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Transcript of Wang 2015
7212019 Wang 2015
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullwang-2015 134
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Critical Review
Practical Energy Harvesting for Microbial Fuel Cells A ReviewHeming Wang Jaedo Park and Zhiyong Jason Ren
Environ Sci Technol Just Accepted Manuscript bull DOI 101021es5047765 bull Publication Date (Web) 11 Feb 2015
Downloaded from httppubsacsorg on February 17 2015
Just Accepted
ldquoJust Acceptedrdquo manuscripts have been peer-reviewed and accepted for publication They are posted
online prior to technical editing formatting for publication and author proofing The American ChemicalSociety provides ldquoJust Acceptedrdquo as a free service to the research community to expedite the
dissemination of scientific material as soon as possible after acceptance ldquoJust Acceptedrdquo manuscriptsappear in full in PDF format accompanied by an HTML abstract ldquoJust Acceptedrdquo manuscripts have been
fully peer reviewed but should not be considered the official version of record They are accessible to allreaders and citable by the Digital Object Identifier (DOIreg) ldquoJust Acceptedrdquo is an optional service offeredto authors Therefore the ldquoJust Acceptedrdquo Web site may not include all articles that will be published
in the journal After a manuscript is technically edited and formatted it will be removed from the ldquoJustAcceptedrdquo Web site and published as an ASAP article Note that technical editing may introduce minor
changes to the manuscript text andor graphics which could affect content and all legal disclaimersand ethical guidelines that apply to the journal pertain ACS cannot be held responsible for errors
or consequences arising from the use of information contained in these ldquoJust Acceptedrdquo manuscripts
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1
2
3
Practical Energy Harvesting for Microbial Fuel Cells A Review4
5
6
Heming Wangdagger Jae-Do Park
Dagger and Zhiyong Jason Ren
dagger 7
8
daggerDepartment of Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering9
University of Colorado Boulder Boulder Colorado 8030910
DaggerDepartment of Electrical Engineering11
University of Colorado Denver Denver Colorado 8020412
Wang E-mail hemingwangcoloradoedu13
Park E-mail jaedoparkucdenveredu14
Corresponding author Ren E-mail jasonrencoloradoedu15
Phone (303) 492-4137 Fax (303) 492-731716
17
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ABSTRACT18
The microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology offers sustainable solutions for distributed19
power systems and energy positive wastewater treatment but the generation of practically usable20
power from MFCs remains a major challenge for system scale up and application Commonly21
used external resistors wonrsquot harvest any usable energy so energy-harvesting circuits are needed22
for real world applications This review summarizes explains and discusses the different energy23
harvesting methods components and systems that can extract and condition the MFC energy for24
direct utilization This study aims to assist environmental scientists and engineers to gain25
fundamental understandings of these electronic systems and algorithms and it also offers26
research directions and insights on how to overcome the barriers so the technology can be27
further advanced and applied in larger scale28
Keywords Microbial Fuel Cell Energy Harvesting Power Management System29
Bioelectrochemical System30
31
TOC ART32
Energy
Power Management
System
HighVoltagePower
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1 INTRODUCTION35
The microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology has been intensively researched in the recent36
decade because it offers a solution for environmental sustainability by simultaneously37
performing pollutant removal and energy production MFCs use exoelectrogenic microorganisms38
to convert the chemical energy stored in biodegradable substances to direct electricity39
Furthermore the electrical current can be utilized for many other functions including producing40
value-added chemicals such as H2 in microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) or driving water41
desalination in microbial desalination cells (MDCs)1 2
The advancements in reactor architecture42
material and operation optimization of these bioelectrochemical systems (BES) have remarkably43
relieved the physical and chemical constraints of reactor systems3 4 leading to orders of44
magnitude increase in power output However one main challenge for MFCs or BESs to be used45
in real-world applications is the low energy output and to overcome this one key element that46
has been largely neglected is how to harvest and practically utilize the MFC energy based on the47
true potential of the system rather than simply reporting the measured power density using48
external resistors49
Compared to other alternative energy systems such as solar and wind MFC is a low50
power system due to its thermodynamic limitation The theoretical anode and cathode potentials51
calculated by Nernst equation are -03 V (vs NHE) and 08 V (vs NHE) respectively when52
acetate servers as the electron donor and oxygen serves as the electron acceptor Therefore the53
theoretical voltage across the two electrodes is 08 V - (-03 V) = 11 V5-7
However the54
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microbial inocula are used in the system Traditionally MFC power output is reported by58
changing the external resistance ( Rext ) at a 5-30 min interval or conducting a voltammetry59
sweep7-10
Figure 1 shows typical polarization and power density curves obtained from a lab60
scale MFC The curves demonstrate that MFC voltage is inversely proportional to the output61
current and there exists a pair of voltage and current that delivers the maximum power when62
Rext is equal to the system internal resistance ( Rint ) This peak point is called the maximum power63
point (MPP) which is the ideal operating point for MFCs and reported by most studies as the top64
power output7 11 12
However top power may not be the goal of all systems For MFCs used in65
wastewater treatment the primary goal may not be high power output but rather more efficient66
organic removal so a balance in operation during different phases needs to be considered67
whether to operate the system at the MPP for maximum power output or at the high current68
condition for the fastest substrate oxidation rate8 Similarly for H2 production in an MEC the69
ideal operating point is not MPP but rather the high current region because H 2 production70
directly correlates with electron flow (current) in the circuit and proton reduction at the cathode71
Because an additional voltage is required for MECs the operation point of MEC is beyond the72
limiting current of the polarization curve at negative voltages and the external energy input as73
well as energy content of the produced H2 should be considered in addition to the amount of H2 74
produced so the actual energy efficiency and energy recovery can be quantified13
In contrast75
the operation of MDCs depends on different needs because if high energy is desired the MPP76
will be the ideal point but if high salt removal is the primary goal then high current will be77
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addition the fixed Rext cannot always match the system Rint and extract energy at the MPP81
because the Rint of an MFC varies constantly with changes in microbial activities and operational82
parameters Studies showed that MFCs may lose more than 50 of produced power across the83
Rint if the operating voltage is not at the MPP15
84
To harvest usable MFC or BES energy resistors have to be replaced with devices that85
can capture and store energy and boost voltage for practical usage The direct outputs of a single86
MFC are primarily in the level of 700-800 mV and 100-2000 mWm2 which generally cannot87
directly power common electronics16
For example a single light emitting diode (LED) requires88
a minimum voltage of 2 V and consumes 30 mW17 18
and many wireless sensors need a voltage89
of 33 V and watt-level power for temperature pressure and humidity monitoring19-22 While90
higher power using single or multiple MFCs has been researched it was reported that larger91
power production cannot be easily achieved by just building larger MFCs or simply connecting92
MFCs in series or in parallel due to the nonlinear nature of MFCs23 24
Therefore developing93
tailored energy harvesting systems including MPP tracking and power management systems94
(PMS) are crucial for MFC and BES scale-up and real-world application Such systems generally95
composed of multiple electronics such as off-the-shelf capacitors rechargeable batteries charge96
pumps and boost converters but these devices are not designed for MFC conditions so the97
efficiency was low and initial voltage boosts were needed Customized harvesting systems have98
been reported by several groups including our group but there is very limited knowledge base99
for this important area because it requires understanding of power electronics circuitry and100
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methods We also provide discussions and our insights on the challenges and research needs of104
this field so researchers and engineers can help advance the technology development and finally105
overcome these barriers of MFC application106
107
2 ENERGY HARVESTING TECHNOLOGIES108
Since the direct energy production from MFCs is generally not sufficient for practical109
applications various circuit topologies have been developed to interface MFCs with electronic110
loads Figure 2A shows a concise flow chart of energy harvesting process from MFCs (energy111
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) where PMS (eg capacitor-based systems112
charge pump-based systems boost converter-based systems and unreported systems) as the113
central command aims to control the MFC at its optimal condition and extracts and stores the114
energy for the uses by external loads A PMS is an electronic circuit that is composed of115
electronic components such as capacitors charge pumps boost converters diodes inductors116
power switches and potentiometers with the function of harvesting MFC energy and shaping it117
to a usable form25
This is different from external resistances which have been used in most118
MFCBES studies to represent the energy output potential but not capture any usable energy119
because the current passed through the resistor is dissipated into heat 120
Table 1 lists all the commercially available parts that have been used in PMS designs for121
MFCs including the information of manufacturermodel number and the function of each122
component Additionally Table 2 summarizes the energy harvesting performances that have123
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index for necessary information needed for PMS components and functions and in the following127
sections we elaborate on each specific energy-harvesting regime for MFCs128
129
21 Capacitor-based systems130
A capacitor is composed of two conductive terminals separated by a dielectric material131
and energy is stored in the electrostatic field When a capacitor is directly connected to an MFC132
it is charged by the reactor and acts like a variable resistor because the charging current changes133
as the capacitor voltage varies26 27
The required time for a full charge is determined by the134
charging potential and capacitance27
The amount of energy 983127 (J) stored in a capacitor when the135
capacitor is charged from 983126 (V) to (V) can be calculated by136
983101
(
minus ) (1) 137
where 983126 and 983126 are the voltage across the capacitor at the beginning and end of charging138
respectively and (F) is the capacitance139
In energy harvesting systems capacitors are widely used as either final energy storage140
before utilization or transitional energy storage during energy extraction Different arrangements141
of multiple capacitors in the circuit can manipulate outputs of current voltage and power from142
MFCs To date five chargingdischarging techniques have been reported direct charging143
intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC)) alternate charging and144
discharging (ACD) charging capacitors in parallel while discharging in series and charging145
capacitive electrodes (Figure 2A and Table 2)17 27-30
146
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P 9 f 33 E i t l S i amp T h l
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reduced capacitor charging time in half and increased current generation by 35 when172
comparing with MFC stack with serial connections37
173
In the ACD mode an MFC charges capacitors first for energy collection and then the174
charged capacitors discharge the energy back to the system for MEC operation Liang et al 175
showed that the ACD mode could increase the current by 22-32 compared to the IC mode176
which was attributed to the shorter discharging time than the charging time as well as the higher177
anode potential caused by discharging the capacitor29
However power densities in the ACD178
mode were lower than those in the IC mode179
The voltage output can be increased when charging an array of capacitors connected in180
parallel and then discharging them in series By using two groups of capacitors with alternative181
charging and discharging sequence Kim et al found the output voltage was constantly enhanced182
from 07 V to as high as 25 V17
Moreover this approach does not require a minimum input183
voltage threshold so voltage can be increased without using initial boost It also effectively184
alleviated voltage reversal problem with negligible energy losses in the circuit However185
external energy supplied to control relay switches was not considered in the energy calculation186
Another study used the same array to harvest energy from multiple MFCs and power an MEC187
and it was found that energy recovery improved from 9 to 13 and H 2 production rate188
doubled from 031 to 072 m3m
3day
38 A similar study used three capacitors separately charged189
by three MFCs and then linked them in series to power an electrochemical deposition system190
(ECD) which obtained a sulfur recovery efficiency up to 465plusmn1539
191
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capacitor30
The MFC equipped with the capacitive bioanode produced a peak current density up195
to 17 Am2
which almost doubled the output of a control non-capacitive anode (09 Am2
)196
Future studies are needed to investigate the longevity of the capacitive electrodes197
198
22 Charge pump-based systems199
Charge pumps are low cost devices with simple circuit topologies In general a charge200
pump is an inductor-less DCDC converter that uses capacitors to store and transfer energy in201
order to generate either higher or lower voltages The capacitors in the charge pump circuit are202
first charged by the power source and then connected in different combinations to generate203
various voltages for different applications The S-882Z series charge pump from Seiko204
Instruments has been widely used in BES studies and it requires a minimum input voltage of 03205
V in order to generate a discharge voltage of 18-24 V (Figure 2A) The charge pump consumes206
a minimum 01-05 mA current during operation when the input voltage is 03-06 V which may207
limit its charging speed when the current is low and leads to long chargingdischarging cycles208
and low energy harvesting efficiency20 40
For example using a 316 mL air-cathode MFC as the209
power source it took 22 h for the charge pump-based circuit to output a voltage of 33 V during210
the start-up phase but a transformer-based circuit only took 25 h to output the same voltage21
211
suggesting that the energy extraction rate of the charge pump was much slower compared to the212
transformer Similar performance was observed by Wang et al who found that due to charge213
pumprsquos input current limitation its operating point was maintained at the low current region of214
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Forrestal et al found the Coulombic efficiency was only 094 indicating that the charge pump217
is not sufficient for energy harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2)
41
218
Therefore charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage MFC sources and be used for219
intermittent energy harvesting when low charging rate is acceptable such as for remote sensors220
The performance of the charge pump can be greatly improved when input current increases221
Furthermore charge pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to automatically222
control onoff and prevent reverse current flows42 43
S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the223
most commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES studies and because its224
maximum output voltage 24 V sometimes it is not sufficient to power common electronic225
devices To further increase the output voltage another layer of power converter may be placed226
after the charge pump for voltage boost227
228
23 Boost converter-based systems229
A DCDC converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC) power from one230
voltage level to another level so an unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output231
The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter) stepped up (boost converter) or232
inverted Boost converters are widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A) and the circuit of a233
boost converter includes both semiconductors such as diodes and transistors and energy storage234
components such as capacitors and inductors with a more complex structure than that in the235
charge pump While the commonly used charge pump can step up the voltage from 03 V to 18-236
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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239
voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V
21 43 45
240
Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241
voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242
STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243
MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244
very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245
TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246
output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247
MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248
decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249
system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250
MDCs (UMDCs)46
Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251
must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252
higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253
changes in environmental conditions254
To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255
capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256
converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257
components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258
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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262
consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263
biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264
the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265
source for a wireless sensor19
A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266
charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267
voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47
This method was used to268
develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269
of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270
in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271
continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272
and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273
boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49
274
The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275
voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276
is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277
Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278
worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20
279
Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280
boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50
As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281
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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284
(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)
21
285
To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286
boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287
been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47
BMFCs utilize naturally288
occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289
and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54
One challenge of BMFCs290
is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291
in the natural water body55 56
This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292
the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293
intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45
The intermittent294
energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295
such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296
efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297
BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298
possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42
A multi-anode299
decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300
interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43
301
302
24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303
ggy
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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307
such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308
magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309
diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310
effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311
a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312
such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313
harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58
314
During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315
energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316
second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317
the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318
transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60
Adami et al developed a flyback319
converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320
obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321
commercial boost converters61
322
An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323
constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324
concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325
to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326
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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330
exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency
63
Moreover the control of MPPT can be331
applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332
reversal64
However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333
the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334
time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335
energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336
peak level in real-time12
Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337
a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65
338
Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339
control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340
MFC operation40
This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341
maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342
resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343
receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344
any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345
this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346
charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347
improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348
60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349
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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353
play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354
cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355
the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356
combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66
357
358
3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359
The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360
development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361
energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362
have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363
clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364
reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365
frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366
activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367
368
1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369
that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370
voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371
process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372
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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377
consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378
harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379
collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380
performance ICs for MFCs16 67
or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68
381
382
2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383
which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384
circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385
when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386
alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387
can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388
harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389
generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390
or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391
carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392
for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393
operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394
and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395
systems which require either a small jump start57
or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70
for self-396
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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400
consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401
up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402
implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403
404
3
More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405
to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406
capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407
capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408
electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26
409
It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410
capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411
boost circuit design57
In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412
efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413
983101
983255 98308900 (2)414
983101
983255 98308900 (3)415
where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416
step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417
the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418
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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423
that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424
is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425
