flowed down through the courses of the Guadiamar and Agrio rivers. About 4,500 ha of agricultural land were affected by the pollution. Major fish mortality occurred and birds died as a result of consumption of polluted fish. It took a month for the river water to recover to its original state. After the wastewater flow had entered the river a major cleanup operation started, including the installation of walls to prevent further spreading of contaminants and the removal of contaminated sludge. The pH values of the soil were restored by liming and arsenic was removed by adding iron oxyhydroxides, causing a precipitation reaction.

The rupture of the residual dam was caused by a deep landslide, which provoked the movement of a certain section of the wall. Authorities also researched the cause of the disaster. Apparently the dam had a weak construction and warnings of possible breakthrough were neglected.

Ecological restoration lasted from May 1998 to December 1999 and it was made through:

1) Clean-up operations removing mechanically toxic sludge and a variable layer of topsoil (10-30 cm) and 7,106 m3 of sludge and topsoil were removed,

2) Organic matter and calcium-rich amendments giving priority to the immobilization of the contaminants,

3) Re-vegetation of Guadiamar River basin, implementing the ‘Guadiamar Green Corridor’ programme with the aim of providing a continuous vegetation belt for wildlife to migrate along the Guadiamar River basin between the Doñana (south) and the Sierra Morena mountains (to the north).The application of calcium rich alterations for immobilization of trace elements and improvement of soil conditions and the development of plant cover played an important role in the restoration of the physical, chemical and biological properties of these contaminated soils. Assisted natural remediation was used at a large-scale to solve a serious trace element pollution problem.

A few years later the affected area was apparently recovered, but short and long-term wildlife monitoring reported levels of metals and metalloids, which produced costly sub-lethal effects with a clear potential impact on population dynamics.

The cost of restoring the environment reached almost € 90M. The mining company responsible mining of the spill didn´t pay anything of the restoration costs.

Extracted information from Madejón et al. (2009), Baos et al. (2012) http://www.lenntech.com/environmental- disasters.htm#9._Spains_major_waste_water_spill#ixzz2ysGyQJ00

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6. BEST PRACTICES GUIDELINES ON ADDRESSING MIGRATORY BIRD CONSERVATION IN

THE WASTE MANAGEMENT SECTOR

6.1. Introduction and Legal framework

Due to the complexities with legal and regulatory frameworks across the flyway it has not been

possible to undertake a complete review of all legal and regulatory regimes in regards the

differing waste management sectors of concern. We were reliant and informed and direct

interested parties to the local reports by the country Birdlife Partners such as Al-Duais (2013),

Zaid (2012), Al Mengistou (2012), Atrash et al. (2012), Hashim (2012) or comprehensive

reviews for the whole region (El-Moghrabi 2014). However, we have included all the

agreements and conventions signed by all the countries (Birdlife 2014), Appendix C.

6.2. Site selection of waste disposal sites, treatment and the strategic approach:

Environmental Impact Assessment.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is the process which identifies the both positive and

negative environmental effects of any development proposal. It aims to avoid, mitigate,

reduce and offset any adverse impacts. Its effectiveness is relevant to individual projects as it is

site specific, which allows little opportunity to consider the cumulative impacts. There is a

need to consider trans-boundary issues and mechanisms for intergovernmental co-operation

at a flyway scale.

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) offers the opportunity to address cumulative and

landscape level impacts and ensures strategic development which integrates environmental,

social and economic considerations at a regional or national scale. SEA is a ‘plan-level impact

assessment’. Its purpose is to ensure that the environmental consequences of a proposed

policy, plan or programme, such as a regional development strategy, are appropriately

addressed at the earlier stages of the decision-making process together with social and

economic considerations. It provides an opportunity to incorporate the outputs of biodiversity

and nature conservation policy-making into the planning of infrastructure development.

SEAs and EIAs are mandatory in much of the world and are required by many international

donors and financial institutions as part of their loan approval processes. They are also

recommended actions under the principal biodiversity conventions (see Annex 1). A common

constraint of both EIAs and SEAs is the adequacy of reliable baseline information on the

biodiversity importance of sites (such as a site’s flyway importance for a migratory species).

The Migratory Soaring Bird Project has a sensitivity map for assessing sites of significance for

soaring birds. This map can generate al know information about soaring birds within a set

distance of the site. Please see http://migratorysoaringbirds.undp.birdlife.org/en/sensitivity-

map

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Often they fail to take into account the indirect impacts of a project or a project “area of

influence” i.e. impacts that would not have occurred without the presence of a project.

When EIAs have been carried out effectively and have identified a necessary mitigation and

compensation, such measures may not be implemented effectively and there may often be an

inadequate long-term management plan and proper post-construction monitoring. Such

problems may be exacerbated by limited capacities and resources within governmental

organizations to manage and review EIAs and for NGOs and other stakeholders to scrutinize

and contribute to them.

6.2.1. Criteria for Environmental Assessment

All projects and strategies should adhere to the mitigation hierarchy to ensure impacts are

avoided or reduced, impact assessments are essential in this process. EIA procedures and

methods generally include the following steps:

1. Project screening

All waste management projects should be screened to determine whether they are likely to

have a damaging effect on MSBs and the surrounding environment. These projects should be

subject to a detailed EIA, and then this should be carried out to the highest standards using the

most up to date best practices. Screening should consider all possible types of impact (both

direct and indirect).

Screening is generally based on the existing information and as a minimum, use existing lists

and maps for identifying protected areas and other important areas for MSBs (e.g. Ramsar

Sites, IBAs), and the most up to date information regarding the flyways and bottlenecks (i.e.

the Migratory Soaring Bird Sensitivity Mapping Tool developed by Birdlife International,

available at: http://migratorysoaringbirds.undp.birdlife.org/en/sensitivity-map

Decision makers and competent authorities should consider the entire area of influence of a

project.

The most threatening projects for MSB’s would be those which have one or more of the

following impacts:

Impacts on sites that support large numbers of MSBs during certain time in the year;

bottleneck IBAs (especially if the site gathers a high proportion of the national or

flyway population; conventionally > 1%).

Impacts on threatened MSBs species, especially those globally threatened (i.e. IUCN

Red listed) and other MSBs considered of having an Unfavourable Conservation Status

(see point 3. Glossary of species

Impacts on site that may be of critical importance because they support MSBs species

within an area that has limited alternative foraging and feeding opportunities.

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2. Scoping

Scoping determines the content and extent of what needs to be investigated to generate the

ecological information to be submitted by a developer to a designated national authority

Scoping should also provide a basis for participation and consultation with key stakeholders is

important to focus on key issues. There are rarely adequate resources available to study all

potential impacts and an all-inclusive approach can dilute key messages. However the

potential impact on the ability of the flyway to function and on MSBs should always be

considered in this region.

Scoping and impact assessment should be seen as two formal rounds of iteration, allowing the

EIA process to be adapted as necessary to deal with any previously unforeseen issues as more

information becomes available. Initial impacts will often have knock-on or indirect effects on

MSBs populations because of the interconnected processes within ecological systems, (e.g. off-

site, downstream impacts on water quality, indirect effects on prey biomass mediated through

food-chains). Secondary induced effects are also common (e.g. effects of power lines).

