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Fear, joy, power: How crowds affect usBritain’s child armyBlood on the tracks

Editorial

Speaking ( ) Recycling:Workinprogress 3

( ) Totalrecall 4

( ) Preachyourchildrenwell 6

Writing ( ) Advertisements 8

( ) Britain’schildarmy 10

( ) Advertisements 12

reading Bloodonthetracks 14

Mindtomind 16

Fear,joy,power: Howcrowdsaffectus 18

Breakingthechains 21

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Researchshowsthatweareobsessedbycelebrities.Wedonotjustspendmoretimethanevertalkingaboutcelebrities,wealsoregardthemasrolemodels.Theyaresaidtoformournew‘socialconscience’.WendyCarlisleandMarkChestertalkaboutthepossiblenegativeeffectsthatnewformsofcelebritycharity,forexampleinter-countryadoptions,mayhave.

Helloeveryone,

Sittingexamsisastressfulandnerve-rackingbusiness,especiallywhenyoucan’tprepareforatestbylearningfactsbyheart.Languageexamsareanotoriousexampleoftestsforwhichpreparingisoftendifficult.Howdoyouknowyou’rereadyforanoralexamorareadingcomprehensiontest? Practisingistheonlythingyoucando.ThisExamIssueofWaspReporterisspeciallydesignedforyoutopractiseyourlanguageskillsandprepareforyourfinaltests. IntheSpeakingSectionofthisMagazineyou’llfindatextaboutrecyclinginLondonandBerlin.Therearealsotextsaboutapersonalblackboxrecorder,andhomeschoolingintheUnitedStates.Hopefullythesesubjectswillgiveyouenoughinputtoputapresentationtogetherorholdadebate(seeStudentFile). TheadvertisementsintheWritingSectionshouldprovideamplepossibilitytopractiseyourwritingskills.AndforyourfinalexamattheendofthisschoolyearyoucanprepareyourselfwiththehelpofthetextsintheReadingSection. Havingworkedthroughthisissue,youwillhopefullyfeelmoreconfidentaboutsittingyourexams.Anddon’tforget:practicemakesperfect!

Johan Graus,Editor

Contents

( )International Herald Tribune

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Speaking

Whyrecycle?Itiscostly,time-consumingandtakesmoreeffortthansimplychuckingallthewasteintoasinglebin. Nonetheless,overthelasttwodecades,recyclinghasbecomethenormintheWesternworld.Citizenspayhighertaxestocoverthecosts;municipalitiesenforcerecyclingregulationsandrefusetopickupthegarbageofhouseholdsthatdonotcomply. Asfortheactualprocess,theInternational Herald Tribunedecidedtoboardagarbagetruckinafewcitiestoseefirsthandwhathappensoncepeoplestashtheirtrashinarecyclingbin.Whatemergesisaglobalworkinprogress.

Beth Gardiner

LONDON–RichmonduponThames,awealthy,park-dottedboroughofwestLondon,hasmaderecyclingapriorityasBritainstrugglestosheditsreputationasoneofWesternEurope’sworstrecyclers. Residentsleavecansandglassinblackplasticboxesalongthestreets;papergoesintoreusablebluebags.Twocrewmembersgathertherecyclingintobigredbinsthattheyhandintotheirtruck,whileathirdsortsitintotherightcontainer.Adifferenttruckcollectssmallgreenbinsfilledwithkitchenwasteforcomposting.Plasticsarenotpickedupyetbutcanbeleftatdrop-offcentres. ThecrewIaccompaniedpickeduppaper,bottles,jars,andcansandwentontoasortingcentreinRichmond.Allthematerialissoldtorecyclingcompanies.GlassgoestoaplantinHarlow,northeastofLondon,tobemadeintonewbottlesandjars.PaperheadstoWirral,nearLiverpool.AluminiumcansaresenttoCheshireandwillagainholdbeerandsoda. Britainexportsabouthalfofitsplasticwaste.MuchissenteastonthesameshipsthatdeliverChineseimportstoBritain.BecauseEuropesellsfarlesstoAsiathanitbuys,cargovesselshavelittletocarryonthereturnjourneys,andtheytakewastematerialtoAsiaatdiscountedrates.DestinationsincludeIndiaandSouthKorea,aswellasChina. London’s33boroughspayfortheirownrecycling,somewithhelpfromthenationalgovernment.Richmondearnsenoughfromsellingitsrecyclables,about£600,000ayear,or$1.17million,tocoverabouthalfthecostofcollectionandprocessing.

andreas tzortzis

BERLIN–Germansseparatetheirtrashwithanearnestnessandconvictionthatoftenconfoundsnewcomers.Therearebinsforpaper,compost,andgeneraltrash,andthreebinsforglass–clear,green,andamber.Sincethemid-1990s,therehasalsobeenayellowbinforplastic,metalsandpackaging.Sevenbinsinall. Onachillymorning,IaccompaniedacrewpickingupyellowbinsineastBerlin.ThebinswerefittedontothebackofaMercedes-issuetruckoperatedbyAlba,aprivaterecyclingcompany.Atthepressofabutton,thebinstippedintoacompactor.Milkcartons,yogurtcups,aluminiumcans,andbottlesspilledout. WetooktheloadtoanAlbaplantontheoutskirtsofBerlin–Germany’smostmodernrecyclingfacility.Computer-guidedinfraredscannersseparatethetonsofrecycledmaterial;itisthencompactedintodifferenttypesofbales:plastics,metals,packaging,andmaterialthatcanbeusedforalternativefuel. Recyclingcompaniespayuptoe200abaleforthematerial.Glassismelteddownandreshapedintobottlesandjars.Paperandpackaginggetsreprocessed,muchgoingtotheBerlinnewspapermarket.Plasticisgroundintolittlelentil-sizedpiecesthatcanbeusedfornewproducts,fromlicense-plateholderstocoathangers. Consumersfootthebillforthisbypayingalittleextraforrecyclablepackaging.Buttheyseemhappytodoso.Inthisnationofrecyclingpioneers,9outof10Germansclaimtoseparatetheirtrash,accordingtoa2004studybytheAllensbachInstitute.And65percentthinkitisbadifaneighbour,evenanewcomer,doesn’tusetheyellowbinproperly.

Much plastic waste gets exported to Asia Residents sort trash

into 7 different bins

Recycling: Work in progress

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Exam Issue Volume 6 Exam Issue Volume 6

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Total recallAre you hopeless at putting names

to faces? Or do you just wish you

could remember what you got up

to at your last birthday party? The

solution could be to record your

entire life digitally

By ian taylor

You’llneverforgetanotherweddinganniversary.Infact,you’llneverforgetanything,everagain.That’sbecauseinthenextfewdecades,you’llbeabletostoreallyourmemoriesonadevicewhichissmallenoughtoweararoundyourneck. Abitlikeapersonalblackboxrecorder,thegadgetwillrememberanythingyoukeepindigitalform.Itmightcarrythefootageyourfathertookonthedayyouwereborn.Yourelectronicschoolreports.Yourhealthrecordsandyourbankstatements. Thisisnotthefutureaccordingtosomestarry-eyedsciencefictionwriter.It’swhatagroupofUKscientistsrealisehasalreadybegun.MemoriesforLife(M4L)isanetworkofresearchersthathavespentthelasttwoyearsswappingnotesonwhattodowiththegrowingbulkofinformationwekeepindigitalform.

Shrinking memory‘Thisisallhappeningrightnow,’saysProfNigelShadbolt,theM4Lnetwork’sprincipalinvestigator.‘There’smoreandmoreinformationgoingdigitalandthetechnologytostoreitisshrinkingatthesametime.’

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recognitiontechnology.Oryoumightbecarryingsomekindofsensorthatbeamsoutwhatyouwantmetoknow.’ Similarly,elderlypeoplesufferingwithshort-termmemorylosscouldhaveadevicethatrememberstheirdailyroutineandgivesreminderswheneverthey’reneeded.Artificialmemorydevicesofferhugepotentialforthehealthcaresector.Electronicdiagnosissystemscanalreadyputhumandoctorstoshame.Alltheyneedisenoughdataaboutapatient.‘Clearly,we’removingintoaworldwherehealthinformationandbiosignalsarebeingcollected,’Shadboltsays.‘That’shappeningnowforathletesintraining,orpeoplecarryingcertainmedicalrisks.Butinthefuture,wecanimagineeveryoneroutinelycollectingalifetimeofbiophysicaldata.’ Collectingdata,then,willnotbeaproblem.Storingitshouldalsobeeasy.Butthewaythisinformationisused–whetherit’smedical,business-relatedorcompletelybanal–raisesanumberofquestionsaboutmanagingsuchvastdatabanks.Copyrightgetsverymurkywhendigitaldataispublishedenmasse.Andthedangersofidentitytheftareheightenedwhenthere’ssomuchpersonalinformationoutthere. There’salsotheissueofprivacy.Ifeverything’sconnected,justwhowillhaveaccesstoyourdigitalmemories?Andshouldyoubeallowedtokeepdigitalmemoriesofothers?Thepolicecouldevenfollowdigitalfootprintswhenhuntingcriminals,presentingdigitalmemoriesasevidenceincourt.