426
4
The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427
current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428
devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73
429
Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430
since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431
bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432
higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433
power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434
because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435
nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436
chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437
relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438
activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439
condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440
MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441
efficiency23
One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442
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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446
controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447
avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448
the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449
450
5
While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451
harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452
charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453
receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454
electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455
microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456
results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457
community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458
selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459
efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460
electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461
from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462
transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463
more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464
interesting topic to investigate465
Page 22 of 33Environmental Science amp Technology
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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468
under Award N000141310901469
470
REFERENCES471
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983148 983142 983140 983138 983148 983142 983148 983148983148 983148 983144
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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651
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663
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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29
Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
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30
Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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31
Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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32
Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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1
2
3
Practical Energy Harvesting for Microbial Fuel Cells A Review4
5
6
Heming Wangdagger Jae-Do Park
Dagger and Zhiyong Jason Ren
dagger 7
8
daggerDepartment of Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering9
University of Colorado Boulder Boulder Colorado 8030910
DaggerDepartment of Electrical Engineering11
University of Colorado Denver Denver Colorado 8020412
Wang E-mail hemingwangcoloradoedu13
Park E-mail jaedoparkucdenveredu14
Corresponding author Ren E-mail jasonrencoloradoedu15
Phone (303) 492-4137 Fax (303) 492-731716
17
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ABSTRACT18
The microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology offers sustainable solutions for distributed19
power systems and energy positive wastewater treatment but the generation of practically usable20
power from MFCs remains a major challenge for system scale up and application Commonly21
used external resistors wonrsquot harvest any usable energy so energy-harvesting circuits are needed22
for real world applications This review summarizes explains and discusses the different energy23
harvesting methods components and systems that can extract and condition the MFC energy for24
direct utilization This study aims to assist environmental scientists and engineers to gain25
fundamental understandings of these electronic systems and algorithms and it also offers26
research directions and insights on how to overcome the barriers so the technology can be27
further advanced and applied in larger scale28
Keywords Microbial Fuel Cell Energy Harvesting Power Management System29
Bioelectrochemical System30
31
TOC ART32
Energy
Power Management
System
HighVoltagePower
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1 INTRODUCTION35
The microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology has been intensively researched in the recent36
decade because it offers a solution for environmental sustainability by simultaneously37
performing pollutant removal and energy production MFCs use exoelectrogenic microorganisms38
to convert the chemical energy stored in biodegradable substances to direct electricity39
Furthermore the electrical current can be utilized for many other functions including producing40
value-added chemicals such as H2 in microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) or driving water41
desalination in microbial desalination cells (MDCs)1 2
The advancements in reactor architecture42
material and operation optimization of these bioelectrochemical systems (BES) have remarkably43
relieved the physical and chemical constraints of reactor systems3 4 leading to orders of44
magnitude increase in power output However one main challenge for MFCs or BESs to be used45
in real-world applications is the low energy output and to overcome this one key element that46
has been largely neglected is how to harvest and practically utilize the MFC energy based on the47
true potential of the system rather than simply reporting the measured power density using48
external resistors49
Compared to other alternative energy systems such as solar and wind MFC is a low50
power system due to its thermodynamic limitation The theoretical anode and cathode potentials51
calculated by Nernst equation are -03 V (vs NHE) and 08 V (vs NHE) respectively when52
acetate servers as the electron donor and oxygen serves as the electron acceptor Therefore the53
theoretical voltage across the two electrodes is 08 V - (-03 V) = 11 V5-7
However the54
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microbial inocula are used in the system Traditionally MFC power output is reported by58
changing the external resistance ( Rext ) at a 5-30 min interval or conducting a voltammetry59
sweep7-10
Figure 1 shows typical polarization and power density curves obtained from a lab60
scale MFC The curves demonstrate that MFC voltage is inversely proportional to the output61
current and there exists a pair of voltage and current that delivers the maximum power when62
Rext is equal to the system internal resistance ( Rint ) This peak point is called the maximum power63
point (MPP) which is the ideal operating point for MFCs and reported by most studies as the top64
power output7 11 12
However top power may not be the goal of all systems For MFCs used in65
wastewater treatment the primary goal may not be high power output but rather more efficient66
organic removal so a balance in operation during different phases needs to be considered67
whether to operate the system at the MPP for maximum power output or at the high current68
condition for the fastest substrate oxidation rate8 Similarly for H2 production in an MEC the69
ideal operating point is not MPP but rather the high current region because H 2 production70
directly correlates with electron flow (current) in the circuit and proton reduction at the cathode71
Because an additional voltage is required for MECs the operation point of MEC is beyond the72
limiting current of the polarization curve at negative voltages and the external energy input as73
well as energy content of the produced H2 should be considered in addition to the amount of H2 74
produced so the actual energy efficiency and energy recovery can be quantified13
In contrast75
the operation of MDCs depends on different needs because if high energy is desired the MPP76
will be the ideal point but if high salt removal is the primary goal then high current will be77
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addition the fixed Rext cannot always match the system Rint and extract energy at the MPP81
because the Rint of an MFC varies constantly with changes in microbial activities and operational82
parameters Studies showed that MFCs may lose more than 50 of produced power across the83
Rint if the operating voltage is not at the MPP15
84
To harvest usable MFC or BES energy resistors have to be replaced with devices that85
can capture and store energy and boost voltage for practical usage The direct outputs of a single86
MFC are primarily in the level of 700-800 mV and 100-2000 mWm2 which generally cannot87
directly power common electronics16
For example a single light emitting diode (LED) requires88
a minimum voltage of 2 V and consumes 30 mW17 18
and many wireless sensors need a voltage89
of 33 V and watt-level power for temperature pressure and humidity monitoring19-22 While90
higher power using single or multiple MFCs has been researched it was reported that larger91
power production cannot be easily achieved by just building larger MFCs or simply connecting92
MFCs in series or in parallel due to the nonlinear nature of MFCs23 24
Therefore developing93
tailored energy harvesting systems including MPP tracking and power management systems94
(PMS) are crucial for MFC and BES scale-up and real-world application Such systems generally95
composed of multiple electronics such as off-the-shelf capacitors rechargeable batteries charge96
pumps and boost converters but these devices are not designed for MFC conditions so the97
efficiency was low and initial voltage boosts were needed Customized harvesting systems have98
been reported by several groups including our group but there is very limited knowledge base99
for this important area because it requires understanding of power electronics circuitry and100
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methods We also provide discussions and our insights on the challenges and research needs of104
this field so researchers and engineers can help advance the technology development and finally105
overcome these barriers of MFC application106
107
2 ENERGY HARVESTING TECHNOLOGIES108
Since the direct energy production from MFCs is generally not sufficient for practical109
applications various circuit topologies have been developed to interface MFCs with electronic110
loads Figure 2A shows a concise flow chart of energy harvesting process from MFCs (energy111
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) where PMS (eg capacitor-based systems112
charge pump-based systems boost converter-based systems and unreported systems) as the113
central command aims to control the MFC at its optimal condition and extracts and stores the114
energy for the uses by external loads A PMS is an electronic circuit that is composed of115
electronic components such as capacitors charge pumps boost converters diodes inductors116
power switches and potentiometers with the function of harvesting MFC energy and shaping it117
to a usable form25
This is different from external resistances which have been used in most118
MFCBES studies to represent the energy output potential but not capture any usable energy119
because the current passed through the resistor is dissipated into heat 120
Table 1 lists all the commercially available parts that have been used in PMS designs for121
MFCs including the information of manufacturermodel number and the function of each122
component Additionally Table 2 summarizes the energy harvesting performances that have123
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index for necessary information needed for PMS components and functions and in the following127
sections we elaborate on each specific energy-harvesting regime for MFCs128
129
21 Capacitor-based systems130
A capacitor is composed of two conductive terminals separated by a dielectric material131
and energy is stored in the electrostatic field When a capacitor is directly connected to an MFC132
it is charged by the reactor and acts like a variable resistor because the charging current changes133
as the capacitor voltage varies26 27
The required time for a full charge is determined by the134
charging potential and capacitance27
The amount of energy 983127 (J) stored in a capacitor when the135
capacitor is charged from 983126 (V) to (V) can be calculated by136
983101
(
minus ) (1) 137
where 983126 and 983126 are the voltage across the capacitor at the beginning and end of charging138
respectively and (F) is the capacitance139
In energy harvesting systems capacitors are widely used as either final energy storage140
before utilization or transitional energy storage during energy extraction Different arrangements141
of multiple capacitors in the circuit can manipulate outputs of current voltage and power from142
MFCs To date five chargingdischarging techniques have been reported direct charging143
intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC)) alternate charging and144
discharging (ACD) charging capacitors in parallel while discharging in series and charging145
capacitive electrodes (Figure 2A and Table 2)17 27-30
146
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reduced capacitor charging time in half and increased current generation by 35 when172
comparing with MFC stack with serial connections37
173
In the ACD mode an MFC charges capacitors first for energy collection and then the174
charged capacitors discharge the energy back to the system for MEC operation Liang et al 175
showed that the ACD mode could increase the current by 22-32 compared to the IC mode176
which was attributed to the shorter discharging time than the charging time as well as the higher177
anode potential caused by discharging the capacitor29
However power densities in the ACD178
mode were lower than those in the IC mode179
The voltage output can be increased when charging an array of capacitors connected in180
parallel and then discharging them in series By using two groups of capacitors with alternative181
charging and discharging sequence Kim et al found the output voltage was constantly enhanced182
from 07 V to as high as 25 V17
Moreover this approach does not require a minimum input183
voltage threshold so voltage can be increased without using initial boost It also effectively184
alleviated voltage reversal problem with negligible energy losses in the circuit However185
external energy supplied to control relay switches was not considered in the energy calculation186
Another study used the same array to harvest energy from multiple MFCs and power an MEC187
and it was found that energy recovery improved from 9 to 13 and H 2 production rate188
doubled from 031 to 072 m3m
3day
38 A similar study used three capacitors separately charged189
by three MFCs and then linked them in series to power an electrochemical deposition system190
(ECD) which obtained a sulfur recovery efficiency up to 465plusmn1539
191
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capacitor30
The MFC equipped with the capacitive bioanode produced a peak current density up195
to 17 Am2
which almost doubled the output of a control non-capacitive anode (09 Am2
)196
Future studies are needed to investigate the longevity of the capacitive electrodes197
198
22 Charge pump-based systems199
Charge pumps are low cost devices with simple circuit topologies In general a charge200
pump is an inductor-less DCDC converter that uses capacitors to store and transfer energy in201
order to generate either higher or lower voltages The capacitors in the charge pump circuit are202
first charged by the power source and then connected in different combinations to generate203
various voltages for different applications The S-882Z series charge pump from Seiko204
Instruments has been widely used in BES studies and it requires a minimum input voltage of 03205
V in order to generate a discharge voltage of 18-24 V (Figure 2A) The charge pump consumes206
a minimum 01-05 mA current during operation when the input voltage is 03-06 V which may207
limit its charging speed when the current is low and leads to long chargingdischarging cycles208
and low energy harvesting efficiency20 40
For example using a 316 mL air-cathode MFC as the209
power source it took 22 h for the charge pump-based circuit to output a voltage of 33 V during210
the start-up phase but a transformer-based circuit only took 25 h to output the same voltage21
211
suggesting that the energy extraction rate of the charge pump was much slower compared to the212
transformer Similar performance was observed by Wang et al who found that due to charge213
pumprsquos input current limitation its operating point was maintained at the low current region of214
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Forrestal et al found the Coulombic efficiency was only 094 indicating that the charge pump217
is not sufficient for energy harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2)
41
218
Therefore charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage MFC sources and be used for219
intermittent energy harvesting when low charging rate is acceptable such as for remote sensors220
The performance of the charge pump can be greatly improved when input current increases221
Furthermore charge pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to automatically222
control onoff and prevent reverse current flows42 43
S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the223
most commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES studies and because its224
maximum output voltage 24 V sometimes it is not sufficient to power common electronic225
devices To further increase the output voltage another layer of power converter may be placed226
after the charge pump for voltage boost227
228
23 Boost converter-based systems229
A DCDC converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC) power from one230
voltage level to another level so an unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output231
The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter) stepped up (boost converter) or232
inverted Boost converters are widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A) and the circuit of a233
boost converter includes both semiconductors such as diodes and transistors and energy storage234
components such as capacitors and inductors with a more complex structure than that in the235
charge pump While the commonly used charge pump can step up the voltage from 03 V to 18-236
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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239
voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V
21 43 45
240
Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241
voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242
STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243
MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244
very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245
TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246
output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247
MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248
decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249
system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250
MDCs (UMDCs)46
Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251
must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252
higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253
changes in environmental conditions254
To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255
capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256
converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257
components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258
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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262
consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263
biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264
the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265
source for a wireless sensor19
A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266
charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267
voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47
This method was used to268
develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269
of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270
in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271
continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272
and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273
boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49
274
The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275
voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276
is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277
Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278
worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20
279
Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280
boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50
As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281
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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284
(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)
21
285
To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286
boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287
been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47
BMFCs utilize naturally288
occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289
and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54
One challenge of BMFCs290
is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291
in the natural water body55 56
This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292
the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293
intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45
The intermittent294
energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295
such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296
efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297
BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298
possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42
A multi-anode299
decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300
interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43
301
302
24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303
ggy
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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307
such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308
magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309
diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310
effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311
a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312
such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313
harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58
314
During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315
energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316
second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317
the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318
transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60
Adami et al developed a flyback319
converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320
obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321
commercial boost converters61
322
An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323
constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324
concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325
to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326
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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330
exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency
63
Moreover the control of MPPT can be331
applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332
reversal64
However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333
the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334
time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335
energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336
peak level in real-time12
Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337
a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65
338
Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339
control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340
MFC operation40
This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341
maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342
resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343
receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344
any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345
this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346
charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347
improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348
60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349
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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353
play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354
cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355
the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356
combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66
357
358
3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359
The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360
development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361
energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362
have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363
clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364
reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365
frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366
activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367
368
1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369
that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370
voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371
process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372
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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377
consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378
harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379
collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380
performance ICs for MFCs16 67
or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68
381
382
2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383
which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384
circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385
when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386
alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387
can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388
harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389
generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390
or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391
carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392
for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393
operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394
and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395
systems which require either a small jump start57
or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70
for self-396
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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400
consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401
up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402
implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403
404
3
More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405
to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406
capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407
capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408
electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26
409
It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410
capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411
boost circuit design57
In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412
efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413
983101
983255 98308900 (2)414
983101
983255 98308900 (3)415
where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416
step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417
the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418
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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423
that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424
is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425
426
4
The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427
current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428
devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73
429
Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430
since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431
bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432
higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433
power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434
because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435
nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436
chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437
relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438
activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439
condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440
MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441
efficiency23
One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442
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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446
controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447
avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448
the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449
450
5
While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451
harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452
charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453
receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454
electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455
microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456
results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457
community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458
selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459
efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460
electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461
from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462
transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463
more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464
interesting topic to investigate465
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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468
under Award N000141310901469
470
REFERENCES471
1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472
983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983089983091983084 31 (8) 17969830851807473
2 H983137983154983150983145983155983139983144 F 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 F983154983151983149 MFC 983156983151 M983128C 983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983148983151983143983145983139983137983148 983139983137983156983144983151983140983141983155 983137983150983140 983156983144983141983145983154474 983152983151983156983141983150983156983145983137983148 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983107983144983141983149 983123983151983139 983122983141983158 983090983088983089983088983084 39 (11) 44339830854448475
3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476
983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16659830851671477
4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478
B983157983145983155983149983137983150 C J 983118 983118983141983159 983137983152983152983148983145983139983137983156983145983151983150983155 983137983150983140 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983151983142 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148 983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148479
983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16739830851685480
5 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 B983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983149983141983156983137983148 983154983141983139983151983158983141983154983161 983142983154983151983149 983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 A 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983127983137983156983141983154 983122983141983155481
983090983088983089983092 66 219983085232482 6 D983157 983130 L983145 H G983157 983124 A 983155983156983137983156983141 983151983142 983156983144983141 983137983154983156 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 A 983152983154983151983149983145983155983145983150983143 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983142983151983154483
983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 983156983154983141983137983156983149983141983150983156 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983141983150983141983154983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983088983095983084 25 (5) 464983085482484
7 L983151983143983137983150 B E H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 B 983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 K983141983148983148983141983154 J F983154983141983143983157983145983137 983123 A983141983148983156983141983154983149983137983150 983120485
983126983141983154983155983156983154983137983141983156983141 983127 983122983137983138983137983141983161 K M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983149983141983156983144983151983140983151983148983151983143983161 983137983150983140 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148486
983090983088983088983094983084 40 (17) 51819830855192487
8 983122983141983150 983130 983129983137983150 H 983127983137983150983143 983127 M983141983150983139983144 M M 983122983141983143983137983150 J M C983144983137983154983137983156983141983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983156488
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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29
Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
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30
Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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31
Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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32
Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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33
42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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ABSTRACT18
The microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology offers sustainable solutions for distributed19
power systems and energy positive wastewater treatment but the generation of practically usable20
power from MFCs remains a major challenge for system scale up and application Commonly21
used external resistors wonrsquot harvest any usable energy so energy-harvesting circuits are needed22
for real world applications This review summarizes explains and discusses the different energy23
harvesting methods components and systems that can extract and condition the MFC energy for24
direct utilization This study aims to assist environmental scientists and engineers to gain25
fundamental understandings of these electronic systems and algorithms and it also offers26
research directions and insights on how to overcome the barriers so the technology can be27
further advanced and applied in larger scale28
Keywords Microbial Fuel Cell Energy Harvesting Power Management System29
Bioelectrochemical System30
31
TOC ART32
Energy
Power Management
System
HighVoltagePower
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1 INTRODUCTION35
The microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology has been intensively researched in the recent36
decade because it offers a solution for environmental sustainability by simultaneously37
performing pollutant removal and energy production MFCs use exoelectrogenic microorganisms38
to convert the chemical energy stored in biodegradable substances to direct electricity39
Furthermore the electrical current can be utilized for many other functions including producing40
value-added chemicals such as H2 in microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) or driving water41
desalination in microbial desalination cells (MDCs)1 2
The advancements in reactor architecture42
material and operation optimization of these bioelectrochemical systems (BES) have remarkably43
relieved the physical and chemical constraints of reactor systems3 4 leading to orders of44
magnitude increase in power output However one main challenge for MFCs or BESs to be used45
in real-world applications is the low energy output and to overcome this one key element that46
has been largely neglected is how to harvest and practically utilize the MFC energy based on the47
true potential of the system rather than simply reporting the measured power density using48
external resistors49
Compared to other alternative energy systems such as solar and wind MFC is a low50
power system due to its thermodynamic limitation The theoretical anode and cathode potentials51
calculated by Nernst equation are -03 V (vs NHE) and 08 V (vs NHE) respectively when52
acetate servers as the electron donor and oxygen serves as the electron acceptor Therefore the53
theoretical voltage across the two electrodes is 08 V - (-03 V) = 11 V5-7
However the54
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microbial inocula are used in the system Traditionally MFC power output is reported by58
changing the external resistance ( Rext ) at a 5-30 min interval or conducting a voltammetry59
sweep7-10
Figure 1 shows typical polarization and power density curves obtained from a lab60
scale MFC The curves demonstrate that MFC voltage is inversely proportional to the output61
current and there exists a pair of voltage and current that delivers the maximum power when62
Rext is equal to the system internal resistance ( Rint ) This peak point is called the maximum power63
point (MPP) which is the ideal operating point for MFCs and reported by most studies as the top64
power output7 11 12
However top power may not be the goal of all systems For MFCs used in65
wastewater treatment the primary goal may not be high power output but rather more efficient66
organic removal so a balance in operation during different phases needs to be considered67
whether to operate the system at the MPP for maximum power output or at the high current68
condition for the fastest substrate oxidation rate8 Similarly for H2 production in an MEC the69
ideal operating point is not MPP but rather the high current region because H 2 production70
directly correlates with electron flow (current) in the circuit and proton reduction at the cathode71
Because an additional voltage is required for MECs the operation point of MEC is beyond the72
limiting current of the polarization curve at negative voltages and the external energy input as73
well as energy content of the produced H2 should be considered in addition to the amount of H2 74
produced so the actual energy efficiency and energy recovery can be quantified13
In contrast75
the operation of MDCs depends on different needs because if high energy is desired the MPP76
will be the ideal point but if high salt removal is the primary goal then high current will be77
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addition the fixed Rext cannot always match the system Rint and extract energy at the MPP81
because the Rint of an MFC varies constantly with changes in microbial activities and operational82
parameters Studies showed that MFCs may lose more than 50 of produced power across the83
Rint if the operating voltage is not at the MPP15
84
To harvest usable MFC or BES energy resistors have to be replaced with devices that85
can capture and store energy and boost voltage for practical usage The direct outputs of a single86
MFC are primarily in the level of 700-800 mV and 100-2000 mWm2 which generally cannot87
directly power common electronics16
For example a single light emitting diode (LED) requires88
a minimum voltage of 2 V and consumes 30 mW17 18
and many wireless sensors need a voltage89
of 33 V and watt-level power for temperature pressure and humidity monitoring19-22 While90
higher power using single or multiple MFCs has been researched it was reported that larger91
power production cannot be easily achieved by just building larger MFCs or simply connecting92
MFCs in series or in parallel due to the nonlinear nature of MFCs23 24
Therefore developing93
tailored energy harvesting systems including MPP tracking and power management systems94
(PMS) are crucial for MFC and BES scale-up and real-world application Such systems generally95
composed of multiple electronics such as off-the-shelf capacitors rechargeable batteries charge96
pumps and boost converters but these devices are not designed for MFC conditions so the97
efficiency was low and initial voltage boosts were needed Customized harvesting systems have98
been reported by several groups including our group but there is very limited knowledge base99
for this important area because it requires understanding of power electronics circuitry and100
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methods We also provide discussions and our insights on the challenges and research needs of104
this field so researchers and engineers can help advance the technology development and finally105
overcome these barriers of MFC application106
107
2 ENERGY HARVESTING TECHNOLOGIES108
Since the direct energy production from MFCs is generally not sufficient for practical109
applications various circuit topologies have been developed to interface MFCs with electronic110
loads Figure 2A shows a concise flow chart of energy harvesting process from MFCs (energy111
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) where PMS (eg capacitor-based systems112
charge pump-based systems boost converter-based systems and unreported systems) as the113
central command aims to control the MFC at its optimal condition and extracts and stores the114
energy for the uses by external loads A PMS is an electronic circuit that is composed of115
electronic components such as capacitors charge pumps boost converters diodes inductors116
power switches and potentiometers with the function of harvesting MFC energy and shaping it117
to a usable form25
This is different from external resistances which have been used in most118
MFCBES studies to represent the energy output potential but not capture any usable energy119
because the current passed through the resistor is dissipated into heat 120
Table 1 lists all the commercially available parts that have been used in PMS designs for121
MFCs including the information of manufacturermodel number and the function of each122
component Additionally Table 2 summarizes the energy harvesting performances that have123
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index for necessary information needed for PMS components and functions and in the following127
sections we elaborate on each specific energy-harvesting regime for MFCs128
129
21 Capacitor-based systems130
A capacitor is composed of two conductive terminals separated by a dielectric material131
and energy is stored in the electrostatic field When a capacitor is directly connected to an MFC132
it is charged by the reactor and acts like a variable resistor because the charging current changes133
as the capacitor voltage varies26 27
The required time for a full charge is determined by the134
charging potential and capacitance27
The amount of energy 983127 (J) stored in a capacitor when the135
capacitor is charged from 983126 (V) to (V) can be calculated by136
983101
(
minus ) (1) 137
where 983126 and 983126 are the voltage across the capacitor at the beginning and end of charging138
respectively and (F) is the capacitance139
In energy harvesting systems capacitors are widely used as either final energy storage140
before utilization or transitional energy storage during energy extraction Different arrangements141
of multiple capacitors in the circuit can manipulate outputs of current voltage and power from142
MFCs To date five chargingdischarging techniques have been reported direct charging143
intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC)) alternate charging and144
discharging (ACD) charging capacitors in parallel while discharging in series and charging145
capacitive electrodes (Figure 2A and Table 2)17 27-30
146
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P 9 f 33 E i t l S i amp T h l
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reduced capacitor charging time in half and increased current generation by 35 when172
comparing with MFC stack with serial connections37
173
In the ACD mode an MFC charges capacitors first for energy collection and then the174
charged capacitors discharge the energy back to the system for MEC operation Liang et al 175
showed that the ACD mode could increase the current by 22-32 compared to the IC mode176
which was attributed to the shorter discharging time than the charging time as well as the higher177
anode potential caused by discharging the capacitor29
However power densities in the ACD178
mode were lower than those in the IC mode179
The voltage output can be increased when charging an array of capacitors connected in180
parallel and then discharging them in series By using two groups of capacitors with alternative181
charging and discharging sequence Kim et al found the output voltage was constantly enhanced182
from 07 V to as high as 25 V17
Moreover this approach does not require a minimum input183
voltage threshold so voltage can be increased without using initial boost It also effectively184
alleviated voltage reversal problem with negligible energy losses in the circuit However185
external energy supplied to control relay switches was not considered in the energy calculation186
Another study used the same array to harvest energy from multiple MFCs and power an MEC187
and it was found that energy recovery improved from 9 to 13 and H 2 production rate188
doubled from 031 to 072 m3m
3day
38 A similar study used three capacitors separately charged189
by three MFCs and then linked them in series to power an electrochemical deposition system190
(ECD) which obtained a sulfur recovery efficiency up to 465plusmn1539
191
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capacitor30
The MFC equipped with the capacitive bioanode produced a peak current density up195
to 17 Am2
which almost doubled the output of a control non-capacitive anode (09 Am2
)196
Future studies are needed to investigate the longevity of the capacitive electrodes197
198
22 Charge pump-based systems199
Charge pumps are low cost devices with simple circuit topologies In general a charge200
pump is an inductor-less DCDC converter that uses capacitors to store and transfer energy in201
order to generate either higher or lower voltages The capacitors in the charge pump circuit are202
first charged by the power source and then connected in different combinations to generate203
various voltages for different applications The S-882Z series charge pump from Seiko204
Instruments has been widely used in BES studies and it requires a minimum input voltage of 03205
V in order to generate a discharge voltage of 18-24 V (Figure 2A) The charge pump consumes206
a minimum 01-05 mA current during operation when the input voltage is 03-06 V which may207
limit its charging speed when the current is low and leads to long chargingdischarging cycles208
and low energy harvesting efficiency20 40
For example using a 316 mL air-cathode MFC as the209
power source it took 22 h for the charge pump-based circuit to output a voltage of 33 V during210
the start-up phase but a transformer-based circuit only took 25 h to output the same voltage21
211
suggesting that the energy extraction rate of the charge pump was much slower compared to the212
transformer Similar performance was observed by Wang et al who found that due to charge213
pumprsquos input current limitation its operating point was maintained at the low current region of214
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Forrestal et al found the Coulombic efficiency was only 094 indicating that the charge pump217
is not sufficient for energy harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2)
41
218
Therefore charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage MFC sources and be used for219
intermittent energy harvesting when low charging rate is acceptable such as for remote sensors220
The performance of the charge pump can be greatly improved when input current increases221
Furthermore charge pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to automatically222
control onoff and prevent reverse current flows42 43
S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the223
most commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES studies and because its224
maximum output voltage 24 V sometimes it is not sufficient to power common electronic225
devices To further increase the output voltage another layer of power converter may be placed226
after the charge pump for voltage boost227
228
23 Boost converter-based systems229
A DCDC converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC) power from one230
voltage level to another level so an unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output231
The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter) stepped up (boost converter) or232
inverted Boost converters are widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A) and the circuit of a233
boost converter includes both semiconductors such as diodes and transistors and energy storage234
components such as capacitors and inductors with a more complex structure than that in the235
charge pump While the commonly used charge pump can step up the voltage from 03 V to 18-236
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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239
voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V
21 43 45
240
Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241
voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242
STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243
MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244
very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245
TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246
output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247
MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248
decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249
system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250
MDCs (UMDCs)46
Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251
must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252
higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253
changes in environmental conditions254
To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255
capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256
converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257
components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258
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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262
consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263
biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264
the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265
source for a wireless sensor19
A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266
charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267
voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47
This method was used to268
develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269
of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270
in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271
continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272
and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273
boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49
274
The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275
voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276
is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277
Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278
worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20
279
Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280
boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50
As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281
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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284
(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)
21
285
To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286
boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287
been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47
BMFCs utilize naturally288
occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289
and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54
One challenge of BMFCs290
is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291
in the natural water body55 56
This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292
the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293
intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45
The intermittent294
energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295
such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296
efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297
BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298
possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42
A multi-anode299
decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300
interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43
301
302
24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303
ggy
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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307
such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308
magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309
diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310
effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311
a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312
such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313
harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58
314
During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315
energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316
second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317
the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318
transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60
Adami et al developed a flyback319
converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320
obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321
commercial boost converters61
322
An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323
constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324
concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325
to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326
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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330
exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency
63
Moreover the control of MPPT can be331
applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332
reversal64
However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333
the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334
time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335
energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336
peak level in real-time12
Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337
a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65
338
Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339
control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340
MFC operation40
This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341
maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342
resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343
receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344
any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345
this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346
charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347
improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348
60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349
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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353
play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354
cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355
the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356
combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66
357
358
3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359
The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360
development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361
energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362
have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363
clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364
reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365
frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366
activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367
368
1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369
that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370
voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371
process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372
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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377
consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378
harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379
collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380
performance ICs for MFCs16 67
or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68
381
382
2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383
which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384
circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385
when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386
alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387
can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388
harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389
generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390
or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391
carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392
for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393
operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394
and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395
systems which require either a small jump start57
or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70
for self-396
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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400
consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401
up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402
implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403
404
3
More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405
to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406
capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407
capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408
electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26
409
It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410
capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411
boost circuit design57
In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412
efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413
983101
983255 98308900 (2)414
983101
983255 98308900 (3)415
where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416
step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417
the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418
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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423
that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424
is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425
426
4
The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427
current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428
devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73
429
Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430
since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431
bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432
higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433
power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434
because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435
nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436
chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437
relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438
activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439
condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440
MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441
efficiency23
One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442
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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446
controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447
avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448
the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449
450
5
While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451
harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452
charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453
receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454
electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455
microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456
results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457
community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458
selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459
efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460
electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461
from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462
transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463
more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464
interesting topic to investigate465
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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468
under Award N000141310901469
470
REFERENCES471
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983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983089983091983084 31 (8) 17969830851807473
2 H983137983154983150983145983155983139983144 F 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 F983154983151983149 MFC 983156983151 M983128C 983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983148983151983143983145983139983137983148 983139983137983156983144983151983140983141983155 983137983150983140 983156983144983141983145983154474 983152983151983156983141983150983156983145983137983148 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983107983144983141983149 983123983151983139 983122983141983158 983090983088983089983088983084 39 (11) 44339830854448475
3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476
983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16659830851671477
4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478
B983157983145983155983149983137983150 C J 983118 983118983141983159 983137983152983152983148983145983139983137983156983145983151983150983155 983137983150983140 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983151983142 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148 983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148479
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5 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 B983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983149983141983156983137983148 983154983141983139983151983158983141983154983161 983142983154983151983149 983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 A 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983127983137983156983141983154 983122983141983155481
983090983088983089983092 66 219983085232482 6 D983157 983130 L983145 H G983157 983124 A 983155983156983137983156983141 983151983142 983156983144983141 983137983154983156 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 A 983152983154983151983149983145983155983145983150983143 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983142983151983154483
983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 983156983154983141983137983156983149983141983150983156 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983141983150983141983154983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983088983095983084 25 (5) 464983085482484
7 L983151983143983137983150 B E H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 B 983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 K983141983148983148983141983154 J F983154983141983143983157983145983137 983123 A983141983148983156983141983154983149983137983150 983120485
983126983141983154983155983156983154983137983141983156983141 983127 983122983137983138983137983141983161 K M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983149983141983156983144983151983140983151983148983151983143983161 983137983150983140 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148486
983090983088983088983094983084 40 (17) 51819830855192487
8 983122983141983150 983130 983129983137983150 H 983127983137983150983143 983127 M983141983150983139983144 M M 983122983141983143983137983150 J M C983144983137983154983137983156983141983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983156488
983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148983148983161 983137983150983140 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148983148983161 983149983141983137983150983145983150983143983142983157983148 983156983145983149983141 983155983139983137983148983141983155 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983089983084 45 (6) 2435983085489
2441490 9 L983161983151983150 D 983129 B983157983154983141983156 F 983126983151983143983141983148 983124 M M983151983150983145983141983154 J983085M I983155 983154983141983155983145983155983156983137983150983139983141 983142983157983156983145983148983141 C983144983137983150983143983145983150983143 983141983160983156983141983154983150983137983148491
983154983141983155983145983155983156983137983150983139983141 983140983151983141983155 983150983151983156 983145983149983152983154983151983158983141 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983106983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983155983156983154983161 983090983088983089983088983084 78 (1) 29830857492
10 983127983137983156983155983151983150 983126 J L983151983143983137983150 B E A983150983137983148983161983155983145983155 983151983142 983152983151983148983137983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983149983141983156983144983151983140983155 983142983151983154 983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983152983151983159983141983154 983151983158983141983154983155983144983151983151983156493
983145983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983109983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149 983107983151983149983149983157983150 983090983088983089983089983084 13 (1) 5498308556494
11 D983141983143983154983141983150983150983141 983118 B983157983154983141983156 F A983148983148983137983154983140 B B983141983158983145983148983137983139983153983157983137 983120 E983148983141983139983156983154983145983139983137983148 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983143983141983150983141983154983137983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983137 983148983137983154983143983141495
983150983157983149983138983141983154 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983151983152983141983154983137983156983145983150983143 983137983156 983149983137983160983145983149983157983149 983152983151983159983141983154 983152983151983145983150983156 983141983148983141983139983156983154983145983139983137983148 983148983151983137983140 983114 983120983151983159983141983154 983123983151983157983154983139983141983155 983090983088983089983090983084 496
205 188983085193497
12 983120983137983154983147 J983085D 983122983141983150 983130 H983161983155983156983141983154983141983155983145983155 983139983151983150983156983154983151983148983148983141983154 983138983137983155983141983140 983149983137983160983145983149983157983149 983152983151983159983141983154 983152983151983145983150983156 983156983154983137983139983147983145983150983143 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983144983137983154983158983141983155983156983145983150983143498 983155983161983155983156983141983149 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983114 983120983151983159983141983154 983123983151983157983154983139983141983155 983090983088983089983090983084 205 (9) 151983085156499
13 L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983148983148 D C983144983141983150983143 983123 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127500
983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 A M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983148983161983155983145983155 983139983141983148983148983155 983142983151983154 983144983145983143983144 983161983145983141983148983140 983144983161983140983154983151983143983141983150 983143983137983155 983152983154983151983140983157983139983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983151983154983143983137983150983145983139 983149983137983156983156983141983154501
983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983088983096983084 42 (23) 86309830858640502
14 J983137983139983151983138983155983151983150 K 983123 D983154983141983159 D M H983141 983130 983125983155983141 983151983142 983137 983148983145983156983141983154983085983155983139983137983148983141 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983140983141983155983137983148983145983150983137983156983145983151983150 983139983141983148983148 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149503
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17 K983145983149 983129 H983137983156983162983141983148983148 M C H983157983156983139983144983145983150983155983151983150 A J L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983152983156983157983154983145983150983143 983152983151983159983141983154 983137983156 983144983145983143983144983141983154 983158983151983148983156983137983143983141983155 983142983154983151983149511
983137983154983154983137983161983155 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983159983145983156983144983151983157983156 983158983151983148983156983137983143983141 983154983141983155983141983154983155983137983148 983109983150983141983154983143983161 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983090983088983089983089983084 4 (11) 46629830854667512
18 D983145983137983149983151983150983140 D C983151983161983148983141 983123 983123983139983137983154983149983137983143983150983137983150983145 983123 H983137983161983141983155 J 983127983145983154983141983148983141983155983155 983155983141983150983155983151983154 983150983141983156983159983151983154983147983155 983137983150983140 983139983144983141983149983151983085513
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70 D983141983143983154983141983150983150983141 983118 B983157983154983141983156 F M983151983154983141983148 F A983140983137983149983145 983123983085E L983137983138983154983151983157983155983155983141 D A983148983148983137983154983140 B 983130983137983151983157983145 A 983123983141983148983142983085983155983156983137983154983156983145983150983143638
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72 983127983151983156983137983159983137983085B983141983154983143983141983150 A 983121 C983144983137983140983159983145983139983147 D B 983122983145983139983144983156983141983154 K E 983124983141983150983140983141983154 L M 983122983141983145983149983141983154983155 C E G983151983150983143 983129 I983150643
983148 983142 983140 983138 983148 983142 983148 983148983148 983148 983144
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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651
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983129 E983140 983123983137983150 D983145983141983143983151 C983137983148983145983142983151983154983150983145983137 983125983123A 2010 983152983152 764219831299830851662
663
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
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Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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1 INTRODUCTION35
The microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology has been intensively researched in the recent36
decade because it offers a solution for environmental sustainability by simultaneously37
performing pollutant removal and energy production MFCs use exoelectrogenic microorganisms38
to convert the chemical energy stored in biodegradable substances to direct electricity39
Furthermore the electrical current can be utilized for many other functions including producing40
value-added chemicals such as H2 in microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) or driving water41
desalination in microbial desalination cells (MDCs)1 2
The advancements in reactor architecture42
material and operation optimization of these bioelectrochemical systems (BES) have remarkably43
relieved the physical and chemical constraints of reactor systems3 4 leading to orders of44
magnitude increase in power output However one main challenge for MFCs or BESs to be used45
in real-world applications is the low energy output and to overcome this one key element that46
has been largely neglected is how to harvest and practically utilize the MFC energy based on the47
true potential of the system rather than simply reporting the measured power density using48
external resistors49
Compared to other alternative energy systems such as solar and wind MFC is a low50
power system due to its thermodynamic limitation The theoretical anode and cathode potentials51
calculated by Nernst equation are -03 V (vs NHE) and 08 V (vs NHE) respectively when52
acetate servers as the electron donor and oxygen serves as the electron acceptor Therefore the53
theoretical voltage across the two electrodes is 08 V - (-03 V) = 11 V5-7
However the54
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microbial inocula are used in the system Traditionally MFC power output is reported by58
changing the external resistance ( Rext ) at a 5-30 min interval or conducting a voltammetry59
sweep7-10
Figure 1 shows typical polarization and power density curves obtained from a lab60
scale MFC The curves demonstrate that MFC voltage is inversely proportional to the output61
current and there exists a pair of voltage and current that delivers the maximum power when62
Rext is equal to the system internal resistance ( Rint ) This peak point is called the maximum power63
point (MPP) which is the ideal operating point for MFCs and reported by most studies as the top64
power output7 11 12
However top power may not be the goal of all systems For MFCs used in65
wastewater treatment the primary goal may not be high power output but rather more efficient66
organic removal so a balance in operation during different phases needs to be considered67
whether to operate the system at the MPP for maximum power output or at the high current68
condition for the fastest substrate oxidation rate8 Similarly for H2 production in an MEC the69
ideal operating point is not MPP but rather the high current region because H 2 production70
directly correlates with electron flow (current) in the circuit and proton reduction at the cathode71
Because an additional voltage is required for MECs the operation point of MEC is beyond the72
limiting current of the polarization curve at negative voltages and the external energy input as73
well as energy content of the produced H2 should be considered in addition to the amount of H2 74
produced so the actual energy efficiency and energy recovery can be quantified13
In contrast75
the operation of MDCs depends on different needs because if high energy is desired the MPP76
will be the ideal point but if high salt removal is the primary goal then high current will be77
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addition the fixed Rext cannot always match the system Rint and extract energy at the MPP81
because the Rint of an MFC varies constantly with changes in microbial activities and operational82
parameters Studies showed that MFCs may lose more than 50 of produced power across the83
Rint if the operating voltage is not at the MPP15
84
To harvest usable MFC or BES energy resistors have to be replaced with devices that85
can capture and store energy and boost voltage for practical usage The direct outputs of a single86
MFC are primarily in the level of 700-800 mV and 100-2000 mWm2 which generally cannot87
directly power common electronics16
For example a single light emitting diode (LED) requires88
a minimum voltage of 2 V and consumes 30 mW17 18
and many wireless sensors need a voltage89
of 33 V and watt-level power for temperature pressure and humidity monitoring19-22 While90
higher power using single or multiple MFCs has been researched it was reported that larger91
power production cannot be easily achieved by just building larger MFCs or simply connecting92
MFCs in series or in parallel due to the nonlinear nature of MFCs23 24
Therefore developing93
tailored energy harvesting systems including MPP tracking and power management systems94
(PMS) are crucial for MFC and BES scale-up and real-world application Such systems generally95
composed of multiple electronics such as off-the-shelf capacitors rechargeable batteries charge96
pumps and boost converters but these devices are not designed for MFC conditions so the97
efficiency was low and initial voltage boosts were needed Customized harvesting systems have98
been reported by several groups including our group but there is very limited knowledge base99
for this important area because it requires understanding of power electronics circuitry and100
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methods We also provide discussions and our insights on the challenges and research needs of104
this field so researchers and engineers can help advance the technology development and finally105
overcome these barriers of MFC application106
107
2 ENERGY HARVESTING TECHNOLOGIES108
Since the direct energy production from MFCs is generally not sufficient for practical109
applications various circuit topologies have been developed to interface MFCs with electronic110
loads Figure 2A shows a concise flow chart of energy harvesting process from MFCs (energy111
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) where PMS (eg capacitor-based systems112
charge pump-based systems boost converter-based systems and unreported systems) as the113
central command aims to control the MFC at its optimal condition and extracts and stores the114
energy for the uses by external loads A PMS is an electronic circuit that is composed of115
electronic components such as capacitors charge pumps boost converters diodes inductors116
power switches and potentiometers with the function of harvesting MFC energy and shaping it117
to a usable form25
This is different from external resistances which have been used in most118
MFCBES studies to represent the energy output potential but not capture any usable energy119
because the current passed through the resistor is dissipated into heat 120
Table 1 lists all the commercially available parts that have been used in PMS designs for121
MFCs including the information of manufacturermodel number and the function of each122
component Additionally Table 2 summarizes the energy harvesting performances that have123
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index for necessary information needed for PMS components and functions and in the following127
sections we elaborate on each specific energy-harvesting regime for MFCs128
129
21 Capacitor-based systems130
A capacitor is composed of two conductive terminals separated by a dielectric material131
and energy is stored in the electrostatic field When a capacitor is directly connected to an MFC132
it is charged by the reactor and acts like a variable resistor because the charging current changes133
as the capacitor voltage varies26 27
The required time for a full charge is determined by the134
charging potential and capacitance27
The amount of energy 983127 (J) stored in a capacitor when the135
capacitor is charged from 983126 (V) to (V) can be calculated by136
983101
(
minus ) (1) 137
where 983126 and 983126 are the voltage across the capacitor at the beginning and end of charging138
respectively and (F) is the capacitance139
In energy harvesting systems capacitors are widely used as either final energy storage140
before utilization or transitional energy storage during energy extraction Different arrangements141
of multiple capacitors in the circuit can manipulate outputs of current voltage and power from142
MFCs To date five chargingdischarging techniques have been reported direct charging143
intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC)) alternate charging and144
discharging (ACD) charging capacitors in parallel while discharging in series and charging145
capacitive electrodes (Figure 2A and Table 2)17 27-30
146
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P 9 f 33 E i t l S i amp T h l
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reduced capacitor charging time in half and increased current generation by 35 when172
comparing with MFC stack with serial connections37
173
In the ACD mode an MFC charges capacitors first for energy collection and then the174
charged capacitors discharge the energy back to the system for MEC operation Liang et al 175
showed that the ACD mode could increase the current by 22-32 compared to the IC mode176
which was attributed to the shorter discharging time than the charging time as well as the higher177
anode potential caused by discharging the capacitor29
However power densities in the ACD178
mode were lower than those in the IC mode179
The voltage output can be increased when charging an array of capacitors connected in180
parallel and then discharging them in series By using two groups of capacitors with alternative181
charging and discharging sequence Kim et al found the output voltage was constantly enhanced182
from 07 V to as high as 25 V17
Moreover this approach does not require a minimum input183
voltage threshold so voltage can be increased without using initial boost It also effectively184
alleviated voltage reversal problem with negligible energy losses in the circuit However185
external energy supplied to control relay switches was not considered in the energy calculation186
Another study used the same array to harvest energy from multiple MFCs and power an MEC187
and it was found that energy recovery improved from 9 to 13 and H 2 production rate188
doubled from 031 to 072 m3m
3day
38 A similar study used three capacitors separately charged189
by three MFCs and then linked them in series to power an electrochemical deposition system190