The second aspect of scoping is to determine which potential impacts are likely to be

significant to require attention in the assessment. This can be difficult because the actual

impacts of a project will depend on the involved species (and in some cases populations) and

this cannot be easily determined without further study. Assessment of the potential

significance of impacts will be particularly difficult for new projects, or those in less studied

regions or habitats. Thus, the scoping assessment will often need to take into account high

levels of uncertainty and follow an appropriate precautionary approach.

It is also important that the scoping process should stipulate appropriate methods for

determining baseline conditions and assessing impacts (see Steps 4 & 5). For example, surveys

must incorporate seasonality and allow adequate lead-times for the study of biodiversity. Clear

decision-making criteria with respect to biodiversity/MSBs should also be included in the

scoping statement. (See also Step 6 on Evaluation).

3. Consideration of alternatives

EIAs should include a full consideration of alternatives as thoroughly as possible in an EIA. The

principle aim at this stage is to avoid or minimise the most damaging impacts; whilst also

looking for any opportunities for positive environmental benefits.

Consideration of alternatives should not be restricted to location and flyways. All options for

reducing impacts such as the timing of construction, design, construction methods and

operational management should be investigated; e.g., the selection of appropriate power-lines

and deflectors can significantly reduce the risks of electrocution and bird collision. The no

project option should also be considered to aid the decision making process.

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4. Baseline review and MSBs population assessments

This step aims to define distribution (temporal and spatial) and their importance of MSBs

populations. It is important to remember that baseline conditions are defined as the condition

of biodiversity in the absence of the proposed project whilst taking into account likely trends.

The baseline assessment will need to assess the importance of the project site and its zone of

impact in relation to local, regional, national, flyway and global populations, and the temporal

nature of any importance, e.g. breeding, wintering and migratory seasons.

Baseline assessments for EIA should collate and analyse all relevant existing biodiversity data.

This will normally need to be supported by detailed site-specific surveys. The appropriate

design and implementation of adequate baseline surveys is therefore a key component of a

good EIA. The bird survey and monitoring methods are relatively well tried and tested some

standard texts (e.g. Bibby et al. 2000, Hill et al. 2005). It is critical that appropriate

methodologies are employed to effectively evaluate the baseline

Generally, the baseline field survey should include a minimum of 12 month to determine the

seasonal bird significance of the site presence, covering an annual cycle, with a special focus to

the migration periods. There may be justification for reviewing the needs for survey in specific

periods of winter or sometimes even summer should the baseline habitat characteristics be

extremely poor and barren. The case for this will need to be elaborated upon and explained

fully with migration periods still in need of assessment

5. Identification and prediction of main impacts

An EIA should assess impacts across the project’s combined ‘impact zone’ as estimated for all

the proposed activities during construction, operation and decommissioning. This should take

account of the geographic area affected (include on- and off-site activities) and the timing,

frequency and duration of each activity. Impacts should then be compared with the baseline

assessment, if possible quantifying impact magnitude, extent, timing, frequency, duration and

reversibility in terms of ecological outcomes.

Predictions on the effect of an infrastructure, either involving solid or liquid wastes, on MSBs

are quite difficult. The most challenging it is to evaluate those positive, negative or even global

effects.

6. Evaluation and assessment of impact significance

It is important to relate any predicted impacts to legal obligations and environmental policies.

Thus with respect to MSBs, the competent authorities should ensure that impacts will not

conflict with obligations related with international conventions and processes such as

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) the Ramsar Convention, Convention on Migratory

Species (CMS), or Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds

(AEWA) and national legislation, conservation priorities or biodiversity action plans.

70

Whichever the method employed for predicting impacts, there is likely to be considerable

uncertainty, especially in relation to the long-term and large-scale impacts. Thus, a

precautionary approach should always to be considered, setting thresholds for determining

the significance and assuming that a reasonable prediction of an impact is valid until proved

otherwise.

7. Recommendations for mitigation and compensation

Mitigation measures should normally firstly explore all options for avoiding negative and

promoting positive impacts on MSBs before resorting to mitigation measures that seek to

reduce impacts. This may entail desisting from specific activities that may be particularly

damaging. Otherwise, there may be selected or seeking for alternative locations that avoid

particularly important sites (e.g. those sites critical for MSBs) or sensitive times (e.g. nesting

periods).

Compensation/Offset is the last resort and to address any residual impacts that may occur. For

best practice on offsets please see the Business and Biodiversity Offsets Program (BBOP)

principles and criteria (available at: http://bbop.forest-trends.org).

8. Production of Environmental (Impact) Statements from a MSBs perspective

An Environmental Statement (ES) is generally produced by the proponent and submitted to the

competent authority for approval. The purpose of the Environmental Statement is to

document the results of the EIA process and to highlight key issues.

The ES should be:

Based on the best and most up-to-date scientific data.

Clearly written in a language which a non-specialist can understand.

Available for public review (including in other countries/jurisdictions where

appropriate).

It should include:

Information on goals/objectives for MSBs conservation at different geographic scales.

Consideration of implications, which, for MSBs, should describe how any identified

impacts relate to any legal obligations; international agreements (raptor MOU and

AEWA, CMS) and broader relevant MSBs priorities and objectives.

9. Decision making

This step has two phases:

a) EIA review. Decisions about whether or not to give consent for infrastructure projects

may rest on the adequacy of the EIA process or the information provided in the ES. If

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ES is inadequate, the developer will be asked to provide additional information and the

development consent decision process will be delayed until then.

b) Implications of results. EIA may provide evidence of irreversible and highly significant

effects which cannot be avoided if the proposed project is undertaken. As a general

rule, avoid pitting conservation goals against development goals. It is important to

balance conservation priorities with economically viable, socially and ecologically

sustainable solutions. For important biodiversity issues, the precauti onary principle

must be applied.

10.Post-construction monitoring, auditing and follow-up

It is important to recognize all predictions of biodiversity responses especially over long time

frames. Management systems and programs, including clear management targets and

appropriate monitoring, should be set in place to establish whether the agreed SMART

(Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound) biodiversity objectives have been

achieved.

Provision should be made for emergency response measures and/or contingency plans.

Suitable post construction monitoring of impacts on MSBs must be undertaken, preferably

using a Before-After Control-Impact (BACI) approach. Details of the monitoring programme

must be set out in the project EIA. Monitoring feedback will inform whether further mitigation

measures are required in the operational phase of the project. Post-construction monitoring

needs to distinguish short- and long-term effects and impacts and to enable these to be

satisfactorily addressed.

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BOX 7. THE PRINCIPAL STEPS IN EIA AND KEY CONSIDERATIONS FOR MSBs EIA Step Tasks Key considerations for MSBs

1: Project screening Determining whether significant impacts are l ikely and whether these merit detailed impact assessment.