You’re being watched It’sclearlyasensitiveissue.In2004,LifeLog,aUSresearchprojectnotdissimilartoMemoriesforLife,wasshutdown.Ittoohadbeguninvestigatingtheplausibilityofrecordingeverythingaboutapersonindigitalformat.Buttherewasoutrage.Civillibertycampaignerspouncedontheproject,claimingittoyedwithtechnologythatBigBrothercouldusetokeeptabsoneveryone. ToensurethatM4Lisnotderailedbysimilarconcerns,thenetworkisactivelydiscussinghowprivacyandrightscanbeprotected.OnemantoaskwouldbeGordonBell.HehasmoredigitalmemoriesthananyoneelseonEarth.Since1998,theseniorMicrosoftresearcherhasdiligently

recordedhisentirelifeforaprojectcalledMyLifeBits. Allhisphotosanddocumentsarescannedandsaved,andconversationsaretakendownonarecorder.Hiscomputerretainsallemails,webpagesandinstantmessages,andevenhismouseandkeyboardactivityisremembered.Aroundhisneck,Microsoft’sprototypeSenseCamautomaticallytakesphotosthroughoutthedaytoprovideavisualrecord. Thetroubleis,whenyou’vegotthatvolumeofinformation,howdoyoutrawlthroughitandpickoutwhat’suseful?Orsentimental?SothebiggesttechnicalchallengeforBell–andtheentireM4Lmovement–ismanagement.Andofcourse,weneedtoolsthatletusfilter,orevenforgetthemostbanalinformation.Anythingthatwillmakeyourdigitalliveseasiertoorganise,retrieveandre-presentforourselvesandothers.Because,ifnothingelse,digitalmemorieswillgiveusthechancetoleaveabitofourselvesbehind.

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The memory machineResearchers in the US are developing brain implants to help store memories

WhiletheMemoriesforLifenetworkcontemplateshowwerecordourlivesasdigitaldata,othersareinvestigatingamoredirectfusionbetweenmemoryandtechnology.ResearchersintheUSaredevelopingasiliconchipdesignedtoreplacetheregionofthebrainresponsibleforcreatingmemories. Theimplantwouldinteractdirectlywithneuronsinthehippocampus,thepartofthebrainwhereshort-termmemoriesarereprogrammedforlong-termstorage.Whenthehippocampusisdamaged,asinstrokecasesorAlzheimer’sdisease,patientslosetheabilitytoformlong-termmemories.Thechipcouldbypassthedamagedtissue,processtheelectricalsignalsitselfandrestoresomelong-termmemoryfunction. That’sthegoalofProfTheodoreBergerworkingattheUniversityofSouthernCalifornia.Bystudyingtheneuralcircuitryinthehippocampus,heandhisteamhavedevisedmathematicalmodelsforthewayneuronsprocesselectricalsignals.Themodelsallowthechipimplanttoacceptasignalandprocessitinthesamewayashealthytissue. Bergerhasalreadyprovedthiscanwork.In2004,histeamusedthechipwithslicesofratbrainkeptaliveinnutrients.Theimplantstimulatedneuronsinthetissueandelectricaloutputpatternswerethencomparedwiththerealthing.Theywere95percentaccurate. Nowtheplanistoreplicatetheresultsinliverats,andtheninmonkeys.Eventually,Bergerbelievesitwillbepossibletoreplacedamagedhumanhippocampustissuewithanimplant.Butheadmitstheprocessiscomplex:‘Wewillhavetouseachipsmallenoughtobesurgicallyandstrategicallyplacedinaparticularlocationofthebrain.’

FIND OUT MORE www.memoriesforlife.org BackgroundinfoandpaperstromtheM4Lnetwork

http://tinyurl.com/yuw�b� GordonBell’sMyLifeBitsproject

www.neuralprosthesis.comTheodoreBerger’sresearchintobrainimplants

www.bbc.co.uk/radio�/ memory/BBC’sMemoryExperience

!

Moore’sLawstatesthatthenumberoftransistorsyoucanpackonacomputerchipdoubleseverytwoyears.It’sheldtrueforthelastfourdecadesandshowsnosignoflettingup.‘In20years,adevicethesizeofasugarcubewillbeabletostorealifetimeofvideoimages,’Shadboltsays. Ofcourse,peoplewon’tnecessarilywanttorecordeverywakingmomentonvideo.ButfortheM4Lcrowd,theveryprospectraisesendlesspotentialforotherapplications.Thegoalnowistodevelopactualproductsthatmakeinnovativeuseofourdigitalmemories.

Oiling social cogs There’salsotalkofinnovativeeducationtoolsandvirtualrealityreplaysofsportingeventsorbirthdayparties.Yetsomeofthemostobviousideasarethosedesignedtogiverealmemoriesalittleelectronicback-up. ‘Iwanttobuildamemoryaid,’saysProfWendyHall,anotherM4Lnetworker.‘SomethingthatwilltellmewhoyouarewhenImeetyou.Imightneedapictureofyou,sothedevicecanspotyouviaface-

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Exam Issue Volume 6 Exam Issue Volume 6

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� Exam Issue Volume 6

Christian conservatives want to empty America’s classrooms. They want kids educated at

home, where they are free to use the Bible as the ultimate science reference book – and so

shape the next generation of conservative leaders

By amanda gafter

PatrickHenryCollegelookslikeatypicalAmericanliberal-artscollege.Itscurriculumisfarfromtypical,however,andanythingbutliberal.Witnessthebeginningofthislectureonfaithandreason.Asthespeakertakestothepodium,severalstudentssilencetheircellphones.OneputsdownhiscopyofThe Wall Street JournalandtakesouthisBible.TheybowtheirheadsandpraytoJesus,thenstandupandsingahymn.Eventually,thespeakeraddressesthecrowd. ThestudentsareallevangelicalChristiansandmostofthemwereschooledathomebeforearrivingatPatrickHenry–acollegecreatedespeciallyforthem.Theyarepartofalarge,well-organisedmovementthatisempoweringparentstoteachtheirchildrencreationistbiologyandotherunorthodoxversionsofscienceathome,allcentredontheideathatGodcreatedEarthinsixdaysabout6000yearsago.PatrickHenry,nearthetownofPurcellville,about60kilometresnorth-westofWashingtonDC,isgearinguptogroomhome-schooledstudentsforpoliticalofficeandtypifiesamovementthatseemssettoexpand,openingupanewfrontinthebattle

betweencreationistsandDarwinianevolutionists. Ironically,home-schoolingbeganinthe1960sasacounter-culturemovementamongpoliticalliberals.Theideawastakenupinthe1970sbyevangelicalChristians,andtodayanywherefrom1.9to2.4millionchildrenarehome-schooled.72percentofhome-schoolingparentsinterviewedsaidthattheyweremotivatedbythedesiretoprovidereligiousandmoralinstruction. Fortheseparents,religiousinstructionandscienceareoftenintertwined.ThisbothersBrianAltersofMcGillUniversityinMontreal,Canada,whostudiesthechangingfaceofscienceeducationintheUS.Heisappalledbysomehome-schoolingtextbooks,especiallythoseonbiologythatclaimtheyhavescientificreasonsforrejectingevolution.‘Theyhavegrossscientificinaccuraciesinthem,’hesays.‘TheywouldnotbeallowedinanypublicschoolintheUS,andyetthesearethebooksprimarilyfeaturedinhome-schoolingbookstores.’Altersworriesforthestudentswholearnfromsuchtexts(see‘Booklearnin’).‘Iftheygoontosecularuniversity,home-schoolersareinforsomemajorsurpriseswhentheygetintoanintroductorybiologyclass.’ Home-schoolparentsareabletoteachtheirchildren

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( ) New Scientist

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thiswaythanksmainlytoagroupcalledtheHomeSchoolLegalDefenseAssociation(HSLDA),anon-profitorganisationbasedinPurcellville–likePatrickHenryCollege(PHC),whichtheHSLDAfounded.Inthe1970sandearly1980s,thepracticewaslargelyillegalacrosstheUS.‘Themechanismthatwascausinghome-schoolingtobeillegalwasteachercertification,’saysIanSlatterofHSLDA.HSLDAwasfoundedin1983todefendtherightsofhome-schoolparentsandfoughttoremove

requirementsthatparentsbecertifiedtoteachtheirownchildren.Throughanimpressiverunoflegalbattlesandpoliticallobbying,theymanagedtomakehome-schoolinglegalinall50stateswithin10years.Consequently,thereisvirtuallynogovernmentregulationofhome-schooling.ThislackofregulationmaybeskewingscienceeducationinUShomes,saysAlters.