(ECD) which obtained a sulfur recovery efficiency up to 465plusmn1539
191
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capacitor30
The MFC equipped with the capacitive bioanode produced a peak current density up195
to 17 Am2
which almost doubled the output of a control non-capacitive anode (09 Am2
)196
Future studies are needed to investigate the longevity of the capacitive electrodes197
198
22 Charge pump-based systems199
Charge pumps are low cost devices with simple circuit topologies In general a charge200
pump is an inductor-less DCDC converter that uses capacitors to store and transfer energy in201
order to generate either higher or lower voltages The capacitors in the charge pump circuit are202
first charged by the power source and then connected in different combinations to generate203
various voltages for different applications The S-882Z series charge pump from Seiko204
Instruments has been widely used in BES studies and it requires a minimum input voltage of 03205
V in order to generate a discharge voltage of 18-24 V (Figure 2A) The charge pump consumes206
a minimum 01-05 mA current during operation when the input voltage is 03-06 V which may207
limit its charging speed when the current is low and leads to long chargingdischarging cycles208
and low energy harvesting efficiency20 40
For example using a 316 mL air-cathode MFC as the209
power source it took 22 h for the charge pump-based circuit to output a voltage of 33 V during210
the start-up phase but a transformer-based circuit only took 25 h to output the same voltage21
211
suggesting that the energy extraction rate of the charge pump was much slower compared to the212
transformer Similar performance was observed by Wang et al who found that due to charge213
pumprsquos input current limitation its operating point was maintained at the low current region of214
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Forrestal et al found the Coulombic efficiency was only 094 indicating that the charge pump217
is not sufficient for energy harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2)
41
218
Therefore charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage MFC sources and be used for219
intermittent energy harvesting when low charging rate is acceptable such as for remote sensors220
The performance of the charge pump can be greatly improved when input current increases221
Furthermore charge pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to automatically222
control onoff and prevent reverse current flows42 43
S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the223
most commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES studies and because its224
maximum output voltage 24 V sometimes it is not sufficient to power common electronic225
devices To further increase the output voltage another layer of power converter may be placed226
after the charge pump for voltage boost227
228
23 Boost converter-based systems229
A DCDC converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC) power from one230
voltage level to another level so an unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output231
The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter) stepped up (boost converter) or232
inverted Boost converters are widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A) and the circuit of a233
boost converter includes both semiconductors such as diodes and transistors and energy storage234
components such as capacitors and inductors with a more complex structure than that in the235
charge pump While the commonly used charge pump can step up the voltage from 03 V to 18-236
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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239
voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V
21 43 45
240
Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241
voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242
STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243
MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244
very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245
TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246
output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247
MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248
decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249
system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250
MDCs (UMDCs)46
Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251
must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252
higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253
changes in environmental conditions254
To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255
capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256
converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257
components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258
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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262
consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263
biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264
the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265
source for a wireless sensor19
A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266
charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267
voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47
This method was used to268
develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269
of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270
in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271
continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272
and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273
boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49
274
The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275
voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276
is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277
Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278
worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20
279
Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280
boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50
As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281
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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284
(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)
21
285
To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286
boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287
been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47
BMFCs utilize naturally288
occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289
and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54
One challenge of BMFCs290
is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291
in the natural water body55 56
This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292
the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293
intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45
The intermittent294
energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295
such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296
efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297
BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298
possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42
A multi-anode299
decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300
interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43
301
302
24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303
ggy
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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307
such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308
magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309
diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310
effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311
a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312
such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313
harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58
314
During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315
energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316
second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317
the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318
transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60
Adami et al developed a flyback319
converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320
obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321
commercial boost converters61
322
An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323
constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324
concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325
to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326
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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330
exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency
63
Moreover the control of MPPT can be331
applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332
reversal64
However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333
the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334
time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335
energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336
peak level in real-time12
Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337
a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65
338
Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339
control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340
MFC operation40
This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341
maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342
resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343
receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344
any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345
this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346
charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347
improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348
60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349
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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353
play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354
cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355
the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356
combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66
357
358
3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359
The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360
development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361
energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362
have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363
clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364
reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365
frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366
activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367
368
1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369
that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370
voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371
process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372
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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377
consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378
harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379
collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380
performance ICs for MFCs16 67
or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68
381
382
2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383
which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384
circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385
when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386
alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387
can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388
harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389
generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390
or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391
carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392
for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393
operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394
and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395
systems which require either a small jump start57
or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70
for self-396
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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400
consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401
up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402
implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403
404
3
More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405
to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406
capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407
capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408
electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26
409
It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410
capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411
boost circuit design57
In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412
efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413
983101
983255 98308900 (2)414
983101
983255 98308900 (3)415
where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416
step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417
the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418
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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423
that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424
is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425
426
4
The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427
current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428
devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73
429
Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430
since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431
bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432
higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433
power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434
because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435
nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436
chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437
relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438
activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439
condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440
MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441
efficiency23
One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442
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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446
controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447
avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448
the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449
450
5
While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451
harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452
charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453
receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454
electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455
microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456
results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457
community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458
selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459
efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460
electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461
from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462
transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463
more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464
interesting topic to investigate465
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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468
under Award N000141310901469
470
REFERENCES471
1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472
983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983089983091983084 31 (8) 17969830851807473
2 H983137983154983150983145983155983139983144 F 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 F983154983151983149 MFC 983156983151 M983128C 983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983148983151983143983145983139983137983148 983139983137983156983144983151983140983141983155 983137983150983140 983156983144983141983145983154474 983152983151983156983141983150983156983145983137983148 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983107983144983141983149 983123983151983139 983122983141983158 983090983088983089983088983084 39 (11) 44339830854448475
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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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29
Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
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30
Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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31
Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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32
Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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33
42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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microbial inocula are used in the system Traditionally MFC power output is reported by58
changing the external resistance ( Rext ) at a 5-30 min interval or conducting a voltammetry59
sweep7-10
Figure 1 shows typical polarization and power density curves obtained from a lab60
scale MFC The curves demonstrate that MFC voltage is inversely proportional to the output61
current and there exists a pair of voltage and current that delivers the maximum power when62
Rext is equal to the system internal resistance ( Rint ) This peak point is called the maximum power63
point (MPP) which is the ideal operating point for MFCs and reported by most studies as the top64
power output7 11 12
However top power may not be the goal of all systems For MFCs used in65
wastewater treatment the primary goal may not be high power output but rather more efficient66
organic removal so a balance in operation during different phases needs to be considered67
whether to operate the system at the MPP for maximum power output or at the high current68
condition for the fastest substrate oxidation rate8 Similarly for H2 production in an MEC the69
ideal operating point is not MPP but rather the high current region because H 2 production70
directly correlates with electron flow (current) in the circuit and proton reduction at the cathode71
Because an additional voltage is required for MECs the operation point of MEC is beyond the72
limiting current of the polarization curve at negative voltages and the external energy input as73
well as energy content of the produced H2 should be considered in addition to the amount of H2 74
produced so the actual energy efficiency and energy recovery can be quantified13
In contrast75
the operation of MDCs depends on different needs because if high energy is desired the MPP76
will be the ideal point but if high salt removal is the primary goal then high current will be77
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addition the fixed Rext cannot always match the system Rint and extract energy at the MPP81
because the Rint of an MFC varies constantly with changes in microbial activities and operational82
parameters Studies showed that MFCs may lose more than 50 of produced power across the83
Rint if the operating voltage is not at the MPP15
84
To harvest usable MFC or BES energy resistors have to be replaced with devices that85
can capture and store energy and boost voltage for practical usage The direct outputs of a single86
MFC are primarily in the level of 700-800 mV and 100-2000 mWm2 which generally cannot87
directly power common electronics16
For example a single light emitting diode (LED) requires88
a minimum voltage of 2 V and consumes 30 mW17 18
and many wireless sensors need a voltage89
of 33 V and watt-level power for temperature pressure and humidity monitoring19-22 While90
higher power using single or multiple MFCs has been researched it was reported that larger91
power production cannot be easily achieved by just building larger MFCs or simply connecting92
MFCs in series or in parallel due to the nonlinear nature of MFCs23 24
Therefore developing93
tailored energy harvesting systems including MPP tracking and power management systems94
(PMS) are crucial for MFC and BES scale-up and real-world application Such systems generally95
composed of multiple electronics such as off-the-shelf capacitors rechargeable batteries charge96
pumps and boost converters but these devices are not designed for MFC conditions so the97
efficiency was low and initial voltage boosts were needed Customized harvesting systems have98
been reported by several groups including our group but there is very limited knowledge base99
for this important area because it requires understanding of power electronics circuitry and100
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methods We also provide discussions and our insights on the challenges and research needs of104
this field so researchers and engineers can help advance the technology development and finally105
overcome these barriers of MFC application106
107
2 ENERGY HARVESTING TECHNOLOGIES108
Since the direct energy production from MFCs is generally not sufficient for practical109
applications various circuit topologies have been developed to interface MFCs with electronic110
loads Figure 2A shows a concise flow chart of energy harvesting process from MFCs (energy111
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) where PMS (eg capacitor-based systems112
charge pump-based systems boost converter-based systems and unreported systems) as the113
central command aims to control the MFC at its optimal condition and extracts and stores the114
energy for the uses by external loads A PMS is an electronic circuit that is composed of115
electronic components such as capacitors charge pumps boost converters diodes inductors116
power switches and potentiometers with the function of harvesting MFC energy and shaping it117
to a usable form25
This is different from external resistances which have been used in most118
MFCBES studies to represent the energy output potential but not capture any usable energy119
because the current passed through the resistor is dissipated into heat 120
Table 1 lists all the commercially available parts that have been used in PMS designs for121
MFCs including the information of manufacturermodel number and the function of each122
component Additionally Table 2 summarizes the energy harvesting performances that have123
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index for necessary information needed for PMS components and functions and in the following127
sections we elaborate on each specific energy-harvesting regime for MFCs128
129
21 Capacitor-based systems130
A capacitor is composed of two conductive terminals separated by a dielectric material131
and energy is stored in the electrostatic field When a capacitor is directly connected to an MFC132
it is charged by the reactor and acts like a variable resistor because the charging current changes133
as the capacitor voltage varies26 27
The required time for a full charge is determined by the134
charging potential and capacitance27
The amount of energy 983127 (J) stored in a capacitor when the135
capacitor is charged from 983126 (V) to (V) can be calculated by136
983101
(
minus ) (1) 137
where 983126 and 983126 are the voltage across the capacitor at the beginning and end of charging138
respectively and (F) is the capacitance139
In energy harvesting systems capacitors are widely used as either final energy storage140
before utilization or transitional energy storage during energy extraction Different arrangements141
of multiple capacitors in the circuit can manipulate outputs of current voltage and power from142
MFCs To date five chargingdischarging techniques have been reported direct charging143
intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC)) alternate charging and144
discharging (ACD) charging capacitors in parallel while discharging in series and charging145
capacitive electrodes (Figure 2A and Table 2)17 27-30
146
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P 9 f 33 E i t l S i amp T h l
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reduced capacitor charging time in half and increased current generation by 35 when172
comparing with MFC stack with serial connections37
173
In the ACD mode an MFC charges capacitors first for energy collection and then the174
charged capacitors discharge the energy back to the system for MEC operation Liang et al 175
showed that the ACD mode could increase the current by 22-32 compared to the IC mode176
which was attributed to the shorter discharging time than the charging time as well as the higher177
anode potential caused by discharging the capacitor29
However power densities in the ACD178
mode were lower than those in the IC mode179
The voltage output can be increased when charging an array of capacitors connected in180
parallel and then discharging them in series By using two groups of capacitors with alternative181
charging and discharging sequence Kim et al found the output voltage was constantly enhanced182
from 07 V to as high as 25 V17
Moreover this approach does not require a minimum input183
voltage threshold so voltage can be increased without using initial boost It also effectively184
alleviated voltage reversal problem with negligible energy losses in the circuit However185
external energy supplied to control relay switches was not considered in the energy calculation186
Another study used the same array to harvest energy from multiple MFCs and power an MEC187
and it was found that energy recovery improved from 9 to 13 and H 2 production rate188
doubled from 031 to 072 m3m
3day
38 A similar study used three capacitors separately charged189
by three MFCs and then linked them in series to power an electrochemical deposition system190
(ECD) which obtained a sulfur recovery efficiency up to 465plusmn1539
191
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capacitor30
The MFC equipped with the capacitive bioanode produced a peak current density up195
to 17 Am2
which almost doubled the output of a control non-capacitive anode (09 Am2
)196
Future studies are needed to investigate the longevity of the capacitive electrodes197
198
22 Charge pump-based systems199
Charge pumps are low cost devices with simple circuit topologies In general a charge200
pump is an inductor-less DCDC converter that uses capacitors to store and transfer energy in201
order to generate either higher or lower voltages The capacitors in the charge pump circuit are202
first charged by the power source and then connected in different combinations to generate203
various voltages for different applications The S-882Z series charge pump from Seiko204
Instruments has been widely used in BES studies and it requires a minimum input voltage of 03205
V in order to generate a discharge voltage of 18-24 V (Figure 2A) The charge pump consumes206
a minimum 01-05 mA current during operation when the input voltage is 03-06 V which may207
limit its charging speed when the current is low and leads to long chargingdischarging cycles208
and low energy harvesting efficiency20 40
For example using a 316 mL air-cathode MFC as the209
power source it took 22 h for the charge pump-based circuit to output a voltage of 33 V during210
the start-up phase but a transformer-based circuit only took 25 h to output the same voltage21
211
suggesting that the energy extraction rate of the charge pump was much slower compared to the212
transformer Similar performance was observed by Wang et al who found that due to charge213