Ensuring the potential impacts on MSBs are considered (including wintering, breeding and migration seasons), including whether these meri t formal impact assessment.

2: Scoping

Setting terms of reference for the

assessment. Reviewing proposed project activi ties and l ikely implications in order to des ign an impact assessment which captures

the main i ssues. Confirming consultation requirements.

Ensuring that all potentially important impacts are going to be

assessed and check that the potential zone of influence includes a l l possible impacts on MSBs. Des igning assessment to take into account MSBs appropriately

3: Cons ideration of a l ternatives

Cons idering alternative locations, designs, methods, time frames to avoid or minimize adverse effects.

Identifying alternatives to avoid the most s ignificant impacts on threatened species and cri tical sites.

4: Baseline review and Population assessments

Defining biodiversity distributions (temporal and spatial) and baseline conditions.

Reviewing existing data, carrying out surveys necessary to complete

adequate assessment, identifying key factors controlling populations and predicting l ikely trends.

5: Identification and prediction of main impacts

Identifying ways in which the proposed project activities will drive changes in

baseline conditions. Focusing on key i ssues and provide evidence if possible.

Carefully considering a ll types of potential impact, including indirect impacts and off-site impacts.

6: Eva luation and

assessment of impact s ignificance

Applying the precautionary principle and

cons idering cri teria/ set thresholds for determining significance.

Relating impacts to MSBs conservation obligations and broader biodiversity objectives. The

needs to consider temporal implications of assessment are

crucia l i.e.: migration, wintering and breeding bird issues

7: Recommendations for mitigation and compensation

Making suggestions in order to achieve “no

net-loss” of biodiversity. Seeking avoidance ahead of damage limitation or

compensation.

Identifying mitigation and

compensation measures for MSBs and quantifying their l ikely effects

and risks of failure.

8: Production and review

of Environmental Impact Statements

Producing a report documenting the results of the assessment. Ensuring the EIA

framework allows for consultation on the draft/ peer review. Making ecological data

freely available.

Checking that MSBs i ssues are clearly, objectively and accurately described. Making ecological data freely available.

9: Decision making Us ing the results of the EIA to support decision making.

Ensuring that significant MSBs i ssues are taken into account, with obl igations on the developer to implement mitigation measures

with SMART objectives.

10: Post-decision monitoring, auditing and

fol low-up

Ensuring that the results of the EIA are built into environmental management systems for project implementation and operation. Reviewing that performance against any

objectives and ensure mitigation measures have been implemented as proposed. Ensuring that there is a mechanism for

remedial action i f necessary.

Checking that adequate before-after-control-impact (BACI)

monitoring is required.

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6.3. Guidelines on Solid Waste

Solid waste management should ensure that there are no negative impacts on human health

and the environment. Solid waste management may and must be challenged to help conserve

MSB populations, the viability of the flyway to function, and to decrease risk of mortality

during migration. However, it only shall be used as complimentary of a well guaranteed and

managed network of protected areas, required to preserve MSBs.

Solid waste should be managed in order to decrease impacts on bird’s mortality, improve

individual fitness and increase safe food availability. Despite all described negative impacts of

solid waste to birds, to date most birds species feeding in rubbish dumps show high increasing

populations along the world (see Point 4). In order to ensure conservation friendly solid waste

management and to guarantee the efficiency of the conservation measures following

guidelines are proposed, including recommendations of potential economic benefits of using

well managed landfills as bird-watching localities.

Scavengers provide critical ecosystem services (Robles 2010) and can remove organic waste

safely and economically than for instance burning or burying, also preventing the emission of

GHG (see Point 4). Legislations should favour the role of scavenger birds in the management

and elimination of animal by products. These sites favour strict and occasional scavenger

MSBs along the flyway and they could be also used to recover resident populations during the

rest of the year.

6.3.1. Solid waste management guidelines

There are a lot of specific solid waste management guidelines (see e.g. EPA 2002, Schmoll et al.

2006, OECD 2007, Soós et al. 2013a, 2013b) indicating that proper waste management helps to

protect human health and the environment and preserve natural resources. Solid waste should

be managed through planning in design or improving a waste management system that

includes entire rural and urban areas and appropriate forms of collection and final disposal.

In many developed urban centres poor waste management is linked to uncoordinated

institutional setup to implement the existing policies, strategies, legislations and development

programmes. Effective legislation at national and regional levels regulating waste management

should be implemented. In addition to this, there is a need to undertake intensive awareness

campaigns targeted to specific stakeholders and decision makers. If waste management were

handled properly, it could have been possible to generate significant amount of income and

environmental benefits, including job opportunities for citizens and possible tax revenues.

Waste management policies, strategies and legislations are the basis for achieving a clean

and healthy environment for the safety of humans, livestock, wildlife, birdlife and

ecosystems.

Solid waste should be managed through an integrated solid waste management (ISWM)

approach including how to prevent, reduce, recycle, and manage solid waste in ways that most

74

effectively protect human health and the environment, helping also to reduce GHG emissions

and the effects of climate change (EPA 2002).

An ISWM firstly involves evaluating the local needs and conditions identifying the most

appropriate waste management activities. Disposal should take place at properly designed,

constructed, and managed landfills. Each of these activities requires a careful planning,

financing, collection and transport.

1) Recycling and Composting: organic materials are rich in nutrients and can be used to

improve soils through composting. Recycling reduce solid waste and number of

landfills and also leachate production. However, recycling and reuse are commonly

more expensive to produce than the items they replace and in the most of RVRSF

countries recycling is an exception, that occurs informally at landfills, uncontrolled

rubbish dumps and even on streets (Table 4). Wastepickers often scavenge and collect

materials for reusing or sale without any organization, supervision, or regulation.

Involving the local community working within unregulated waste recycling in the

process in moving toward an organized or formal water management programme

can improve both the quality of their working conditions and the local environment

creating a long-term employment strategy.

2) Disposal: In some RVRSF countries, waste that cannot be recycled use to be dumped

indiscriminately, or disposed of in an uncontrolled manner without management

(Table 4). Controlled waste disposal at well established and managed landfills can help

to improve and protect the health while preserving valuable environmental resources.

This highlights the need for engineered land fill solutions to prevent indiscriminate

dumping of waste.

. They should be far from airports to reduce risks of plane crashes with birds, and from

drinking water sources to avoid birds from feeding on rubbish dumps and roosting on

water sources pollute water. Hazardous waste should be collected and treated

separately in specialized facilities and green and organic waste should be collected

and separated from non-hazardous inorganic waste to enhance recycling and

composting and to facilitate use by birds.

3) Combustion: Another way to handle solid waste is through combustion or controlled

burning which helps to reduce its volume. However, although burning green waste

causes little nuisances, large scale open burning of municipal waste can be strongly

harmful for the health of people and MSBs feeding on these waste disposal sites

because dioxins emissions. Once generated, dioxin settles in vegetation and then

accumulates in fats, having carcinogenic effect, immunological deterioration,

disruption of reproductive ability, nervous and hormonal system breaks. The

combustion process must be properly managed because all the above.