Evangelical internsUntilrecently,mosthome-schoolerschosetogoontosecularuniversities,becausesuchinstitutionstendtobemoreacademicallyrigorousthanChristiancolleges.Nowevangelicalhome-schoolerscanalsooptforacollegelikePHC.Theschoolwasfoundedin2000to‘prepareleaderswhowillfightfortheprinciplesoflibertyandourhome-schoolfreedomsthroughcareersofpublicserviceandculturalinfluence’. Itworked.By2004,PHCstudentsheldsevenoutof100internshipsintheWhiteHouse,anumberevenmorestrikingwhenoneconsidersthatonly240studentswereenrolledintheentirecollege.Lastyear,twoPHCgraduatesworkedintheWhiteHouse,sixworkedformembersofCongressandeightforfederalagencies,includingtwofortheFBI. Home-schoolersaredrawntoPHCpartlybecauseofitspoliticalconnectionsandpartlybecause,unlikemostChristiancolleges,itboastshighacademicstandards.

Besidesthefocusoncreationism,muchofthecurriculumisdedicatedtorhetoricanddebate,preparingstudentstofightpoliticalandlegalbattlesonissuessuchasabortion,stemcellresearchandevolution.

A strategy for the renewal of societyThegrowthinthehome-schoolmovementseemssettocontinue,ashome-schooladvocatesarepushinghardtoconvinceparentstokeeptheirchildrenoutofpublicschools.‘We’vewonallthelegalbattlesnow,thankstoHSLDAandgroupslikethat,’saysE.RayMoore,authorofLet My Children Go: Why parents must remove their children from public schools now.‘It’stimetoshiftfromdefencetooffence,’hesays. MooreisthedirectorofExodusMandate,basedinColumbia,SouthCarolina,anorganisationthaturgesChristianparentstopulltheirchildrenoutofpublicschools.ExodusMandatehasspentthepastfewyearstryingtowinovertheSouthernBaptistConvention(SBC),whichhasmorethan16millionmembers.‘IftheSouthernBaptistsgotonboardandsaidhome-schoolingandChristianeducationisthepreferredmethodofeducation,thatwouldbetransformational,’Slattersays.‘Itwouldeasilydoubleormaybetriplethenumberofhome-schoolersovernight.’ Mooresays,‘Ifwecouldgetupto30percentof

public-schoolstudentsintohome-schoolingandprivateschools,thesystemwouldstarttounravelandatsomepointimplodeandcollapse.Thegovernmentwouldbeforcedtogetthestatesoutoftheeducationbusinessaltogether.Itwouldgobacktothechurchesandthefamilies.It’sastrategyfortherenewalofsociety.’Notallhome-schoolparentshaveareligiousagenda,however.‘Thereareprobablysomewonderfulhome-schoolparents,someofwhommay

beevolutionarybiologiststhemselves.ButIhaveafeelingaftertalkingtoalotofhome-schoolersthatthisistheminority,’saysAlters.Indeed,evangelicalChristiansdodominatethehome-schoolmovement.‘It’sdisconcerting,tosaytheleast,’hesays.

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Exam Issue Volume 6

Book learnin’Biologyisnottheonlysciencebeingrewritteninhome-schoolingtextbooks.OthersciencesarealsobeingmodifiedtosuitthecreationistperspectivethatGodcreatedEarthabout6000yearsago. Chemistrytextbooks,forinstance,arguethatradiometricdatingisunreliableandthereforenotaconcernforthosewhobelieveina6000-year-oldEarth.AndgeologybooksclaimthattheGrandCanyoninArizona–agorgecarvedbytheColoradoRiver,exposing2billionyearsofEarth’shistory–wasformedrapidlyduringtheworldwideBiblicalflood. Evenastronomyisbeingrethoughttoexplainhowstarlightfrombillionsoflight-yearsawayhasreachedtheEarthinonlyafewthousandyears.BookslikeTaking Back AstronomybyJasonLislesuggestpossibleexplanations:maybeGodcreatedthelightalreadyenroute;ormaybetheMilkyWaysitsinalargegravitationalwellwherethetime-stretchingeffectsofgeneralrelativitycanexplaintheanomaly;or–thecreationists’favourite–maybethespeedoflightwasmuch,muchgreaterinthepast.

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Preach your children well

Speaking

� Exam Issue Volume 6

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�Exam Issue Volume 6

Writing

TRAVEL ADVISERSSeasonal Summer EmploymentDublin Tourism CentresCity Centre and Dublin Airport

õHours of Work33.75 hours per week based on 5 days, 6.75 hours per day, working on a roster basis.

õ DutiesServicing customer enquiriesOperating room reservations serviceSales of tours, literature, publications, maps etc.To undertake other work/duties to be allocated as required

õ Preferred QualificationsGood standard of educationExcellent interpersonal / customer services skillsFluency in one continental language (French/Italian/Spanish/German) is desirableA good knowledge of Dublin’s tourism productsComputer literacyFlexibility in working patternsFluency in English is essential

If you are interested in this position and possess the qualities listed above, please contact us by email on jobs@dublintourism.ie or post to:

The Human Resources DepartmentDublin Tourism CentreSuffolk StreetDublin 2

Please specify dates in which you are available to work and preferred location.

Lively Teens wanted for Tonight with Trevor!

ITV – LIVELY, OUTGOING TEENAGERS WANTED

Lively, outgoing teenagers aged 15–18 are needed to take part in a primetime ITV1 programme.

The programme will involve the teens learning a little bit about personal finance (bank accounts, credit cards etc.) and then trying to save their parents some money.

We’re particularly looking for parents who are worried about their kids’ spending habits and feel their children need to learn the value of money.

If you’re interested in finding out more then please get in touch, including a few details about your family.

( )≠WritingAdvertisements Classified ads

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Room assistantAlexandria Hotel London requires room assistant for 6 days for summer months. Your pay is good and your work hours will be from 8.30 a.m. to 1.30 p.m. Please contact Mrs Dohery by writing to Alexandria Hotel, 4 Avesbury Lane, WE1 4NH London, United Kingdom.

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10 Exam Issue Volume 6

Britain’s child army

Stricken by Iraq and low morale, the British army is on a desperate recruitment drive.

Its new targets? Poorly educated teenagers and young schoolchildren

By Stephen armStrong

Onastormywinterday,38schoolchildrengatheratFulwoodBarracksinPreston.TheyaremainlyYear11pupils–agedbetween14and16–andtheyhavebeenbussedoverfromapoorlyperformingcomprehensiveinadeprivedpartofanearbytownforanencounterdaywiththeDukeofLancaster’sRegiment. Thefourteacherswhohavecomealongwiththemseemapprehensive.Manyofthesekids,theysay,canbeunruly;othersarequietbutdon’tperformwellinclass.WarrantOfficerNickFroehling,however,isyoung,friendlyandeasy-going.Withinminuteshehasthechildrendoingrifledrill,shiftingmodelSA80sfromshouldertoarm’slengthandbackdownto‘atease’–althoughFroehling

doesn’tsay‘Atease’.Hepreferstheorder‘Chill’. Duringtheday,thepupilslearnhowtouseaclimbingwall,negotiateanobstaclecourseandcompleteaone-milerun.Attheend,theyreceiveapresentationcertificatesignedbyLieutenantColonelJ.Pitt,commanderofregionalrecruitinginthenorth-west.‘Congratulationsonsuccessfullycompletingtheone-dayArmyPersonalDevelopmentCourse,’itsays.Onthebackthere’salistoflocalrecruitingoffices,anditcomeswithaDVD,recruitingbrochuresandaglossyteenmagazinecalledCamouflage. BythetimetheyleaveFulwoodBarracksatleasttwopupils–LukeandCara–havedecidedtobecomesoldiers.Anarmythatactivelyrecruits14-year-oldsissomethingusuallyassociatedwithsomeoftheworld’smoretroubledstates.Thetruthis,however,thatshortergapsbetween

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toursofduty,concernsoverequipment,resentmentatthepoorstateofaccommodationandrisingmilitarydeathtollsinIraqandAfghanistanareproducingaretentioncrisisintheBritishmilitary.In2006,14,000personnelleftthearmy,withjustover12,000recruitedtoreplacethem.Thisyear’srecruitmenttarget–8,500soldiers–looksunlikelytobehit.