pumprsquos input current limitation its operating point was maintained at the low current region of214
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Forrestal et al found the Coulombic efficiency was only 094 indicating that the charge pump217
is not sufficient for energy harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2)
41
218
Therefore charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage MFC sources and be used for219
intermittent energy harvesting when low charging rate is acceptable such as for remote sensors220
The performance of the charge pump can be greatly improved when input current increases221
Furthermore charge pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to automatically222
control onoff and prevent reverse current flows42 43
S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the223
most commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES studies and because its224
maximum output voltage 24 V sometimes it is not sufficient to power common electronic225
devices To further increase the output voltage another layer of power converter may be placed226
after the charge pump for voltage boost227
228
23 Boost converter-based systems229
A DCDC converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC) power from one230
voltage level to another level so an unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output231
The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter) stepped up (boost converter) or232
inverted Boost converters are widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A) and the circuit of a233
boost converter includes both semiconductors such as diodes and transistors and energy storage234
components such as capacitors and inductors with a more complex structure than that in the235
charge pump While the commonly used charge pump can step up the voltage from 03 V to 18-236
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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239
voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V
21 43 45
240
Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241
voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242
STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243
MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244
very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245
TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246
output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247
MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248
decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249
system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250
MDCs (UMDCs)46
Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251
must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252
higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253
changes in environmental conditions254
To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255
capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256
converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257
components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258
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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262
consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263
biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264
the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265
source for a wireless sensor19
A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266
charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267
voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47
This method was used to268
develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269
of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270
in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271
continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272
and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273
boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49
274
The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275
voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276
is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277
Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278
worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20
279
Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280
boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50
As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281
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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284
(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)
21
285
To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286
boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287
been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47
BMFCs utilize naturally288
occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289
and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54
One challenge of BMFCs290
is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291
in the natural water body55 56
This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292
the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293
intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45
The intermittent294
energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295
such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296
efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297
BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298
possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42
A multi-anode299
decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300
interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43
301
302
24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303
ggy
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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307
such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308
magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309
diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310
effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311
a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312
such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313
harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58
314
During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315
energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316
second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317
the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318
transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60
Adami et al developed a flyback319
converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320
obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321
commercial boost converters61
322
An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323
constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324
concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325
to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326
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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330
exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency
63
Moreover the control of MPPT can be331
applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332
reversal64
However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333
the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334
time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335
energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336
peak level in real-time12
Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337
a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65
338
Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339
control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340
MFC operation40
This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341
maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342
resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343
receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344
any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345
this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346
charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347
improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348
60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349
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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353
play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354
cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355
the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356
combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66
357
358
3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359
The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360
development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361
energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362
have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363
clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364
reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365
frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366
activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367
368
1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369
that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370
voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371
process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372
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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377
consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378
harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379
collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380
performance ICs for MFCs16 67
or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68
381
382
2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383
which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384
circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385
when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386
alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387
can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388
harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389
generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390
or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391
carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392
for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393
operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394
and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395
systems which require either a small jump start57
or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70
for self-396
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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400
consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401
up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402
implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403
404
3
More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405
to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406
capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407
capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408
electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26
409
It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410
capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411
boost circuit design57
In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412
efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413
983101
983255 98308900 (2)414
983101
983255 98308900 (3)415
where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416
step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417
the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418
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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423
that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424
is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425
426
4
The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427
current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428
devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73
429
Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430
since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431
bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432
higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433
power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434
because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435
nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436
chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437
relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438
activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439
condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440
MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441
efficiency23
One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442
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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446
controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447
avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448
the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449
450
5
While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451
harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452
charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453
receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454
electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455
microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456
results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457
community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458
selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459
efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460
electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461
from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462
transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463
more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464
interesting topic to investigate465
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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468
under Award N000141310901469
470
REFERENCES471
1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472
983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983089983091983084 31 (8) 17969830851807473
2 H983137983154983150983145983155983139983144 F 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 F983154983151983149 MFC 983156983151 M983128C 983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983148983151983143983145983139983137983148 983139983137983156983144983151983140983141983155 983137983150983140 983156983144983141983145983154474 983152983151983156983141983150983156983145983137983148 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983107983144983141983149 983123983151983139 983122983141983158 983090983088983089983088983084 39 (11) 44339830854448475
3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476
983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16659830851671477
4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478
B983157983145983155983149983137983150 C J 983118 983118983141983159 983137983152983152983148983145983139983137983156983145983151983150983155 983137983150983140 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983151983142 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148 983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148479
983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16739830851685480
5 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 B983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983149983141983156983137983148 983154983141983139983151983158983141983154983161 983142983154983151983149 983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 A 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983127983137983156983141983154 983122983141983155481
983090983088983089983092 66 219983085232482 6 D983157 983130 L983145 H G983157 983124 A 983155983156983137983156983141 983151983142 983156983144983141 983137983154983156 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 A 983152983154983151983149983145983155983145983150983143 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983142983151983154483
983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 983156983154983141983137983156983149983141983150983156 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983141983150983141983154983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983088983095983084 25 (5) 464983085482484
7 L983151983143983137983150 B E H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 B 983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 K983141983148983148983141983154 J F983154983141983143983157983145983137 983123 A983141983148983156983141983154983149983137983150 983120485
983126983141983154983155983156983154983137983141983156983141 983127 983122983137983138983137983141983161 K M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983149983141983156983144983151983140983151983148983151983143983161 983137983150983140 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148486
983090983088983088983094983084 40 (17) 51819830855192487
8 983122983141983150 983130 983129983137983150 H 983127983137983150983143 983127 M983141983150983139983144 M M 983122983141983143983137983150 J M C983144983137983154983137983156983141983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983156488
983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148983148983161 983137983150983140 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148983148983161 983149983141983137983150983145983150983143983142983157983148 983156983145983149983141 983155983139983137983148983141983155 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983089983084 45 (6) 2435983085489
2441490 9 L983161983151983150 D 983129 B983157983154983141983156 F 983126983151983143983141983148 983124 M M983151983150983145983141983154 J983085M I983155 983154983141983155983145983155983156983137983150983139983141 983142983157983156983145983148983141 C983144983137983150983143983145983150983143 983141983160983156983141983154983150983137983148491
983154983141983155983145983155983156983137983150983139983141 983140983151983141983155 983150983151983156 983145983149983152983154983151983158983141 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983106983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983155983156983154983161 983090983088983089983088983084 78 (1) 29830857492
10 983127983137983156983155983151983150 983126 J L983151983143983137983150 B E A983150983137983148983161983155983145983155 983151983142 983152983151983148983137983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983149983141983156983144983151983140983155 983142983151983154 983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983152983151983159983141983154 983151983158983141983154983155983144983151983151983156493
983145983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983109983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149 983107983151983149983149983157983150 983090983088983089983089983084 13 (1) 5498308556494
11 D983141983143983154983141983150983150983141 983118 B983157983154983141983156 F A983148983148983137983154983140 B B983141983158983145983148983137983139983153983157983137 983120 E983148983141983139983156983154983145983139983137983148 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983143983141983150983141983154983137983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983137 983148983137983154983143983141495
983150983157983149983138983141983154 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983151983152983141983154983137983156983145983150983143 983137983156 983149983137983160983145983149983157983149 983152983151983159983141983154 983152983151983145983150983156 983141983148983141983139983156983154983145983139983137983148 983148983151983137983140 983114 983120983151983159983141983154 983123983151983157983154983139983141983155 983090983088983089983090983084 496
205 188983085193497
12 983120983137983154983147 J983085D 983122983141983150 983130 H983161983155983156983141983154983141983155983145983155 983139983151983150983156983154983151983148983148983141983154 983138983137983155983141983140 983149983137983160983145983149983157983149 983152983151983159983141983154 983152983151983145983150983156 983156983154983137983139983147983145983150983143 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983144983137983154983158983141983155983156983145983150983143498 983155983161983155983156983141983149 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983114 983120983151983159983141983154 983123983151983157983154983139983141983155 983090983088983089983090983084 205 (9) 151983085156499
13 L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983148983148 D C983144983141983150983143 983123 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127500
983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 A M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983148983161983155983145983155 983139983141983148983148983155 983142983151983154 983144983145983143983144 983161983145983141983148983140 983144983161983140983154983151983143983141983150 983143983137983155 983152983154983151983140983157983139983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983151983154983143983137983150983145983139 983149983137983156983156983141983154501
983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983088983096983084 42 (23) 86309830858640502
14 J983137983139983151983138983155983151983150 K 983123 D983154983141983159 D M H983141 983130 983125983155983141 983151983142 983137 983148983145983156983141983154983085983155983139983137983148983141 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983140983141983155983137983148983145983150983137983156983145983151983150 983139983141983148983148 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149503
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983148 983142 983140 983138 983148 983142 983148 983148983148 983148 983144
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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651
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663
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
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Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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addition the fixed Rext cannot always match the system Rint and extract energy at the MPP81
because the Rint of an MFC varies constantly with changes in microbial activities and operational82
parameters Studies showed that MFCs may lose more than 50 of produced power across the83
Rint if the operating voltage is not at the MPP15
84
To harvest usable MFC or BES energy resistors have to be replaced with devices that85
can capture and store energy and boost voltage for practical usage The direct outputs of a single86
MFC are primarily in the level of 700-800 mV and 100-2000 mWm2 which generally cannot87
directly power common electronics16
For example a single light emitting diode (LED) requires88
a minimum voltage of 2 V and consumes 30 mW17 18
and many wireless sensors need a voltage89
of 33 V and watt-level power for temperature pressure and humidity monitoring19-22 While90
higher power using single or multiple MFCs has been researched it was reported that larger91
power production cannot be easily achieved by just building larger MFCs or simply connecting92
MFCs in series or in parallel due to the nonlinear nature of MFCs23 24
Therefore developing93
tailored energy harvesting systems including MPP tracking and power management systems94
(PMS) are crucial for MFC and BES scale-up and real-world application Such systems generally95
composed of multiple electronics such as off-the-shelf capacitors rechargeable batteries charge96
pumps and boost converters but these devices are not designed for MFC conditions so the97
efficiency was low and initial voltage boosts were needed Customized harvesting systems have98
been reported by several groups including our group but there is very limited knowledge base99
for this important area because it requires understanding of power electronics circuitry and100
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methods We also provide discussions and our insights on the challenges and research needs of104
this field so researchers and engineers can help advance the technology development and finally105
overcome these barriers of MFC application106
107
2 ENERGY HARVESTING TECHNOLOGIES108
Since the direct energy production from MFCs is generally not sufficient for practical109
applications various circuit topologies have been developed to interface MFCs with electronic110
loads Figure 2A shows a concise flow chart of energy harvesting process from MFCs (energy111
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) where PMS (eg capacitor-based systems112
charge pump-based systems boost converter-based systems and unreported systems) as the113
central command aims to control the MFC at its optimal condition and extracts and stores the114
energy for the uses by external loads A PMS is an electronic circuit that is composed of115
electronic components such as capacitors charge pumps boost converters diodes inductors116
power switches and potentiometers with the function of harvesting MFC energy and shaping it117
to a usable form25
This is different from external resistances which have been used in most118
MFCBES studies to represent the energy output potential but not capture any usable energy119
because the current passed through the resistor is dissipated into heat 120
Table 1 lists all the commercially available parts that have been used in PMS designs for121
MFCs including the information of manufacturermodel number and the function of each122
component Additionally Table 2 summarizes the energy harvesting performances that have123
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index for necessary information needed for PMS components and functions and in the following127
sections we elaborate on each specific energy-harvesting regime for MFCs128
129
21 Capacitor-based systems130
A capacitor is composed of two conductive terminals separated by a dielectric material131
and energy is stored in the electrostatic field When a capacitor is directly connected to an MFC132
it is charged by the reactor and acts like a variable resistor because the charging current changes133
as the capacitor voltage varies26 27
The required time for a full charge is determined by the134
charging potential and capacitance27
The amount of energy 983127 (J) stored in a capacitor when the135
capacitor is charged from 983126 (V) to (V) can be calculated by136
983101
(
minus ) (1) 137
where 983126 and 983126 are the voltage across the capacitor at the beginning and end of charging138
respectively and (F) is the capacitance139
In energy harvesting systems capacitors are widely used as either final energy storage140
before utilization or transitional energy storage during energy extraction Different arrangements141
of multiple capacitors in the circuit can manipulate outputs of current voltage and power from142
MFCs To date five chargingdischarging techniques have been reported direct charging143
intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC)) alternate charging and144
discharging (ACD) charging capacitors in parallel while discharging in series and charging145
capacitive electrodes (Figure 2A and Table 2)17 27-30
146
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P 9 f 33 E i t l S i amp T h l
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reduced capacitor charging time in half and increased current generation by 35 when172
comparing with MFC stack with serial connections37
173
In the ACD mode an MFC charges capacitors first for energy collection and then the174