75

However, it is important to highlight that in many countries of the RVRSF, the proper

integrated management of solid waste is generally hampered by technical, administrative and

financial shortcomings (Al-Yousfi 2008).

6.3.2. Solid waste management guidelines to conserve MSBs

Solid waste disposal sites have to be managed in order to decrease impacts on birds mortality

and increase fitness through ensuring a safe food supply as a complimentary measure of a well

designed and properly managed network of natural protected areas. Three management

approaches are proposed in open rubbish dumps (for detail recommendations, see Appendix

A):

Design the solid waste facilities ensuring safe food resource for birds. This requires to

the involvement of biologists with knowledge in MSBs ecology in the early planning

and design of waste disposal sites.

Due to economic and political situation within the RVRSF countries, a first step would

be an inventory of existing dumping places and their categorization according to

their relevance for MSBs. Such priorization would let to prioritize those locations

supposing a higher risk or having relevance in terms of conservation.

Closure of those dumping sites with poor sanitary conditions in order to produce a low

impact on MSBs populations; recommendations to preserve MSBs only can be

achieved when done in conjunction with an integrated solid waste management

approach.

6.3.2.1 Adapting solid waste facilities to integrate bird concerns

The appropriate guidelines to use landfills as feeding sites for birds are:

1) Organic waste must be collected and separated from inorganic waste to prevent the

ingestion of toxic substances, entangling in plastic, wire, or other debris, and injuring

birds. Disposal of organic waste at waterproofed sites with appropriate leachate

collection systems to be treated. According to weather conditions the oldest organic

waste can be removed to be used for composting. In other words, organic waste

(especially food discards) would be used to feed birds before being composted.

2) There must be clean water ponds available for birds providing areas to drink and

bathe. This water must be renewed periodically according to weather conditions and

old water collected for treatment with leachate. It could be even come from

appropriated waste water treatment of the leachate, such as the use of a Sustainable

urban Development (SUDS) filtration system.

3) Landscaping of the site should be designed with the use of native species of plants,

using vegetation in order to reduce the visual impact and contribute to the

76

landscape. Vegetation can provide roosting and feeding sites, and places for other

facilities such as hides, over the last five years at Council of Vitoria-Gasteiz, (Northern

Spain) promoted the use of the Gardelegi rubbish dump as a birdwatching point (see

Box 8). Hides must be constructed avoiding bad odours, never facing dominant

upwinds but downwinds.

4) Access to the landfill must be controlled to prevent injuries, disturbance and hunting.

This can be done by building a fence around the site. A buffer zone around the site-

should be also regulated in order to protect threatened MSBs from illegal hunting.

Fences must also prevent the access to the dumping sites of mammalian scavengers.

It will prevent human-predator conflicts. Similarly, fences will also help to prevent

contact between domestic birds such as chickens or ducks with wild ones in order to

prevent diseases transmission. Fences diverters must to be used to minimise the risk

of bird collisions.

6.3.3. Closing solid waste facilities and MSBs conservation

It is possible that some current waste sites can´t be upgraded to ensure they are safe for

people and birds, or are due to be decommissioned. If these sites are important for birds

closure must be managed in order to minimise impact through following the guidelines below:

1) Closure of the dumpsite must be timed to coincide with a time when it is not

extensively used. Some sites are important either during Spring or Autumn migration

while others are for wintering populations. The best time for the closure works it is

summer, when the most of migrants are out of the RVRSF area and the most of

wintering populations have not yet arrived to the area.

2) If a proper managed area has not been guaranteed by the time of the closure of a

site which is important for MSBs, a managed feeding station (see 6.5) should be

created and sustained to feed birds. These feeding stations must be working until a

new site will be created the closed dump site should through habitat restoration

create a sustainable area to be used for wildlife and used for MSBs .

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BOX 8. USE OF A RUBBISH DUMP FOR MSB BIRDWATCHING AND PUBLIC

AWARENESS CAMPAIGNS

Rubbish dumps do not only provide direct conservation for MSBs. They may serve for

public awareness and education. The development of facilities on site for birdwatching

may contribute to this awareness due to the opportunity to watch the birds while

feeding. This is the case of the city Council of Vitoria-Gazteiz municipality, a public

body from the Basque Country, Northern Spain. In 2011 they reached an agreement

with the private company managing the Gardelegi rubbish dump site. This landfill is

visited by Griffon and Egyptian Vultures, White storks, both Red and Black Kites and

many other species including mammals. The Environmental Council Department built

hides. Monitoring staff guide groups and explain the role of landfills to birds and help

to identify the species present. These birdwatching sessions have a small fee per

person (2.5 to 4 €/person) lasting around two hours. The activity was launched for the

first time in 2011 and it has had a great success to the point where now there is a need

to book places in advance.

Figure 19. Gardelegi rubbish dump (G. Belamendia, 2012)

Source: Gorka Belamendia (Pers. Comm.) and

https ://www.vi toria-

gasteiz.org/we001/was/we001Action.do?idioma=es&aplicacion=wb021&tabla=contenido&uid=u_259de4

31_142a24af9c5__7fdc

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6.4. Guidelines on Sewage

The main goal of the sewage/wastewater plants is to reduce any harmful impact on human

health and the environment. A few sewage/wastewater treatment systems are based on

creating artificial wetlands suitable for gathering large amounts of birds (Fuller & Glue 1980,

1981; Frederick & McGehee 1994; Murray & Hamilton 2010).

Traditional water treatments do not provide for birds using these sites because the type of

treatment and the associated infrastructures are not viable. Nevertheless, wastewater

treatment wetlands are a valuable resource for waterbirds. Wastewater treatment wetlands

could potentially have detrimental impacts on bird health due to pathogens, heavy metals,

chemical contaminants and human disturbance. Despite these possible adverse impacts, it is

noteworthy to recognize the value of wastewater treatment facilities as a suitable habitat for

birds. Thus sewage/waterwaste should be managed in order to minimize risks for the birds and

people. The sites can be enhanced by means of proper design, favouring appropriate habitats

and food resources. The appropriate guidelines to use develop the potential of WSPs and CWs

as good sites for birds are:

1) CWs design must take into account as much habitat diversity as possible. It will

favour a higher diversity of bird species. It will have an irregular depth, irregular

perimeter, islands, gradual slopes (for detail recommendations, see Appendix B).

2) Native Shrub planting: this can be targeted to areas of potential disturbance to

wildlife balancing the needs of a barrier to disturbance against the need to maintain

an open vista near water to attract water birds.

3) Access to the landfill must be controlled to prevent injuries, disturbance and hunting.

This can be done by building a fence around the site. A buffer zone around the site-

should be also regulated in order to protect threatened MSBs from illegal hunting.

Fences must also prevent access to landfill sites from mammalian scavengers . It will

prevent human-predator conflicts. Similarly, fences will also help to prevent contact

between domestic birds as chickens or ducks with wild ones in order to prevent

diseases transmission. Fences diverters must be designed to reduce collision incidents.