Other optionsWithtroopspouringaway,thepressuretofindreplacementsisintensifying.Thetime-honouredpoolsofunemployedyoungmenfromThames-sideandMerseysideandTynesidearebecominglessandlesskeenonjoiningthearmedforces.Employmentlevelsarehigh,andthereareplentyofoptionstoworkthroughbeforetheyturntothecolours.

‘It’sdifficult,’explainsWarrantOfficerChrisJones,seniorarmyrecruiterinthenorth-west,whoseLiverpoolofficeusedtoreapabountifulharvestforallthreearmsofthemilitary.‘You’vegottheBigDiggoingoninLiverpool–allthebuildingworkfortheCityofCulture–andthatmeanskidswhomighthavethoughtaboutjoininguscanget£250aweekcashinhand.Nowadays,thegovernmentispayingkids£40aweektostayatschooluntilthey’re18,whichisprovingarealproblemaswell.’ Althoughthearmyrefusestopublishfiguresonthesocialbackgroundofrecruits,itisclearthattheyoung,unskilledandunemployedarestillatthecoreofitstargetdemographic.SittingatthearmydeskinLiverpool’sglass-frontedcareersoffice,arecruitingsergeantexplainsthathalfoftheapplicantswhowalkinoffthestreethavedifficultyfillingintheform.Otherstrytofaketheirparents’signaturegivingpermissiontojoin.‘There’salotofkidscominginbecausetheirhomelifeisamess,’thesergeantsays.‘Theywantthearmytogivethemabitofdisciplineandabitofsupportbecausetheirhomelifedoesn’tofferthat.’ Atthesametime,aconstantstreamofstoriesaboutbullyingattrainingcampssuchasDeepcut,bizarreRoyalMarineinitiationceremoniesandpost-conflictproblemssufferedbyveteransishurtingtheappealofalifeinuniform.Thismayexplainwhylastyear’sintroductionofaUS-stylebountyschemetoenticecombattroopsintotheforceperformedsobadly.Infantrysoldiershavebeenoffereda£1,300bonusiftheyencouragesomeonetoenlist.TheMoDadmitstheschemehasnothad‘anenormousresponse’.

Changing standardsAsaresult,thearmyisthrowingopenitsdoorstopeopleitwouldn’thaveconsideredfiveyearsago.Lastmonth,themaximumrecruitmentagewasraisedfrom26to33,allowingolderentrantstosignup.Meanwhileoverseas

recruitment,mostlyinCommonwealthcountries,hasproducedmorethan6,000soldiers,drawnfrom54nations.Coupledwiththe3,000Gurkhas,thismeansoneineverytensoldiersisaforeignnational. ThearmywouldprefertogetitssoldiersyoungandBritish,however,andinthepast18monthsithashadarethinkofitsentirerecruitmentcampaign,turningthefocusawayfromtheschoolleaverandontotheschoolchild. Theheadoftheservice’srecruitmentstrategyisColonelDavidAllfrey.HeisthemanwithBritain’sschoolchildreninhissights,andhehasaplantoreachthem.Whenhetalksaboutrecruitment,heusesthekindofup-to-the-minutemarketingjargonthatyouwouldexpecttohearfromamanagementconsultant. ‘Thesedays,ouryoungstersareincrediblydiscerning,’Allfreysays.‘Theymakedecisionsbasedonamuchbroadertapestryofinformationthanwasofferedtoanyofus.Wehavetocutthroughbrandingclutterwithrealefficiency.Ournewmodelisaboutraisingawareness,andthattakesaten-yearspan.Itstartswithaseven-year-oldboyseeingaparachutistatanairshowandthinking,“Thatlooksgreat.”Fromthenthearmyistryingtobuildinterestbydrip,drip,drip.’ ThecoreofthispolicyinvolvesrampinguptheCamouflageyouthinformationscheme.Introducedin2000,theschemeisdesignedto‘holdanddeveloptheinterestofthosewhohavemadecontactwiththearmybutaretooyoungtojoin’.Camouflagemembers,whostartat13,gettheteenmagCamouflagemailedtothemeveryquarter.ItispackedwithpicturesofhelicoptersloopingtheloopandfashionshootswithcutekidsfromtheRoyalMilitarySchoolofMusicwearingarmyT-shirtsandcamogear.Theygetbooks,akitbag,accesstoamembers-onlywebsitewithmilitarygames,survivaltipsandscreensavers.TheyalsogetChristmascardsfromtherecruitingofficerandwhentheyleaveschoolthereisaninvitationtopopintoseeArmyCareersforachat.Sincetheschemestarted,ithasprocessed271,000youngsters;18percentofthisyear’sarmyintakewereoriginallyCamouflagemembers. It’sabigpush,withalotofmoneybehindit–althoughtheexactamounthasn’tbeenannouncedyet.Ifitfails,thearmymayhavetoadjustitsstandardsagain. In2005,theUSmilitarywasregularlymissingitsrecruitmenttargets.In2006,ithadtodoublethetopenlistmentbonusesforrecruitsfrom$20,000to$40,000,loosenmedicalstandards,forgivemoreminorcriminaloffences,raisetheagelimitfornewrecruitsfrom35to42,andacceptmorepeoplewhohavenotfinishedhighschool. WhatchangeswilldesperationforceontheBritisharmy,whoseten-yearrecruitmentstrategybeginswithaseven-year-oldboy?

The names of the children have been changed.

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Exam Issue Volume 6

‘There’s a lot of kids coming in because their home life is a mess’

Writing

1� Exam Issue Volume 6 1�Exam Issue Volume 6

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1� Exam Issue Volume 6

Blood on the tracks

[1]21-year-oldBradleyChapmanhadbeenplanningtoemigratetoAustraliafromhishomeinGrays,Essex,totraintobeapsychiatricnurse.ButonaFridaynightafewmonthsago,shortlyafter11p.m.,heandhisfriendDanielElgar,a19-year-oldpostmanfromSouthend,werespottedsprayinggraffitiataLondonUndergrounddepotbetweenBarkingandUpneystationsineastLondon.Theyhadapparentlyscaledthe3m-highpalisadesecurityfencing,andwereplanningtospray-paintthesideofatrain.AccordingtotheBritishTransportPolice(BTP),securityguardsspottedthemandshouted,atwhichpointthetwomendashedoutacrossthetracks,onlytobestruckbyawestboundDistrictLinetrain.Thedriverreportedfeelinga‘tremendousjolt’andimmediatelybroughtthetraintoahalt.Bothmendiedatthescenefrommassivemultipleinjuries. [2]KeithElgar,Daniel’sfather,describedhisson’sdeathas‘justapointlesswasteoflife.Wearejustanormalfamily.WehavegotamemorynowofDanjustonadarkgrimyrailwaytrack...’

Respect[3]Whatdrivesayoungman,muchlovedbyhisfamilyandfriends,withplansforhisfutureand,inElgar’scase,afive-month-oldson,toriskeverythingtosprayafewloopinglettersonatrain?Itisnotasifhishandiworkwillbeseenbythousands.LondonUndergroundhasapolicyofnotallowingcarriagesthathavebeenvandalisedtorununtiltheyhavebeencleaned;newgraffiti-resistantpaintsappliedtotrainsmeanthatmosttagscanbeeasilyremovedwithnomorethanahigh-poweredjetofwater. [4]‘Whydowedoit?’saysTwisted,aLondon-basedwriterwhoknewChapman.‘It’saboutrespect.Obviouslythere’stheadrenalinefrompaintinginatubeyard,theyarereallyhardtogetintothesedays.Therearenokidspaintingtubelines;it’sadultsonlyreallybecauseit’ssohard.It’sprobablysimilartobreakingintoahouseorsomething;it’ssuchabigmission.Findingit,breakingin,painting,gettingawayscot-free...’

Graffiti 101[5]ThehistoryofgraffiticanbetracedtoNewYorkinthelate1970s,whenahandfulofwritersbeganpaintingtheirnamesonthesidesoftrainsandsubwaywallsaroundManhattan.Thankstotherelativelackofsecurity,thecity’ssubwaywassoonwallpaperedwithtags,thoughthewriterssoonlearnedtodisguisetheiridentities:DemetriusPanayiotakis,anearlypioneer,calledhimselfTaki183in

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≠ ≠ ≠ ≠ The Guardian

1�

referencetohisaddresson183rdStinWashingtonHeights.Thoughthescenediversifiedasitspreadacrosstheworld,andhasexpandedtotakeinsomewell-knownartworldnames,topurists,paintingontrainswillalwaysbegraffiti’shighestcalling.

Risky business[6]‘It’sareallydedicatedthingforpeopletogooutandrisktheirlivestodosomethingentirelyforfreethatnobodywilleversee,’saysAmoe,a21-year-oldwriterfromLondon.‘Inthatsense,there’snothinglikegraffitithatIcan’tsee.’(Itisnoteventhedonething,amongabsolutepurists,topostpicturesofyourworkontheInternet.) [7]Theproblem,ofcourse,isthatthatriskcanbemuchgreaterthanasimpleboyishthrill.Thefirstpersontodieinagraffiti-relatedincidentonBritishtrainlineswasJohnKoporo,11,whoseclothingwascaughtonatrainpassingthroughKilburnParkstationin1987andwhowasdraggedtohisdeath.ThefollowingyearGaryBaxter,a16-year-oldcalled‘Rase’,slippedwhilefleeingsecurityguardsandwaskilledonliverails.

[8]Fiasko,anothertagger,describesoneoftheriskshetookwhenhewasstillwriting.‘OnetimewhendoingbackjumpsIfelloffthetopofafenceandendeduphangingfromthetopofitnexttoatubetrainwhichhadjustpulledin.Thepassengersmusthavehadashockseeingsomeonesuspendedupsidedownlookinginthroughthewindowatthem.’

Playing tag[9]TheBTPhashadadedicatedgraffitisquadsincethe1980s;itwon’tdisclosethenumberofofficersworkingsolelyoncapturingwriters,butteamswillfrequently

workformonths,usingprofiling,covertsurveillance,evenhandwritinganalysis,totracktaggersorentirecrews.LondonUndergroundspends£20mand70,000hourseachyearremovinggraffitionthenetwork.OvertheChristmasweekendalonelastyear,63graffiti‘attacks’werereportednationally.Reportedoffencesin2005/6wereup28%onthepreviousyear. [10]TheBTPestimatestherearearound200‘seriousgraffitivandals’aroundthecountry.Itestimatesthatitwouldcost£38mtoreplaceeverytubewindowthathasbeendamagedbyetching.Fordamagevaluedatmorethan£5,000,aconvictedgraffitiwritercanbejailedforupto10years. [11]Andyet,despitetherecenttragedyandthepolice’sbestefforts,determinedtaggersinsisttheywillnotbedeterred.Somesuggestthetragedymayevenspurwritersontotakemorerisks.‘Alotofpeoplearegettingveryangry,’saysTwisted.‘Ithinkthewholegraffitisceneseesthatitcouldbeagame,butsomepeoplenowwillcallitwar.Somepeoplewilldostufftowindthepoliceup,writingstufflike,“ThisAin’tOverBTP”.’

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Exam Issue Volume 6

Tagging by numbers11AgeofJohnKoporo,hitbyatrainin1987atKilburnPark.HistagwasEvilandhenowfeaturesinaYouTubevideoclip.

1���Tracy168iscreditedwiththefirstpieceoftraingraffiti,inNewYork.

�,���ThenumberofrecordedseriousgraffitiattacksontheUKrailnetworkhadmorethandoubledsince2001.

�%Percentageof10-25year-oldssurveyedbytheHomeOfficein2004whoadmittedtowritinggraffiti.

£�0mLondontransport’sannualbillforremovinggraffiti.

£�00Policerewardtomembersofthepublicpreparedtoidentifyprolificgraffitiartists.Onecampaign,NameThatTag,concentratedon12offenderswhotaggedhundredsoftrainsandbuildings.

£�00,000AmountreportedlypaidbyfilmstarAngelinaJolieforaworkbygraffitiartistBanksyinaLosAngelessale.AnotherofhispiecesentitledMonaLisafetched£57,600atSotheby’s.

S

Two graffiti writers were

killed after breaking into a

tube depot. Esther Addley

enters the dangerous world of

the taggers who believe that

‘respect’ is worth the risks

‘We have got a memory now of Dan just on a dark

grimy railway track...’

‘It’s probably similar to breaking into a house or something,

it’s such a big mission’

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reading

Sceptics have always been quick to dismiss the idea of telepathy – communication using

the power of thought alone. But now new brain scanning technologies are being used to

investigate the phenomenon – with some fascinating results. Robert Matthews investigates...

1� Exam Issue Volume 6

Mostofushaveexperienceditatsomepoint–thinkingofafriendwe’venotheardfromforages,whothensuddenlyphonesup.It’saneeriephenomenon,onethatseemstohintatakindoftelepathiclinkbetweenmindsseparatedbyspaceandtime.Butmanyscientistsdismisssuchideasasridiculous.SomewerenotimpressedwhentheBritishAssociation(BA)recentlydevotedpartofaFestivalofSciencetoadebateoverresearchsuggestingsuch‘telephonetelepathy’mightbereal. TheBAfounditselfpubliclycriticisedbytopscientistsandeventheRoyalSociety.‘Youcan’trelyonanyoftheseexperiments,’saidProfessorPeterAtkinsofOxfordUniversity.‘Thesamplesthatpeopleuseareverytiny,theeffectsarestatisticallyinsignificant,thecontrolsarenotdoneinascientificway.’ProfAtkinswentontoadmitthathehadnotactuallyseenthenewfindingsbutinsisteditmadenodifference:‘Therearenoseriousreasonsforbelievingthereshouldbeaneffectoftelepathy.’ Butnotallscientistsagree.Somearguethatevidencefortherealityoftelepathyhasbeensteadilyaccumulatingfordecades,withexperimentsatrespecteduniversitiessuggestinghumanmindsreallycancommunicatedirectlywithoneanother. Someofthemostimpressiveevidencehascomefromso-calledganzfeldexperiments,inwhichonepersonattemptsto‘transmit’animagepickedrandomlyfromasetoffourtoanotherpersonsittinginaspeciallyisolatedroom.Theprobabilityofguessingtherightimagebychancealoneis25percent.Arecentmeta-analysisstudy,

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≠ ≠ ≠ ≠ BBC Focus

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alsoshowedanincreaseinactivity–andintheverysamepartsoftheirbrains,despitenotseeinganyflashesatall.Thesizeoftheeffectfoundwasimpressive,andtheteamcalculatetheoddsof

gettingsobiganeffectbyflukealonearelessthan1in100. Kittenisstressesthattheresultsofthisonestudyarefarfromconclusive:‘Weneedtolookatmultiplestudiesconductedbydifferentinvestigatorsindifferentlaboratories,andseeifthere’sanyconsistencyinthefindings.’Evenso,‘Wemaybeontosomethingreallynewhere,orwemayhavefallenvictimstosomeerrorinourmethods,’hesays.