4) Carcasses from dead birds will be removed to prevent the spread of diseases . Any

carcass removal should be linked with a post-construction monitoring protocol and be

recorded.

5) In case the facility is used with birdwatching purposes, hides for birdwatching should

be designed and constructed to minimize where possible exposure to bad odours flows

according to prevailing winds in the site .

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6.5. Guidelines on Slaughterhouses

The following procedures are commonly followed when disposing of slaughterhouse remains

at a landfill. However, it is possible to adapt the disposure of the remains to benefit MSBs by

creating feeding stations or vulture restaurants (for detail recommendations, see Appendix C).

These sites need to be assessed for the feasibility of each individual location to act as a feeding

site. In the majority of cases such sites will not be open to the public).

Legal Framework

1) Governments will develop their respective regulations acknowledging the role of MSBs

when providing essential Ecosystem services. These regulations will consider the

following guidelines in such a way to establish a legal conservation framework

ensuring the working procedures of these sites.

General

2) Establish a Database of any disposal site within the RVRSF accounting for rubbish

dumps / landfills /slaughterhouses. Priority should be given to sites close to key

bottleneck points, being increased as soon as information is completed.

3) There is a need of some kind of veterinarian supervision that ensures the carcasses or

remains intended for feeding MSBs are free of medicines of poisons that could affect

their survival.

Characteristic of the existing sites:

4) The first step will be to gather information on those slaughterhouses and landfills

currently important for the MSBs in terms of food supply and timing. No new feeding

site should be established with the purpose of eliminating carcasses and without

taking into account the potential role of MSBs. It may occur that these sites will never

be visited and carcasses or by-products discomposed by other means. It is important

that during the initial stages of site selection consultation is held between traditional

landowners and Councils and the Department of Lands and planning to ensure that the

proposed site is a suitable location under the relevant planning and cultural controls. A

clearance certificate may also be required. When feasible, locate the feeding sites as

far as possible from human settlements or any water source.

Planning a new site:

5) It must be located far from populated areas, whatever their size, avoiding potential

contamination to water courses or groundwater if they exist.

6) It must be located far enough to interact with power lines (causing electrocution or

collisions), wind farms (collisions) or airports (bird strikes). Distances for each of these

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infrastructures could vary according to the flying paths of the MSBs and location of

roosting and breeding sites.

7) Feeding sites require of an open area of 1 hectare wide. This is the size suggested for

the vulture restaurants in Spain and Europe, permitting the birds safe landing and

take-off.

8) There is one single access point that remains closed. Within the feeding site carcasses

will be dropped off at a precise site of the facility.

9) All the feeding site must be fenced to avoid mammals could enter inside. Fixing the

wire underground is highly advisable to avoid these animals and also humans could

enter. However, because the presence of i.e. baboons and other primates, feeding

sites will not be 100% free of such or related easy climber intruders. Experiences of

fencing already exist even reinforced by regulations as occurs in the EU. Other times,

fences may be placed at a lower level compared to the disposal area in the feeding

site. Usually, the site is placed on the top surrounded by a steep area favouring the

MSB to enter and an easy take-off just spreading wings. The effect of fences on MSBs

does not seem a serious problem of collision.

Figure 20. Examples of fences at feeding sites. Left: fences at the same ground level as the dropping area and

right: at different level.

10) It is important that all not consumed remains be removed. The remains should be

immediately covered after each disposition with sufficient soil to discourage odours,

flies and vermin. Lime may be spread on the waste before covering to discourage

vermin. All these operations should be done in a specific area within the feeding site.

11) Perching sites: complementary measures such as the plantation of some vegetation

around the site as perching place may be implemented.

12) Censuses: All the information on the number of birds present, ages or re-sightings of

marked birds should be gathered specific monitoring programs may also be

implemented for the key migration periods.

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Operation and maintenance:

13) Carcass disposal will be managed by the slaughterhouse staff. Care should be taken to

avoid any other people could drop off carcasses, even those potentially contaminated

o intentionally poisoned.

14) The vehicle for carcass transportation will be used for the only purpose of supplying

the feeding site with food. After each disposal, it will be decontaminated and washed

accordingly.

15) The slaughterhouse will be responsible of the operation of the entire infrastructure:

cleaning of remains, fence maintenance, controlling the amount and type of carcasses

dropped off.

16) All the previous points 12 to 14 must be registered in some way (a book or other

appropriate manner) to facilitate supervision.

BOX 9. “VULTURE RESTAURANTS”: IDEAL FUNCTIONING SCHEME In 2001 the Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy-BSE changed the way of carcass disposal within the European Union. Regulations forced all the carcasses and other livestock remains not intended for human consumption had to be destroyed at incineration plants. The same had to be done with entire animal corpses from the livestock dying at farms. As already explained in this report, this changed the way of carcass disposal as it was being done in Spain. The National and Local Governments established regulations to let the necrophagous bird could continue feeding from “vulture restaurants” (feeding sites). These are ideal conditions that are all impossible to fulfil within the RSRVF but may provide details on how feeding sites work in other countries for consideration. In Europe there is a high level of Governmental supervision of feeding activity. Food provision is made either by the authorities, authorized organization (NGO) or private company in charge of maintaining the feeding site. Different levels of application of this guideline may be achieved, according to the specific country limitations within the Flyway.

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Figure 21. Scheme of the feeding site with all the elements.

Figure 22 . Different views of a feeding site. Top left: door, top right: fence, bottom left paved area for carcass

disposal and bottom right leachate collection.

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Figure 23. Different views of carcass collection and disposal at the feeding site (up), feeding site, cleaning of non

consumed remains and disinfection.

Source: Courtesy of Junta de Andalusia Local Government (2009) I Workshop on necrophagous birds. Córdoba 2009. Rafael Arenas pers. Comm.

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6.6. General Risk Assessment and Allocation of Risk and Mitigation Measures and Enhancement

Table 7. Risk Assessment and Allocation of Risk and Mitigation Measures and Enhancement

Risk Risk Mitigation Measure

Authorities and the local priv ate sectors do not possess the

necessary practical experience required f or the implementation and realization of a sustainable waste management sy stem due to the

f ollowing circumstances:

• Absence of qualif ied personnel on all lev els • Absence of knowledge f or implementation and operating,

• Absence of public awareness and inv olv ement.

• Absence of knowledge of the role of MSBs in ecological context

• Absence of knowledge of importance of sites f or MSBs

Raise and build capacity of municipalities and joint councils on solid waste management sites

Training of personnel on waste saf ety and handling.

Educational programmes on integrated waste management sy stems

International waste disposal industry engaged through international cooperation in training and f ormation programmes.

Proper integrated management of solid waste is generally

hampered by technical, administrativ e and f inancial shortcomings.

Solid waste dumped altogether at uncontrolled open rubbish

dumps, regardless of its origins, hazardous nature

Very dangerous consequences on human health and the

env ironment.

Resources constraints are mainly blamed f or env ironmentally unsustainable waste management and inadequate public serv ices

only prev ailing in dev eloped urban centres,

Poor waste management related with uncoordinated institutional

setup to implement policies, strategies, legislations and dev elopment programmes.