A blow to sceptics ScepticsstillbelievethattherealexplanationwillindeedturnouttobeESP–‘ErrorSomePlace’.ButsucheasydismissalshavebeendealtablowbythefindingsofsimilarexperimentscarriedoutattheUniversityofWashingtoninSeattle.ProfessorToddRichardsandhisteamput30pairsofpeoplethroughEEGtestslikethosecarriedoutbyKittenisandhiscolleagues.Thisinvolvedstudyingthechangesinbrainactivityinthosewithapparentlyimpressivetelepathicabilitiesusingsophisticatedfunctional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).Thisbrainscanningmethodrevealsareasofmentalactivitywithgreatprecisionanddetail.ItalsoprovidesanindependenttestoftheresultsfoundusingEEG. Thebest-performingcouplesidentifiedbytheEEGscreeningprocesswereisolatedfromeachother,andthesenderwasexposedtorandomsequencesofflashinglights.Butthistime,thereceiver’sbrainactivitywascontinuouslymonitoredusingthefMRIscanner.Theresults,however,werethesameasthosefoundbytheEEGexperiments:thereceiver’sbrainshowedsignsofactivityinthevisualprocessingareas–despitenotbeingexposedtotheflashinglights. LiketheEdinburghteam,Richardsandhiscolleaguesstressthatmoreresultsareneededbeforeconclusionsarereached.Theyalsobelievethefindingsmaybeduetowhattheycallan‘anomalousphenomenon’ratherthanamereexperimentalartefact. Whatcanthisanomalousphenomenonbe?Somehavesuggesteditmaybelinkedtoquantummechanicaleffectssuchasbiological entanglement–asuggestionmanyphysicistsdismiss.Otherswillsimplydismissthefindingsasjunkscience.Stillotherswillalwaysclaimthattheremustbesomethingwrong,thattheexplanationis‘ErrorSomePlace’. Forthetimebeingatleast,theresearcherscarrying

outthetestsandtheirmoreenlightenedcriticsareinagreement:theearlyresultshintatsomethingextraordinarygoingon,butextraordinaryclaimsdemandextraordinarylevelsofevidence.‘There’snosingletheorythatcanaccommodateallthefacts,’saysKittenis.‘Westillknowtoolittle,andthereisstillsomuchworktobedone.’

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Exam Issue Volume 6

Jargon busterGanzfeldFromtheGermanterm‘totalfield’,thisisamethodoflookingfortelepathicabilities.Anindividual’ssensesareputintoarelaxedstateby,forexample,havingtheireyescoveredwithpinklightfiltersandlisteningtorelaxingsoundsbeforetelepathytestsarecarriedout.

Biological entanglementWhereparticlesinanorganismmaintainaconnectionevenwhentheyareseparated.

Meta-analysisAstatisticaltechniqueforcombiningtheresultsoflotsofsmallstudiestorevealhowstrongtheevidenceisoverall.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)Amedicalscannerwhichusesstrongmagneticfieldsandradiowavestoaffectthebehaviourofatomicnucleiinbiologically-importantmolecules.

Mind to mind

•

hehadbeenshockedtotheotherparticipants,andwhethertheeffectwouldshowupasphysiologicalchangesandvariationsinbrainactivity. Testson11peoplerevealedthatboththeEEGpatternsandphysiologicalresponsesdidindeedseemtorespondwheneverTartwasshocked.Theresultspromptedotherresearcherstotrytoreplicatethefindings.Theseadditionalexperimentssuggestedthatsuch‘unconscioustelepathy’wasstrongestbetweensubjectswhohavestrongemotionalties.

Exciting resultsWhileintriguing,theseearlystudiesfailedtoimpresssceptics,whodismissedtheexperiments,claimingtheresultsmusthavebeenerroneous.Butnowadvancesintechnologyhaveallowedmuchmoresophisticatedtechniquestobeusedtostudythephenomenonindetail. AttheUniversityofEdinburgh,DrMariosKittenisandhiscolleagueshavebeenusingthelatestEEGtechniquestofindoutmoreabouttheclaimsoftelepathiccommunicationbetweenpeopleincloserelationships.Pairsofsuchpeopleweregiventimetogethertorelaxanddecidewhowasgoingtoactasthesenderandwhowouldbethereceiver.TheywerethentakentotwoseparateroomstobewireduptoEEGmachinescapableofdetectingactivityinspecificareasofthebrain.Thenrandomflashesoflightwerebeamedatthepersonactingasthesender.Andasexpected,thistriggeredEEGactivityinthevisualcortex,theregiontowardstherearoftheirbrainsknowntorespondtovisualstimuli. Altogethermoresurprisingweretheeffectsonthebrainactivityofthepeopleactingasreceivers.TheirEEGs

whichcombinestheresultsfromover3000testsupuntil2004,revealedaguessingsuccessrateof32percent–asmallbuthighlystatisticallysignificantincreaseonwhatyouwouldexpectfromchancealone. Suchresultsflyinthefaceofassertionsthatexperimentsintelepathyarebasedonsmallnumbersandproduceinsignificanteffects.Yettheyhavestillfailedtoconvincescepticsthattelepathyisgenuine.

Brain scans NowscientistsatresearchinstitutesonbothsidesoftheAtlanticarecomingupwithfreshevidencefortelepathy.Theyusemedicalscanningtechniquestoexaminedirectlytheebbandflowofactivitywithinsubjects’brains.Thefirstresultsfromthesestudiespointtosomethingextraordinary:correlationsinthebrainactivityofpeoplewhentheyattempttocommunicatetheirthoughtstoeachother.Someresearchersbelievethisnewevidencecouldbethebreakthroughthefieldofparapsychologyhaslongneeded. Hintsofthekindofcorrelationsnowbeinguncoveredfirstemergedintheearly1960s,inexperimentsconductedbythepioneeringparapsychologistDrCharlesTartattheUniversityofCalifornia.Thosetakingparthadelectrodesplacedontheirbodiesandheadstodetectchangesinbloodvolumeandskinconductance.Theirbrainactivitywasmeasuredbyanelectroencephalogram(EEG).Meanwhile,inaseparateroom,Tartwaswireduptoadevicethatgavehimmildelectricshocksatrandom.Theideawastoseeifhecouldmentallytransmitthefact

reading

1� Exam Issue Volume 6

Fear, joy, power how crowds affect us

[1]At7.23a.m.onaWednesdaythestationconcourseisfullofcommuters,allsharpelbowsandlongfaces.Someonewithawheeledsuitcaseclipsmyfootandshootsawitheringlook.Ismile.Iknowsomethingtheydon’t.Inoneminute’stimethiscrowdwillbetransformed.Onthestrikeof7.24a.m.commuterswillwatchas300oftheirnumberpressplayontheiriPodsandstarttodanceasifnooneiswatching.Wewillbeoblivious,wewillbeunited,wewillhavelousycoordinationbutwitheachtrackwewillbesloughingoffoururbanalienationtobecome‘we’;changingfromworkadayisolatedcommutersintointentionalcommunity.Flashmobbing,whereagroupofstrangersmeetataprearrangedlocation,isarecenttrend,

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hasnopoliticaloverture,noagendanoranyleaders,butthatdoesn’tmeanithasnopoint.Ourpointiscommunion–asharedexperienceinalandscapeofstrangers. [2]ProfessorStephenReicher,asocialpsychologistattheUniversityofStAndrews,wouldmakeadistinctionbetweenthecrowdat7.23a.m.andtheoneat7.24a.m.justashewouldbetweencrowdsonatrainplatformandcrowdsonafootballterrace,shoppersonOxfordStreetorworshippersatMecca.‘Thefirstiscrowdinthephysicalsenseonly,whereyouarejammed,againstyourwill,upagainststrangers,’hesays.‘Thesecondis“crowd”inapsychologicalsense.PeoplewhophysicallyandpsychologicallyIfeelanaffinitywith,sothereisnoneoftherepulsionyoumightfeelwithcommutersonthetrain.Hereproximityisactivelyvalued.’Thereisacommonpurposeandsolidarity,whetherthatisfoundamongthesilenceofstrangersintheaftermathoftheLondonbombs,orinthe‘encores’ofanappreciativeaudience–upstandingandeuphoric–astheactorstaketheircurtaincalls.

Hypnotic influence[3]Manyofusfeeluneasyandevenfrightenedinlargegroups,andcrowdsgenerallygetanegativepress.Thedominant,traditionalviewisoneofmindless,maraudingmobsandirrationalthugs.SocialpsychologistGustaveLeBonmaintainedthatcrowdsexertahypnoticinfluenceovertheirmembers,onethat–throughcollectivesuggestibility–cancompelustoactirrationallyorevenviolently.Butsocialpsychologistshavesinceacknowledgedthatcrowdsarenotintrinsicallyirrational.‘Differentcrowdshavedifferentnorms,’saysDrJohnDrury,seniorlecturerinpsychologyatSussexUniversity.‘Theyarenotbad,justastheyarenotnecessarilygood.Eachhastheirownideology.’

Reasons to be cheerful and fearful[4]Whathappenswhenweenteracrowdisthatweidentifywiththegroup,aspiretoitsnormsandnaturallyadoptitsbehaviours.Evenasmallcocktailpartyfindsusdoingthis–wearingacertaindress,modifyingourconversationtochimewiththecrowd’s.Wedonotfeelwehavelostourselvesorlostourcontrol,becausemembershiphasbeenfreelyelectedandisdesirable.‘Therehassimplybeenasubtleshiftinthelocationofthatcontrol–fromtheindividualtothesocial,’saysDrury.‘Thegroup’ssocialbehaviourhasbecomeourguide.’ [5]However,manyofusfearcrowds.Theytestusonmanylevels–psychologically,morally,evenchemically.

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Exam Issue Volume 6

Crowds can be uplifting and unifying,

but they can also be claustrophobic and

overwhelming. Tanis Taylor asks why they

have such a powerful effect on us, and two

readers describe their experiences

‘I had an overpowering sense of being looked after and secure’

ANNA HARPER, 26, LIVES AND WORKS IN CENTRAL LONDON, WHERE SHE IS PA TO A SOLICITOR

[7]Onthedayofthefuneral,therewasanincrediblesilenceandstillnessacrossLondon.Everyonewassubdued.Althoughthereweresomanypeoplegathered,noonewasaggressiveandtherewasn’tanyelbowingorshovingthatnormallyoccursinthecity.Instead,therewasasenseofcalmandareverenceIhadneverseenanywherebefore.Thehushaspeoplecommunicatedinlowwhispersorstoodsilentlywatchingaddedtothesolemnity.IwasstandingnearWestminsterAbbey,andtheatmosphere,particularlyastheprocessionapproached,wasintense.Weweremoreemotionalthanthemournersattendingthefuneral.

Strangerswereopenlycryingandcomfortingeachother.AtfirstIfeltIdidn’thavetherighttofeelthatway,butseeingothers’griefmadememoreemotional.Everyonefeltthesame–wegaveeachotherthefreedomtoshowemotionsthatusuallywewouldconcealfromstrangers.

Massive comfort[8]ItwasthesamewithEarlSpencer’sspeech–atfirstpeopledidn’tknowhowtoreact,andthenweheardtheclappingstartbehindus,andafterthateveryonejoinedin.Therewasasenseofrelease;thatwecouldallshowhowwereallyfelt.Afterwards,nooneseemedtowanttoleave.Welingered,talkingtoeachotherabouttheday.Curiously,Ifeltcomfortedtobesurroundedbysomanypeople–Ihadanoverpoweringsenseofbeinglookedafterandsecure.Itwaslikebeingwithanextendedfamily,ratherthaninacrowdofstrangers.

PRINCESS DIANA’S FUNERAL, � SEPTEMBER 1���

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‘Therearesomeveryrealprecedentsformasshysteria,’saysDrCynthiaMcVey,seniorlectureratGlasgowCaledonianUniversity.‘Andtherearesuggestionsthatthishysteriaistransmittedviasubliminalemotional,psychologicalandevenchemicaldetectorssuchasfearpheromones.Inoneepisode,girlsinaUShighschoolbelievedtheycouldsmellgasandfaintedlikedominoes.Physicallytherewerenosymptoms,buttheremayhavebeenaverypalpable,chemicalcontagionatplay.’Biologyaside,ittakesrealfortitudetokeepyourheadwhilethosearoundyouarelosingtheirs.Welooktoourpeersforguidance.

The crowds that bind[6]Weshyawayfromcrowdsmorethanweusedto;ourlegislationdiscouragesitandourschedulesprohibitit.Yettobevalidatedandbeunitedisahumanimpulse.Afterall,thereisnosubstituteforphysicalandintimate,psychologicalandsensualcamaraderie,whetherstandingshouldertoshoulderinsilentgrief,orwithvoiceupliftedalongsidethoseofstrangersinunitedcelebrationorsong.

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CROWDS GATHER AT MECCA

‘Even surrounded by thousands of people, I felt calm’

FAREZ RAHMAN, 34, IS A FREELANCE PROGRAMMER WHO LIVES IN LONDON

[10]IvisitedMeccaforthefirsttimetwoyearsago,andIwasimmediatelyinaweofthesituationandthenumberofpeoplepresent.WhenIgotothemosqueathome,Ijustseepeoplefrommyowncommunity,butherethewholeworldwaspartofthatcommunity,andthatwasexciting.Therewasarealsenseofunity.ThecrowdbecamemostemotionalwhentheyapproachedtheholysiteknownastheKaabah–somepeoplewerecrying;others,likeme,werecontenttostandbackfromtheKaabah,whileotherswerepushingpasteachothertogettoit.Yet,despitethis,therewasadeepsenseofcalm,andonceIhadrecitedmyprayersIsatinthecrowdforseveralhours.Evenwithallthosepeoplearoundme,itwascalming,awayfromlife’susualstresses.Youfeelyouareamemberofthatgroup,andIfeltastrongerconnectionwithmyreligionbyseeingIwaspartofthishugecommunity.YetIalsofeltstronglyawareofmyself,notdepersonalisedorcutofffromrealityasyoucansometimesbeinacrowd.WhenIlookbackonthatday,Irememberfeelingaconnectiontosomethingdeeper,morespiritual.

Why the many are smarter than the few [9]Untilrecently,theintellectualabilitiesofthecrowdwereheldinpoorcontempt.But,arguesJamesSurowieckiinThe Wisdom of Crowds,acrowd’sresponsewillbefarfromthelowestcommondenominator.Giventherightcircumstances,‘groupsareremarkablyintelligent’.Agroupcanreachawisedecisionevenwhenmostofitsmembersarenotespeciallywell-informedorrational.Crowds,bydintoftheirdiversity,lateralknowledgeandinnatefrictionsareprogrammedtomakebettercollectivedecisionsthantheexperts,positsSurowiecki.Thereisadeep-seatedwisdomaccessedincrowdsthatworks.Assembleabunchofrandoms,arguesSurowiecki,askforarealsolutionandyouwillgetaclarityofanswerbornofdisagreementandcontest.Assembleabunchofexpertsandyouwillgetconsensus,compromiseandsycophanticspecialisms.

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CAPE COAST, GHANA – Britain abolished

the slave trade 200 years ago. Its landmarks

are an abiding legacy of cruelty

ByMaryEvans

Thedungeonscanstillshock,twocenturiesaftertheirlastinmateswerefreed.Dampandsmellyinthetropicalair,immersedinvirtualdarkness,thisiswhereslaveswerekept,oftenformonthsatatime–beforebeingleddownatunnelthroughthe‘doorofnoreturn’toshipsridinginthesurf,readytobegintheirappallingvoyageovertheocean. Thedungeonswereexcavatedinthelate19thcentury,amassofcakedexcrementwasremoved,togetherwiththebonesofbirdsandanimalsonwhichtheslavespresumablyfed.Onsuchmiserywasfoundedaglobaltradingsystemthatinitsheyday,inthemid-18thcentury,wastakingabout85,000AfricansayearacrosstheAtlantictoworkonsugarandtobaccoplantationsthatmadeEuroperich.

CapeCoastCastlewasthegrandestoftheslaveemporiums,atthecentreofthetrade.Butinpresent-dayGhana,thencalledtheGoldCoast,therewereover30moreslaveforts,builtandmaintainedbyalmostalloftheEuropeantradingpowersoftheday:theSwedes,Danes,French,British,DutchandPortuguese. The‘triangulartrade’asitwasknown,wherebyslave-shipsleftEuropeanportsforwestAfricawithrum,guns,textilesandothergoodstoexchangeforslaves,andthentransportedthemacrosstheAtlantictoselltoplantation-

owners,andthenreturnedwithsugarandcoffee,alsofuelledthefirstgreatwaveofeconomicglobalisation. Bythemid-18thcenturyBritainwasthebiggestslavingnation,andportslikeBristol,LiverpoolandLondonthrivedasaresult. SointegraltotheBritisheconomywastheslavebusinessthattherewerefewmenandinstitutionsofwealthwhodidnotwanttoinvestinit,fromtheroyalfamilyandtheChurchofEnglanddownwards.