Solid waste management through proper planning. Waste management sy stem that includes entire rural and urban areas and appropriate f orms of adequate collection and f inal disposal of waste.

Implementation of an ef f ective legislations regulating waste management at both the national and regional lev el. In addition, undertake intensiv e awareness campaigns targeting the population and decision makers.

Solid waste managed through an integrated management inv olv ing: ev aluating local needs and conditions, selecting and combining the most appropriate waste management activ ities through waste prev ention, recy cling and composting, and combustion and

disposal in adequate landf ills. Each of these activ ities hence require raising and capacity building of local administrations on solid

waste management sites and law enf orcement in all aspects of the process.

Hazardous waste collected and treated separately f rom the rest of the waste in specialized f acilities, regulated and controlled f or national legislation. Facilities located away f rom water resources and MSBs sites /routes.

Green and organic waste collected and separated f rom non-hazardous inorganic waste to f acility recycling and composting and to f acilitate use by birds.

Abandoned and f illed hazardous and non-hazardous industrial landf ills should be cleaned up, env ironmentally remediated and periodically inspected. An ef f ective legal and organization f ramework f or waste serv ices implemented.

Solid waste disposal are signif icant sources of methane, one of the major GHG.

Legislations must include the Ecosy stem Serv ices provided by scavenger birds when remov ing meat wastes.

Organic waste would be directly transf ormed in biodiv ersity , favouring the scav enger MSBs populations, decreasing emissions of methane.

Waste sites are a signif icant av ailable f eeding habitat because

natural habitats are highly transf ormed and capacity of resilience in natural ecosy stems along the f ly way has probably been exceeded

to support the MSBs populations.

Guarantee a well managed network of natural protected areas to preserv e the MSBs.

Enhance the legal protection of at least the 28 bottleneck IBAs that support MSBs while migrating.

Dev elop and implementation of management action plans of these IBAs.

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Risk Risk Mitigation Measure

Dangerous waste sites threat migratory species; hazards causing injuries, illness and death.

Birds that land and consume organic materials are entangled in waste, ingest plastic bags, consume toxic materials, drink

contaminated water f rom leachate or are injured by broken glass, barbed wire and other sharp materials.

Increasing populations of other bird /mammal species may af fect

MSBs by displacement or transmission of diseases.

Solid waste must be managed in order to decrease impacts on bird’s mortality and f itness and to increase saf e f ood, considering

landf ills as a challenge in order to preserv e these populations.

Decrease their risk of extinction during migration but also at wintering and breeding areas.

Two main management measures to guarantee surv iv al: 1) to design solid waste f acilities in terms of being sanitary good to birds, and 2) Closure of non sanitary open dumps in order to produce a low impact on MSBs populations.

Implementation of saf e waste management guidelines to guarantee conserv ation measures, including recommendations to the potential economic benef its of using MSBs at well managed landf ills f or bird-watching activ ities.

Actions f or slaughterhouse waste management directed towards the creation of a network of f eeding stations supplied sporadically

with f ood.

Av oid the concentration of resources in a f ew places, including:

(a) the need to prov ide small carcasses, which will benef it the smaller f acultativ e scavengers

(b) prov ide f ood at times at which dominant, abundant and more generalist species are absent (c) Precise location of f eeding station to maximize their use by certain species with clear patterns of habitat selection.

Make appropriate management of open waste-water treatment plants turning waterbodies into internationally IBA’s as a result of

hosting more than 1% of the global population f or waterbirds, including some MSBs species.

The predicted impacts of a waste management sy stem, including wastes f acilities, on health and env ironment are not detected

neither corrected

Biodiv ersity impacts cov ered within the EIA process, taking into account the best practices guidelines on addressing migratory bird conserv ation in the waste management sector.

Impact Assessment processes identif y opportunities to enhancement and meet relev ant targets considering less env ironmentally damaging alternativ es to the policy , plan, programme or project and identif y ing any likely positive effects or opportunities to address

biodiv ersity targets, e.g. through habitat creation (through proposed ”MSBs f riendly ” waste disposal sites guidelines).

Waste disposal sites should not construct in IBAs or drinking-water catchments, and they should include post-operational management of sites (i.e. the cleanup of contaminated media such as soils and groundwater).

Impact Assessment processes ensure that waste management sy stem is a priority during the planning and implementation phases of a project dev elopment within the context of an Integrated Waste Management Sy stem.

EIA rev iewed f or adequacy by the env ironment gov ernmental agencies. Rev iew based on checklist of env ironmental characteristics including: •ef f iciency and capacity of existing waste management f acilities, •risk associated with waste transport, •risk ass ociated

with f uels and oil spills f rom construction equipment and maintenance, •adequacy of emergency waste disposal f acilities, •hazard to

ground water pollution, danger of rodents at waste sites, •potential f or diseases, •v isual and smell ef f ects of waste sites •hazard of

birds to air traf f ic near sewage ponds and landf ill sites and •risks and benef its to MSBs populations.

For f ull compliance with the env ironmental protection law establish an env ironmental judiciary and env ironmental police f orce that

can work to protect biodiv ersity and enf orce env ironmental regulations.

Implementing a saf e waste management will be expensiv e, low

waste f ees can not cov er costs and many countries hav e lack of adequate administrativ e and f inancial resources.

Income stemming f rom changes in taxed activ ities.

Adaptation of an env ironmental f ee sy stem, with the aim to f inancially support the dev elopment of cleaner production technology f rom the f ees collected f rom pollution.

Introduction of waste f ees and making an ef f icient fee collection sy stem.

Increase incomings f rom recy cling and composting.

Sorted waste f ractions as glass, plastic, paper, paperboard, metals, etc. are on demand in the Arabic countries and can theref ore be easily sold.

Use waste as source energy through combustion f acilities or/and installing biogas production units.

Build solid waste parks with strict env ironmental management to incorporate ecotourism on sites as part of awareness campaigns,

using challenges of solid waste sites as birdwatching tourist sites and f unding sources.

Aid organizations should consider waste management guidelines f or f uture aid dev elopment projects .

Adaptation or construction of hazardous waste f acilities should be paid under principles of “polluter pay s” and “Producer pay s”, so big waste producers industries should pay these costs.

Implementation of a good waste management sy stem will be an opportunity to generate jobs.

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6.7. Assessment and Monitoring

There is a need for an understanding of waste sites use by MSBs and how this changes over

time. Such an approach can help identify potential negative effects on birds and other wildlife

and to know how, when and where species are using waste sites.

This will help in the identification of these essential sites to MSBs conservation. It is also

necessary a post-construction monitoring at new MSBs friendly waste sites to confirm they are

safe and important to birds and that the best practices guidelines while addressing migratory

bird conservation in the waste management sector have been effectively implemented.

Monitoring should be carried out through standardised study methods along one full year. It

would include spring and autumn migration to ensure comparisons of bird distribution and

abundance among waste and natural sites and before, while and after transformation of waste

sites into new MSBs friendly ones. Standardisation in data collection allows the development

of analytical methods which facilitate a consistent approach to risk assessment, aiding the

identification of significant impacts while enabling comparisons among sites. Definition of a

best practice on both study methods and data analysis should be made and proposed by

BirdLife international.

Results of assessment and monitoring should be used to establish indicators to maintain

regular environmental audits which will ensure the adoption of environmentally sound

practices in waste management systems implementation, including the best practices

guidelines on addressing migratory bird conservation in the waste management sector.

7. RECOMMENDATIONS ON OPPORTUNITIES TO ENGAGE WITH AND MAINSTREAM

MIGRATORY BIRD CONSERVATION INTO THE WASTE MANAGEMENT SECTOR

7.1. Integrated Planning Processes

The Benefits of Early and Pro-active Consultation and Joint Working

Any conflict between stakeholders must be solved through communication. Awareness and

agreement for successful policies on the waste management sector must be implemented.

Within this context, the role of BirdLife International could be essential to work closely with

developers and policy-makers to promote MSBs-friendly waste disposal sites (WDS). The

private sector should approach the BirdLife Partners before making a project proposal to find

out if there are likely to be significant impacts on birds and other biodiversity. The public

sector should transform existing non-sustainable WDS according to these best practices

guidelines involving all related stakeholders.

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Developers, scientists and government institutions should work pro-actively with relevant

stakeholders, leaded by BirdLife International, to give tools to implement these guidelines.

Among problems to address early and pro-active consultation and joint working are:

Limited technical infrastructure, plans and strategies.

Limited human capacities and financial resources.

Lack of incorporation of stakeholders as complete partners in the conservation and

waste management responsibilities Lack of awareness about the importance of MSBs

and even biodiversity and most projects use to be performed without an EIA.

The main tools to solve these problems should be application of appropriated legal framework,

accurate guidelines on EIA, financial support and capacity building. It is first necessary to

achieve that all stakeholders understand and agree the goals and benefits of getting a MSBs-

friendly waste management. Active engagement could help to build capacity in institutions and

developers to improve implementation of law and best practices and also by providing training

and advice). According to Khatib (2011), it is clear that most of the generated solid waste

constituencies in most countries of the area are decomposable and recyclable, so if properly

managed, such solid waste would provide high opportunities for the development of the socio-

economy of the countries, but also it would contribute to conservation of MSBs populations.

It should be clear in the process of planning and consultation that waste management shall:

Ensure optimal use and protection of the environment.

Clarify roles and responsibilities and separation between regulatory, monitoring, and

executive duties.

Clarify roles of each stakeholder.

Facilitate availability of information and the transport exchange among stakeholders

involved.

Ensure transparency of institutional, financial, monitoring, and administration systems.

Implement the principles of a) “polluter pays”, b) self funding and providing services at

reasonable prices to people and c) economy scale in planning and developing the

services.

Create incentives to encourage successful practices.

Penalize parties that do not adhere to appropriate procedures in dealing with solid

waste.

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At project level, developers should start their engagement with relevant stakeholders as early

in the development process as possible, especially with Birdlife International, to identify

conflicts at different sites, some of which may not be apparent to the developer. They can also

give advice on the baseline required surveys and suitable methodologies for impact

assessment. If potential conflicts are identified at an early stage it is much easier to avoid or

mitigate, or if necessary, avoid problematic sites altogether. Governments need to l

incorporate EIA as a priority during the planning and implementation phases of development

projects within their boundaries to prevent or minimize the adverse impacts that may result

from such projects.

Adopting such an approach makes development proposals more feasible, reduces unnecessary

cost and delay, reduces risks of negative publicity and potentially forges long-term progressive

relationships between industry and stakeholders to get a MSBs-friendly waste management.

7.1.1. Identifying stakeholders

Stakeholder’s analysis was already made in UNDP (2006) and El-Moghrabi (2014) in each of the

eleven countries within the RVRSF.

The major stakeholders can be grouped into the following categories: national, regional and

local authority, national and non-governmental organizations, service users and local

community groups, private formal and informal sectors (consultancies, waste management

business and tourist based on bird-watching enterprises) and donor national and international

agencies (especially UNDP and World Bank).

For waste management to be effective all the stakeholders should consider their

responsibilities adopting and playing decisive roles. Furthermore, there is a high need for co-

ordination of activities between them in the process of planning, implementation, monitoring

and evaluation of projects and development programs.

7.1.2. Decision-Making regarding Projects within the Rift Valley Red Sea Flyway

corridor affecting designated sites (IBAs and EBAs)

The impact assessment for a WDS project will inform the decision-making process, in terms of

whether consents should be given or not, and in terms of what mitigation, and potentially

compensation, should be required as conditions according to the best practices guidelines on

waste management sector (see point 6).

In this framework, any waste disposal site project should not be included in any designated

site, especially those designated as IBAs (Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas) or along the

RVRSF corridor, being vital that the precautionary principle of not to damage MSBs and their

habitats is applied in decision-making. If it is not possible to select alternative sites to dispose

or manage waste, then the Decision-Making process must require compensatory measures to

be secured to protect the overall coherence of the goal for which an IBA was designated. Any

89

permitted damage to designated sites is therefore fully justified only as a last option, after

trying all other options to protect the site in situ.

7.1.3. Adaptive Management Frameworks

When a MSBs-friendly WDS is constructed, decision-makers should require monitoring of the

efficacy of those measures through post-construction monitoring. Ideally, an iterative

mechanism or ‘adaptive management’ should be adopted if the proposed adaptation and

mitigation are not effective as previously predicted. For further guidance on this approach see

Morrison-Saunders et al. (2007).

The adaptive management process only can be effectively implemented if all stakeholders

share relevant information, in order to take into account MSBs-friendly waste management.

Increased information exchange that is undertaken effectively may lead to greater

opportunities for prevention problems and impacts.

To carry out an effective adaptive management it should be recommended the choice of

indicators focusing on measuring changes in the degree of use of WDS of MSBs after

implementation of the best practices on waste management and measuring changes in the

number of MSBs-friendly WDS in each country of the along the Rift Valley/Red Sea flyway

corridor.

7.2. Framework to identify good waste disposal sites.

Solid Waste Facilities

Landfills should be managed as a part of an integrated solid waste management

(ISWM) including how to prevent, recycle, and manage solid waste in ways that most

effectively protect human health and the environment, helping also to reduce

greenhouse gas emissions and slow the effects of climate change

Landfill should be located in waterproof geological sites (or sealed by soil liner and

artificial membrane), preventing or keeping to minimum vertical percolation of

leachate into the ground, to prevent groundwater contamination.

Organic waste should be collected and separated from inorganic waste; food discards

should be used to feed birds in safety points and the oldest organic waste should be

removed to be composted.

Hazardous waste should be collected and treated separately from the rest of the waste

flow in specialized facilities and this should be regulated and controlled by national

legislation. Similarly, green and organic waste should be collected and separated from

non-hazardous inorganic waste to facilitate recycling and composting and to ensure

use by birds.