Conscience speakingGivenhowentrenchedtheslavetradewasatthetime,itisremarkablethatacampaigntoabolishitwhichbeganin1787succeededonlytwodecadeslater.Itwas200yearsagothatabilltoabolishslaverygotthroughitssecond,decisivereadinginParliament. Ultimatelyitwastheshameanddegradationthattheslavetrafficbroughttothoseinvolved,perpetratorsaswellasvictims,thatproveditsundoing. Someevencalltheslavetradeaholocaust.Upto20mAfricansweretakenacrosstheAtlanticbetweenthe15thand19thcenturies.Theslaveswerenotmeanttobekilled,orevenworkedtodeath(thoughmanydiddie);therewasnoefforttowipeoutarace.Still,asthewriterWilliamSt

reading The Economist

Breaking the chains

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By the mid-18th century Britain was the biggest slaving nation

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Clairpointsout,inonewaytheanalogywithNazideathcampsworks–in‘theorganisedfictions,hypocrisiesandself-deceptionsthatenabledotherwisereasonablydecentpeopletocondone,toparticipateandtobenefit’. FormostEuropeanstheexistenceoftheslavetrade,andslaveryitself,wasbarelyknown.InEnglandtherewasnoslavery,sotherewasnoparticularreasonformostpeopletofacetheuglytruth. Themeansbywhichsugarlumpsarrivedontablesinpolitesocietywerecarefullyhidden.TheyoungofficersoftheAfricanServicewhovolunteeredtomantheslavefortsandoverseethedungeonswerechildrenoftheageofenlightenment.Theysawthemselvesaswell-endowedwithalltherefinedfeelingsandsensibilitiesthatcouldbeexpectedofagentleman. Buttherewasstillapervasivefeelingthatthoseinvolvedinthetradeweredoingsomethingdeeplywrong.ThissenseofguiltwastoprovetheAchillesheeloftheslavetradeinEurope.Thetasktheabolitionistssetthemselveswastoexposetherealityofthetradetoanignorantpublic.Theythoughtthemoralsenseofordinarypeoplewoulddotherest,andinparttheywereright.

An essay that matteredButlightingthesparkofconscienceneedsbraveindividuals–likeThomasClarkson,themovingspiritbehindthefoundingoftheSocietyforEffectingtheAbolitionofSlaveryin1787.HehadbeenastudentatCambridgeUniversitytwoyearsbefore.Heenteredtheuniversity’sLatinessaycontest,setbyavice-chancellorwhowasalsoanearlyabolitionist.Thetitlewas:Isitlawfultomakeslavesofothersagainsttheirwill?Aftertwomonths’research,henotonlywontheprizebutalsodedicatedtherestofhislonglifetothecauseofabolition. Ifanyonewasthefounderofthemodernhuman-rightsmovementitwasClarkson.EventheQuakers,thefirstabolitionists,wereimpressedbyhiszeal.Itwasessentially

theallianceofClarkson,anAnglican,andtheQuakers,withtheirexistingnetworkofpreachersandsupporters,thatmadeuptheabolitionistmovement. Clarksonfixedthestrategyofthecampaign.Hisfirsttaskwastogatherevidenceabouttheslavetrade,noteasywhenthingsweresohiddenfrompublicview.HespentlongperiodsinLiverpoolandBristol,tryingtogathertestimonyfromthecaptainsordoctorsofslaveships,orfreedslaves.Almostnobodywouldtalktohim,butovertheyearssmallchinksopenedinthewallofsilence. Clarkson’sgreatestcoupwastogetholdofa‘plate’,ordiagram,oftheslave-shipBrookes,ownedbyaLiverpoolfamilyofthatname,whichoperatedbetweentheGoldCoastandJamaica.TheplateshowedtheBrookesloadedwith482slaves,linedupinrowsandsquashedtogether.In1789theypublished700postersofthisimageanditwasasensation;nobodycouldnowdenythehorrorsofthe‘middlepassage’,duringwhichmanyslaveseither

killedthemselvesordiedofdisease,starvationandcrueltreatment.Itbecametheabidingimageofthecampaign. Clarksonalsoorganisedwhatwasprobablythefirsteverconsumer-goodsboycott,ofslave-grownsugar,tobringhometoordinaryBritonsattheirteatablesthemessagethattheywerepayingadreadfulpriceinhumancrueltyforindulgingasweettooth.Andheinspiredtheparliamentarymovementagainstslavery,recruitingayoungTory,WilliamWilberforce,*asspokesman.

Copy, copy and copy againInitstactics,boycotts,moralzeal,lobbying,researchanditsuseofimages,theBritishcampaignwasatemplateformanylaterones–againstslaveryintheBelgianCongointhelate19thcentury;againstapartheidinSouthAfrica;andagainstsegregationintheAmericansouth. Forallthefervourofitsopponents,theslavetradewouldnothavecollapsedwithoutrebellionsbythevictims.Themostimportantwasin1791onStDomingue.Withintwomonthstheslaveshadtakencontroloftheisland,ledbytheremarkableToussaintL’Ouverture.SamuelSharpe’suprisingonJamaicain1831wasputdownatgreatcost.TheBritishfearedthatifslaverycontinued,theywouldlosesomecoloniesaltogether.Soin1833slaverywasabolishedthroughouttheirempire.

Britainwasnotthefirsttooutlawtheslavetradeinitsterritory;theDaneshaddonesoin1803,theFrenchtemporarilyin1794andseveralnorthernAmericanstateshadalsodonesobefore1807.OtherEuropeannations,notablythePortuguese,persistedwiththetradeintothe1860s. TheEuropeanandAmericanroleintheslavetradeisnowwell-knownandgovernments,suchasBritain’sandFrance’s,aswellasindividualcitieshaveapologised.Therewillbemuchtalkaboutapologiesthisyear.Butwillwordsofregretbeenough?

* It was William Wilberforce who brought successive bills before Parliament to abolish the slave trade until one was passed in 1807.

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The means by which sugar lumps arrived on tables in polite society

were carefully hidden

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�� Exam Issue Volume 6

Where there’s a Will, there’s a wayOfthe17,677differentwordsWilliamShakespeareusedinhisplaysandpoems,anestimated10%werenewtotheEnglishlanguage.Heiscreditedwithneologisms(newwords)thatarenowcommonlyused,suchas:excellent,submerge,homicide,gnarled,bump,hurry,hint,lonely,andmajestic.Theword‘neologism’itself,however,onlyenteredthelanguageinaround1800.

SupersuckersTheAmericanFoodandDrugAuthority’sdecisionin2004tolicenseleechesasthefirst‘livemedicaldevices’marksthe

recognitionofaformofmedicinepractisedbytheAncientEgyptians3,500yearsago.Itseemsthatleechsalivacontainsmorethan30differentproteinsthathelptonumbpain,reduceswellingandkeepbloodflowing.

Name that nameInadditiontoNovelty,atowninMissouri,

USA,over152placenamesaroundtheworldcontaintheEnglishword‘New’.

Invisible man?ScientistsatTokyoUniversityareworkingonan‘invisibility

cloak’whichcombinesavideocamera,computerandhoodedcoatmadeofspecialreflectivematerialtoenablethewearertomeltintothebackground.

� times a secondWithmorethan80millionbirthsperyear,ithasbeencalculatedthatanaverage176babiesareborneveryminute–orthreepersecond.Ifcurrentgrowthratescontinue,theworld’spopulationofaboutsixbillioncouldbecome12billionby2054.

Fits �00MicrochipmanufacturerIntelsaysthatsiliconwillsoonbereplacedbyhafnium–ametalusedinmakingnuclearreactors.Usinghafniumwillallowtheuseof45-nanometretransistors,whicharesosmallthat400couldfitonthesurfaceofasinglehumanredbloodcell.

Talk through the handJapanesecommunicationscompanyNTTclaimsithasdevelopedtechnologythatcansenddataover

thesurfaceoftheskinatspeedsofupto2Mbps(megabitspersecond)–equivalenttoafastbroadbanddataconnection.Usingthebody’snaturalelectriccurrentitwouldenableyouto

downloadphotosfromyourcameratoyourlaptopjustbytouch.

Source: holland herald

Whilewehavemadeeveryefforttotracethecopyrightholdersofarticlesandillustrationscontainedinthisissue,wewouldbegratefulforanyinformationthatmightassistusinidentifyingsourceswehaveasyetbeenunabletofind.

EditorJohanGraus

Editorial assistantAafkeMoons

Compiled byGerdaCook-BodegomJohanGrausCasparvanHaalenRobvanKoldenhovenAafkeMoonsIneSandersBiancaStruikFrederikeWestera

Listening materialsBridgetSchiff

Teaching enquiriesJohanGrauswaspreporter@plex.nl

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