90

There should be clean water ponds to birds can drink and bath, which should be

periodically cleaned and water should be refilled and renewed.

The perimeter of STP should be fenced to prevent the access of scavenger mammals

and the contact between domestic and wild birds in order to prevent diseases

transmission. Fence diverters should be designed to prevent collision incidents.

The access to the landfill should be controlled to prevent injury, illegal dumping and

hunting to avoid disturbing and killing birds.

The control of rodents and insects populations should be conducted through non-

poisoning methods in order to avoid secondary damage on MSBs.

Dead birds should be removed in order to prevent diseases transmission

The vegetation structure near and around dump site should manipulate to avoid visual

impact on the landscape and to attract potential birdwatching tourists. Birdwatching

infrastructures should be designed and constructed to avoid disturbing of MSBs, avoid

bad odours (never with dominant upwind but downwind) and avoid the watching of

rubbish, leachate and gas collections systems watching.

Water Waste Facilities

CWs should be designed to increase diversity of habitats and birds.

The vegetation structure near and around CWs should be manipulated to avoid

disturbing of birds and provide them roosting and breeding sites. New plantations

require from autochthonous species and well adapted to the environment in the area.

They will act as visual and noise screens against disturbances. At the quietest and

safest places other species providing shelter and roosting or even breeding areas for

other birds. For this purpose, islands are the most suitable places.

The access to the CWs should be controlled to prevent the access of mammalian

predators and injury, illegal dumping and hunting to avoid disturbing and killing birds.

The perimeter of CWs should be fenced to prevent access to scavenger mammals and

restrict contact between domestic and wild birds in order to prevent disease

transmission.

Hunting around CWs should be regulated and controlled in order to protect

threatened MSBs.

Dead birds should be removed in order to prevent diseases transmission.

An epidemic-surveillance program might be implemented to detect emerging diseases.

91

There might be control of generalist bird’s populations and also invasive species.

The control of rodents and insects populations should be conducted through non-

poisoning methods in order to avoid secondary poisoning on MSBs.

Birdwatching infrastructures should be designed and constructed to avoid disturbing

of MSBs.

Slaughterhouses and carcass disposal

Feeding sites should be exclusively used for that purpose. No other waste can be

disposed at these locations

All disposed carcasses should be free of pathogens, toxins, antibiotics and veterinary

drugs.

Mechnasims should be enhanced to be easy, fast and secure in terms of health

transportation favouring the disposal of carcasses from slaughterhouses to livestock

producers, i.e. providing with specific vehicles. Access to the site must be locked / not

allowed for all other people not working there or the public.

The perimeter of the feeding sites should be fenced to prevent access to scavenger

mammals in order to prevent diseases transmission.

There must be a periodical cleaning of the unconsumed remains (bones and skins and

other non digestible material). For this purpose a pit would be advisable for burning

and subsequent burial of this waste.

Scrub vegetation around the feeding sites, should be encouraged and enhanced to

provide roosting areas for birds feeding at the site.

The extent of meat deposited needs to consider fluctuations in presence of scavenging

birds and be managed accordingly to avoid non- consumption of meat.

No hunting activity will be allowed in a buffer zone area around the site to ensure the

protection of birds attracted to the site; a wheel wash area is advisable according to

the feeding site characteristics but considering the climate conditions.

If feasible, birds should be provided with water for drinking in a suitable site, avoiding

any risk of contamination from the contaminated meat.

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7.3. Bird watching s at properly managed waste disposal sites on the Rift Valley Red

Sea Flyway corridor

The large numbers of MSBs attracted to WWTPs and landfills have potential to become a

tourist resource through the spectacle of birds that can attract both birdwatchers and a

broader spectrum of tourists. Thus, some countries use the WWTPs as bird watching sites and

there are specific programs and facilities. In the RVRSF the Aquba Bird Observatory (Box 2) of

Jordan is outstanding, as there is an infrastructure and a specific plan to develop Bird watching

tourism. Waste sites are often visited by travelling birdwatchwers to watch concentrations of

birds.

Any birdwatching initiative could lead to the following benefits:

Generate economical revenues for local communities, organizations and authorities

managing Waste Disposal Sites with conservation purposes.

Providing alternative employment and income opportunities for local communities.

Increasing awareness towards the conservation of MSBs, both among local and tourist

community.

Develop environmental educational programmes on waste management and MSBs

conservation.

There is the potential to create a network of MSBs observatories at different WDS along

RVRSF, forging links with other plants and the promoting the flyway concept and the need to

conserve MSBs to visitors The inclusion of WDS within a network of MSBs observatories,

forging partnerships with other sites along the flyway should be an aspiring criteria for MSB

friendly waste disposal site and Birdlife partners can help to facilitate this process.

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8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We want to acknowledge the following people and/or organizations for their help providing

with documents and information regarding any aspects related with the MSBs in the RVRSF

and wastes: Richard Porter for some comments and introducing us with FEW (the Foundation

for Endangered Wildlife) Yemen, especially to David Stanton. Yilma Abebe from the ETHIOPIAN

WILDLIFE AND NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY (EWNHS) for meeting him in person, the information he

provided to us and the authoring of several of the pictures. Ibrahim Alhasani, former Regional

Officer of the Migratory Soaring Birds Project provided with the most updated reports for the

individual countries.

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10. USEFUL WEBSITES

10.1. Websites

BirdLife International www.birdlife.net/sites/index.cfm

Sensitivity Map for MSBs http://maps.birdlife.org/MSBtool

AEWA (Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds) www.unep-aewa.org Migratory Soaring Birds Project http://migratorysoaringbirds.undp.birdlife.org/en

United Nations Environment Programme-World Conservation Monitoring Centre http://www.unep-wcmc.org/ Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) www.ramsar.org http://ramsar.wetlands.org/

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals www.cms.int

10.2. Online reports (Environmental Assessment)

European Union Guidance on the Application of the Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure for Large-scale Transboundary Projects. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/eia/pdf/Transboundry%20EIA%20Guide.pdf

Convention of Biological Diversity (COP) Impact assessment: Voluntary guidelines on biodiversity-inclusive impact assessment (COP 8 Decision VIII/28). http://www.cbd.int/decision/cop/default.shtml?id=11042

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) Impact Assessment and Migratory Species (Resolution 7.2) http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/eia/documents/CMS/CMS_RES_7_02_Impact_Assessment_en.pdf

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International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA) Biodiversity in impact assessment http://www.iaia.org/publicdocuments/special- publications/SP3.pdf?AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1 Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird (AEWA) Guidelines on how to avoid, minimize or mitigate impact of infrastructural developments and related disturbance affecting waterbirds. AEWA Conservation Guidelines No. 11. http://www.unep-aewa.org/sites/default/files/publication/cg_11_0.pdf Guidelines on the development of ecotourism at wetlands. AEWA Conservation Guidelines No. 7. http://www.unep-aewa.org/sites/default/files/publication/cg_7new_0.pdf