charged capacitors discharge the energy back to the system for MEC operation Liang et al 175
showed that the ACD mode could increase the current by 22-32 compared to the IC mode176
which was attributed to the shorter discharging time than the charging time as well as the higher177
anode potential caused by discharging the capacitor29
However power densities in the ACD178
mode were lower than those in the IC mode179
The voltage output can be increased when charging an array of capacitors connected in180
parallel and then discharging them in series By using two groups of capacitors with alternative181
charging and discharging sequence Kim et al found the output voltage was constantly enhanced182
from 07 V to as high as 25 V17
Moreover this approach does not require a minimum input183
voltage threshold so voltage can be increased without using initial boost It also effectively184
alleviated voltage reversal problem with negligible energy losses in the circuit However185
external energy supplied to control relay switches was not considered in the energy calculation186
Another study used the same array to harvest energy from multiple MFCs and power an MEC187
and it was found that energy recovery improved from 9 to 13 and H 2 production rate188
doubled from 031 to 072 m3m
3day
38 A similar study used three capacitors separately charged189
by three MFCs and then linked them in series to power an electrochemical deposition system190
(ECD) which obtained a sulfur recovery efficiency up to 465plusmn1539
191
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capacitor30
The MFC equipped with the capacitive bioanode produced a peak current density up195
to 17 Am2
which almost doubled the output of a control non-capacitive anode (09 Am2
)196
Future studies are needed to investigate the longevity of the capacitive electrodes197
198
22 Charge pump-based systems199
Charge pumps are low cost devices with simple circuit topologies In general a charge200
pump is an inductor-less DCDC converter that uses capacitors to store and transfer energy in201
order to generate either higher or lower voltages The capacitors in the charge pump circuit are202
first charged by the power source and then connected in different combinations to generate203
various voltages for different applications The S-882Z series charge pump from Seiko204
Instruments has been widely used in BES studies and it requires a minimum input voltage of 03205
V in order to generate a discharge voltage of 18-24 V (Figure 2A) The charge pump consumes206
a minimum 01-05 mA current during operation when the input voltage is 03-06 V which may207
limit its charging speed when the current is low and leads to long chargingdischarging cycles208
and low energy harvesting efficiency20 40
For example using a 316 mL air-cathode MFC as the209
power source it took 22 h for the charge pump-based circuit to output a voltage of 33 V during210
the start-up phase but a transformer-based circuit only took 25 h to output the same voltage21
211
suggesting that the energy extraction rate of the charge pump was much slower compared to the212
transformer Similar performance was observed by Wang et al who found that due to charge213
pumprsquos input current limitation its operating point was maintained at the low current region of214
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Forrestal et al found the Coulombic efficiency was only 094 indicating that the charge pump217
is not sufficient for energy harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2)
41
218
Therefore charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage MFC sources and be used for219
intermittent energy harvesting when low charging rate is acceptable such as for remote sensors220
The performance of the charge pump can be greatly improved when input current increases221
Furthermore charge pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to automatically222
control onoff and prevent reverse current flows42 43
S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the223
most commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES studies and because its224
maximum output voltage 24 V sometimes it is not sufficient to power common electronic225
devices To further increase the output voltage another layer of power converter may be placed226
after the charge pump for voltage boost227
228
23 Boost converter-based systems229
A DCDC converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC) power from one230
voltage level to another level so an unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output231
The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter) stepped up (boost converter) or232
inverted Boost converters are widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A) and the circuit of a233
boost converter includes both semiconductors such as diodes and transistors and energy storage234
components such as capacitors and inductors with a more complex structure than that in the235
charge pump While the commonly used charge pump can step up the voltage from 03 V to 18-236
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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239
voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V
21 43 45
240
Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241
voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242
STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243
MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244
very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245
TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246
output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247
MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248
decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249
system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250
MDCs (UMDCs)46
Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251
must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252
higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253
changes in environmental conditions254
To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255
capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256
converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257
components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258
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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262
consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263
biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264
the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265
source for a wireless sensor19
A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266
charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267
voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47
This method was used to268
develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269
of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270
in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271
continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272
and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273
boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49
274
The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275
voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276
is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277
Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278
worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20
279
Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280
boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50
As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281
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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284
(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)
21
285
To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286
boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287
been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47
BMFCs utilize naturally288
occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289
and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54
One challenge of BMFCs290
is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291
in the natural water body55 56
This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292
the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293
intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45
The intermittent294
energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295
such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296
efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297
BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298
possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42
A multi-anode299
decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300
interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43
301
302
24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303
ggy
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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307
such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308
magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309
diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310
effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311
a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312
such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313
harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58
314
During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315
energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316
second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317
the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318
transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60
Adami et al developed a flyback319
converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320
obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321
commercial boost converters61
322
An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323
constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324
concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325
to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326
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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330
exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency
63
Moreover the control of MPPT can be331
applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332
reversal64
However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333
the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334
time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335
energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336
peak level in real-time12
Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337
a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65
338
Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339
control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340
MFC operation40
This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341
maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342
resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343
receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344
any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345
this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346
charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347
improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348
60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349
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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353
play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354
cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355
the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356
combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66
357
358
3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359
The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360
development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361
energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362
have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363
clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364
reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365
frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366
activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367
368
1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369
that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370
voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371
process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372
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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377
consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378
harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379
collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380
performance ICs for MFCs16 67
or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68
381
382
2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383
which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384
circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385
when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386
alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387
can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388
harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389
generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390
or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391
carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392
for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393
operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394
and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395
systems which require either a small jump start57
or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70
for self-396
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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400
consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401
up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402
implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403
404
3
More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405
to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406
capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407
capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408
electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26
409
It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410
capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411
boost circuit design57
In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412
efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413
983101
983255 98308900 (2)414
983101
983255 98308900 (3)415
where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416
step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417
the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418
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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423
that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424
is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425
426
4
The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427
current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428
devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73
429
Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430
since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431
bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432
higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433
power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434
because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435
nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436
chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437
relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438
activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439
condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440
MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441
efficiency23
One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442
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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446
controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447
avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448
the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449
450
5
While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451
harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452
charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453
receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454
electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455
microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456
results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457
community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458
selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459
efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460
electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461
from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462
transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463
more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464
interesting topic to investigate465
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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468
under Award N000141310901469
470
REFERENCES471
1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472
983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983089983091983084 31 (8) 17969830851807473
2 H983137983154983150983145983155983139983144 F 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 F983154983151983149 MFC 983156983151 M983128C 983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983148983151983143983145983139983137983148 983139983137983156983144983151983140983141983155 983137983150983140 983156983144983141983145983154474 983152983151983156983141983150983156983145983137983148 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983107983144983141983149 983123983151983139 983122983141983158 983090983088983089983088983084 39 (11) 44339830854448475
3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476
983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16659830851671477
4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478
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663
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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29
Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
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30
Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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31
Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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32
Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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33
42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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methods We also provide discussions and our insights on the challenges and research needs of104
this field so researchers and engineers can help advance the technology development and finally105
overcome these barriers of MFC application106
107
2 ENERGY HARVESTING TECHNOLOGIES108
Since the direct energy production from MFCs is generally not sufficient for practical109
applications various circuit topologies have been developed to interface MFCs with electronic110
loads Figure 2A shows a concise flow chart of energy harvesting process from MFCs (energy111
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) where PMS (eg capacitor-based systems112
charge pump-based systems boost converter-based systems and unreported systems) as the113
central command aims to control the MFC at its optimal condition and extracts and stores the114
energy for the uses by external loads A PMS is an electronic circuit that is composed of115
electronic components such as capacitors charge pumps boost converters diodes inductors116
power switches and potentiometers with the function of harvesting MFC energy and shaping it117
to a usable form25
This is different from external resistances which have been used in most118
MFCBES studies to represent the energy output potential but not capture any usable energy119
because the current passed through the resistor is dissipated into heat 120
Table 1 lists all the commercially available parts that have been used in PMS designs for121
MFCs including the information of manufacturermodel number and the function of each122
component Additionally Table 2 summarizes the energy harvesting performances that have123
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index for necessary information needed for PMS components and functions and in the following127
sections we elaborate on each specific energy-harvesting regime for MFCs128
129
21 Capacitor-based systems130
A capacitor is composed of two conductive terminals separated by a dielectric material131
and energy is stored in the electrostatic field When a capacitor is directly connected to an MFC132
it is charged by the reactor and acts like a variable resistor because the charging current changes133
as the capacitor voltage varies26 27
The required time for a full charge is determined by the134
charging potential and capacitance27
The amount of energy 983127 (J) stored in a capacitor when the135
capacitor is charged from 983126 (V) to (V) can be calculated by136
983101
(
minus ) (1) 137
where 983126 and 983126 are the voltage across the capacitor at the beginning and end of charging138
respectively and (F) is the capacitance139
In energy harvesting systems capacitors are widely used as either final energy storage140
before utilization or transitional energy storage during energy extraction Different arrangements141
of multiple capacitors in the circuit can manipulate outputs of current voltage and power from142
MFCs To date five chargingdischarging techniques have been reported direct charging143
intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC)) alternate charging and144
discharging (ACD) charging capacitors in parallel while discharging in series and charging145
capacitive electrodes (Figure 2A and Table 2)17 27-30
146
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P 9 f 33 E i t l S i amp T h l
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reduced capacitor charging time in half and increased current generation by 35 when172
comparing with MFC stack with serial connections37
173
In the ACD mode an MFC charges capacitors first for energy collection and then the174
charged capacitors discharge the energy back to the system for MEC operation Liang et al 175
showed that the ACD mode could increase the current by 22-32 compared to the IC mode176
which was attributed to the shorter discharging time than the charging time as well as the higher177
anode potential caused by discharging the capacitor29
However power densities in the ACD178
mode were lower than those in the IC mode179
The voltage output can be increased when charging an array of capacitors connected in180
parallel and then discharging them in series By using two groups of capacitors with alternative181
charging and discharging sequence Kim et al found the output voltage was constantly enhanced182
from 07 V to as high as 25 V17
Moreover this approach does not require a minimum input183
voltage threshold so voltage can be increased without using initial boost It also effectively184
alleviated voltage reversal problem with negligible energy losses in the circuit However185
external energy supplied to control relay switches was not considered in the energy calculation186
Another study used the same array to harvest energy from multiple MFCs and power an MEC187
and it was found that energy recovery improved from 9 to 13 and H 2 production rate188
doubled from 031 to 072 m3m
3day
38 A similar study used three capacitors separately charged189
by three MFCs and then linked them in series to power an electrochemical deposition system190
(ECD) which obtained a sulfur recovery efficiency up to 465plusmn1539
191
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capacitor30
The MFC equipped with the capacitive bioanode produced a peak current density up195
to 17 Am2
which almost doubled the output of a control non-capacitive anode (09 Am2
)196
Future studies are needed to investigate the longevity of the capacitive electrodes197
198
22 Charge pump-based systems199
Charge pumps are low cost devices with simple circuit topologies In general a charge200
pump is an inductor-less DCDC converter that uses capacitors to store and transfer energy in201
order to generate either higher or lower voltages The capacitors in the charge pump circuit are202
first charged by the power source and then connected in different combinations to generate203
various voltages for different applications The S-882Z series charge pump from Seiko204
Instruments has been widely used in BES studies and it requires a minimum input voltage of 03205
V in order to generate a discharge voltage of 18-24 V (Figure 2A) The charge pump consumes206
a minimum 01-05 mA current during operation when the input voltage is 03-06 V which may207
limit its charging speed when the current is low and leads to long chargingdischarging cycles208
and low energy harvesting efficiency20 40
For example using a 316 mL air-cathode MFC as the209
power source it took 22 h for the charge pump-based circuit to output a voltage of 33 V during210
the start-up phase but a transformer-based circuit only took 25 h to output the same voltage21
211
suggesting that the energy extraction rate of the charge pump was much slower compared to the212
transformer Similar performance was observed by Wang et al who found that due to charge213
pumprsquos input current limitation its operating point was maintained at the low current region of214
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Forrestal et al found the Coulombic efficiency was only 094 indicating that the charge pump217
is not sufficient for energy harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2)
41
218
Therefore charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage MFC sources and be used for219
intermittent energy harvesting when low charging rate is acceptable such as for remote sensors220
The performance of the charge pump can be greatly improved when input current increases221
Furthermore charge pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to automatically222
control onoff and prevent reverse current flows42 43
S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the223
most commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES studies and because its224
maximum output voltage 24 V sometimes it is not sufficient to power common electronic225
devices To further increase the output voltage another layer of power converter may be placed226
after the charge pump for voltage boost227
228
23 Boost converter-based systems229
A DCDC converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC) power from one230
voltage level to another level so an unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output231
The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter) stepped up (boost converter) or232
inverted Boost converters are widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A) and the circuit of a233
boost converter includes both semiconductors such as diodes and transistors and energy storage234
components such as capacitors and inductors with a more complex structure than that in the235
charge pump While the commonly used charge pump can step up the voltage from 03 V to 18-236
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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239
voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V
21 43 45
240
Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241
voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242
STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243
MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244
very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245
TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246
output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247
MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248
decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249
system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250
MDCs (UMDCs)46
Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251
must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252
higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253
changes in environmental conditions254
To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255
capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256
converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257
components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258
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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262
consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263
biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264
the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265
source for a wireless sensor19
A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266
charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267
voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47
This method was used to268
develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269
of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270
in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271
continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272
and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273
boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49
274
The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275
voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276
is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277
Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278
worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20
279
Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280
boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50
As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281
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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284
(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)
21
285
To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286
boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287
been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47
BMFCs utilize naturally288
occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289
and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54
One challenge of BMFCs290
is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291
in the natural water body55 56
This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292
the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293
intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45
The intermittent294
energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295
such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296
efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297
BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298
possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42
A multi-anode299
decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300
interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43
301
302
24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303
ggy
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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307
such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308
magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309
diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310
effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311
a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312
such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313
harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58
314
During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315
energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316
second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317
the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318
transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60
Adami et al developed a flyback319
converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320
obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321
commercial boost converters61
322
An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323
constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324
concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325
to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326
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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330
exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency
63
Moreover the control of MPPT can be331
applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332
reversal64
However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333
the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334
time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335
energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336
peak level in real-time12
Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337
a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65
338
Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339
control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340
MFC operation40
This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341
maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342
resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343
receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344
any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345
this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346
charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347
improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348
60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349
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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353
play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354
cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355
the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356
combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66
357
358
3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359
The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360
development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361
energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362
have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363
clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364
reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365
frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366
activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367
368
1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369
that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370
voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371
process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372
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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377
consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378
harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379
collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380
performance ICs for MFCs16 67
or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68
381
382
2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383
which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384
circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385
when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386
alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387
can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388
harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389
generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390
or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391
carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392
for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393
operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394
and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395
systems which require either a small jump start57
or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70
for self-396
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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400
consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401
up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402
implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403
404
3
More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405
to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406
capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407
capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408
electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26
409
It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410
capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411
boost circuit design57
In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412
efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413
983101
983255 98308900 (2)414
983101
983255 98308900 (3)415
where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416
step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417
the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418
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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423
that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424
is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425
426
4
The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427
current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428
devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73
429
Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430
since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431
bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432
higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433
power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434
because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435
nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436
chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437
relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438
activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439
condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440
MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441
efficiency23
One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442
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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446
controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447
avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448
the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449
450
5
While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451
harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452
charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453
receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454
electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455
microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456
results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457
community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458
selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459
efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460
electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461
from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462
transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463
more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464
interesting topic to investigate465
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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468
under Award N000141310901469
470
REFERENCES471
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983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983089983091983084 31 (8) 17969830851807473
2 H983137983154983150983145983155983139983144 F 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 F983154983151983149 MFC 983156983151 M983128C 983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983148983151983143983145983139983137983148 983139983137983156983144983151983140983141983155 983137983150983140 983156983144983141983145983154474 983152983151983156983141983150983156983145983137983148 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983107983144983141983149 983123983151983139 983122983141983158 983090983088983089983088983084 39 (11) 44339830854448475
3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476
983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16659830851671477
4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478
B983157983145983155983149983137983150 C J 983118 983118983141983159 983137983152983152983148983145983139983137983156983145983151983150983155 983137983150983140 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983151983142 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148 983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148479
983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16739830851685480
5 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 B983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983149983141983156983137983148 983154983141983139983151983158983141983154983161 983142983154983151983149 983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 A 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983127983137983156983141983154 983122983141983155481
983090983088983089983092 66 219983085232482 6 D983157 983130 L983145 H G983157 983124 A 983155983156983137983156983141 983151983142 983156983144983141 983137983154983156 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 A 983152983154983151983149983145983155983145983150983143 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983142983151983154483
983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 983156983154983141983137983156983149983141983150983156 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983141983150983141983154983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983088983095983084 25 (5) 464983085482484
7 L983151983143983137983150 B E H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 B 983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 K983141983148983148983141983154 J F983154983141983143983157983145983137 983123 A983141983148983156983141983154983149983137983150 983120485
983126983141983154983155983156983154983137983141983156983141 983127 983122983137983138983137983141983161 K M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983149983141983156983144983151983140983151983148983151983143983161 983137983150983140 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148486
983090983088983088983094983084 40 (17) 51819830855192487
8 983122983141983150 983130 983129983137983150 H 983127983137983150983143 983127 M983141983150983139983144 M M 983122983141983143983137983150 J M C983144983137983154983137983156983141983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983156488
983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148983148983161 983137983150983140 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148983148983161 983149983141983137983150983145983150983143983142983157983148 983156983145983149983141 983155983139983137983148983141983155 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983089983084 45 (6) 2435983085489
2441490 9 L983161983151983150 D 983129 B983157983154983141983156 F 983126983151983143983141983148 983124 M M983151983150983145983141983154 J983085M I983155 983154983141983155983145983155983156983137983150983139983141 983142983157983156983145983148983141 C983144983137983150983143983145983150983143 983141983160983156983141983154983150983137983148491
983154983141983155983145983155983156983137983150983139983141 983140983151983141983155 983150983151983156 983145983149983152983154983151983158983141 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983106983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983155983156983154983161 983090983088983089983088983084 78 (1) 29830857492
10 983127983137983156983155983151983150 983126 J L983151983143983137983150 B E A983150983137983148983161983155983145983155 983151983142 983152983151983148983137983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983149983141983156983144983151983140983155 983142983151983154 983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983152983151983159983141983154 983151983158983141983154983155983144983151983151983156493
983145983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983109983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149 983107983151983149983149983157983150 983090983088983089983089983084 13 (1) 5498308556494
11 D983141983143983154983141983150983150983141 983118 B983157983154983141983156 F A983148983148983137983154983140 B B983141983158983145983148983137983139983153983157983137 983120 E983148983141983139983156983154983145983139983137983148 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983143983141983150983141983154983137983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983137 983148983137983154983143983141495
983150983157983149983138983141983154 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983151983152983141983154983137983156983145983150983143 983137983156 983149983137983160983145983149983157983149 983152983151983159983141983154 983152983151983145983150983156 983141983148983141983139983156983154983145983139983137983148 983148983151983137983140 983114 983120983151983159983141983154 983123983151983157983154983139983141983155 983090983088983089983090983084 496
205 188983085193497
12 983120983137983154983147 J983085D 983122983141983150 983130 H983161983155983156983141983154983141983155983145983155 983139983151983150983156983154983151983148983148983141983154 983138983137983155983141983140 983149983137983160983145983149983157983149 983152983151983159983141983154 983152983151983145983150983156 983156983154983137983139983147983145983150983143 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983144983137983154983158983141983155983156983145983150983143498 983155983161983155983156983141983149 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983114 983120983151983159983141983154 983123983151983157983154983139983141983155 983090983088983089983090983084 205 (9) 151983085156499
13 L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983148983148 D C983144983141983150983143 983123 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127500
983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 A M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983148983161983155983145983155 983139983141983148983148983155 983142983151983154 983144983145983143983144 983161983145983141983148983140 983144983161983140983154983151983143983141983150 983143983137983155 983152983154983151983140983157983139983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983151983154983143983137983150983145983139 983149983137983156983156983141983154501
983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983088983096983084 42 (23) 86309830858640502
14 J983137983139983151983138983155983151983150 K 983123 D983154983141983159 D M H983141 983130 983125983155983141 983151983142 983137 983148983145983156983141983154983085983155983139983137983148983141 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983140983141983155983137983148983145983150983137983156983145983151983150 983139983141983148983148 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149503
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17 K983145983149 983129 H983137983156983162983141983148983148 M C H983157983156983139983144983145983150983155983151983150 A J L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983152983156983157983154983145983150983143 983152983151983159983141983154 983137983156 983144983145983143983144983141983154 983158983151983148983156983137983143983141983155 983142983154983151983149511
983137983154983154983137983161983155 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983159983145983156983144983151983157983156 983158983151983148983156983137983143983141 983154983141983155983141983154983155983137983148 983109983150983141983154983143983161 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983090983088983089983089983084 4 (11) 46629830854667512
18 D983145983137983149983151983150983140 D C983151983161983148983141 983123 983123983139983137983154983149983137983143983150983137983150983145 983123 H983137983161983141983155 J 983127983145983154983141983148983141983155983155 983155983141983150983155983151983154 983150983141983156983159983151983154983147983155 983137983150983140 983139983144983141983149983151983085513
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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651
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983129 E983140 983123983137983150 D983145983141983143983151 C983137983148983145983142983151983154983150983145983137 983125983123A 2010 983152983152 764219831299830851662
663
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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29
Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
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30
Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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index for necessary information needed for PMS components and functions and in the following127
sections we elaborate on each specific energy-harvesting regime for MFCs128
129
21 Capacitor-based systems130
A capacitor is composed of two conductive terminals separated by a dielectric material131
and energy is stored in the electrostatic field When a capacitor is directly connected to an MFC132
it is charged by the reactor and acts like a variable resistor because the charging current changes133
as the capacitor voltage varies26 27
The required time for a full charge is determined by the134
charging potential and capacitance27
The amount of energy 983127 (J) stored in a capacitor when the135
capacitor is charged from 983126 (V) to (V) can be calculated by136
983101
(
minus ) (1) 137
where 983126 and 983126 are the voltage across the capacitor at the beginning and end of charging138
respectively and (F) is the capacitance139
In energy harvesting systems capacitors are widely used as either final energy storage140
before utilization or transitional energy storage during energy extraction Different arrangements141
of multiple capacitors in the circuit can manipulate outputs of current voltage and power from142
MFCs To date five chargingdischarging techniques have been reported direct charging143
intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC)) alternate charging and144
discharging (ACD) charging capacitors in parallel while discharging in series and charging145
capacitive electrodes (Figure 2A and Table 2)17 27-30
146
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P 9 f 33 E i t l S i amp T h l
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reduced capacitor charging time in half and increased current generation by 35 when172
comparing with MFC stack with serial connections37
173
In the ACD mode an MFC charges capacitors first for energy collection and then the174
charged capacitors discharge the energy back to the system for MEC operation Liang et al 175
showed that the ACD mode could increase the current by 22-32 compared to the IC mode176
which was attributed to the shorter discharging time than the charging time as well as the higher177
anode potential caused by discharging the capacitor29
However power densities in the ACD178
mode were lower than those in the IC mode179
The voltage output can be increased when charging an array of capacitors connected in180
parallel and then discharging them in series By using two groups of capacitors with alternative181
charging and discharging sequence Kim et al found the output voltage was constantly enhanced182
from 07 V to as high as 25 V17
Moreover this approach does not require a minimum input183
voltage threshold so voltage can be increased without using initial boost It also effectively184
alleviated voltage reversal problem with negligible energy losses in the circuit However185
external energy supplied to control relay switches was not considered in the energy calculation186
Another study used the same array to harvest energy from multiple MFCs and power an MEC187
and it was found that energy recovery improved from 9 to 13 and H 2 production rate188
doubled from 031 to 072 m3m
3day
38 A similar study used three capacitors separately charged189
by three MFCs and then linked them in series to power an electrochemical deposition system190
(ECD) which obtained a sulfur recovery efficiency up to 465plusmn1539
191
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capacitor30
The MFC equipped with the capacitive bioanode produced a peak current density up195
to 17 Am2
which almost doubled the output of a control non-capacitive anode (09 Am2
)196
Future studies are needed to investigate the longevity of the capacitive electrodes197
198
22 Charge pump-based systems199
Charge pumps are low cost devices with simple circuit topologies In general a charge200
pump is an inductor-less DCDC converter that uses capacitors to store and transfer energy in201
order to generate either higher or lower voltages The capacitors in the charge pump circuit are202
first charged by the power source and then connected in different combinations to generate203
various voltages for different applications The S-882Z series charge pump from Seiko204
Instruments has been widely used in BES studies and it requires a minimum input voltage of 03205
V in order to generate a discharge voltage of 18-24 V (Figure 2A) The charge pump consumes206
a minimum 01-05 mA current during operation when the input voltage is 03-06 V which may207
limit its charging speed when the current is low and leads to long chargingdischarging cycles208
and low energy harvesting efficiency20 40
For example using a 316 mL air-cathode MFC as the209
power source it took 22 h for the charge pump-based circuit to output a voltage of 33 V during210
the start-up phase but a transformer-based circuit only took 25 h to output the same voltage21
211
suggesting that the energy extraction rate of the charge pump was much slower compared to the212
transformer Similar performance was observed by Wang et al who found that due to charge213
pumprsquos input current limitation its operating point was maintained at the low current region of214
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Forrestal et al found the Coulombic efficiency was only 094 indicating that the charge pump217
is not sufficient for energy harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2)
41
218
Therefore charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage MFC sources and be used for219
intermittent energy harvesting when low charging rate is acceptable such as for remote sensors220
The performance of the charge pump can be greatly improved when input current increases221
Furthermore charge pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to automatically222
control onoff and prevent reverse current flows42 43
S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the223
most commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES studies and because its224
maximum output voltage 24 V sometimes it is not sufficient to power common electronic225
devices To further increase the output voltage another layer of power converter may be placed226
after the charge pump for voltage boost227
228
23 Boost converter-based systems229
A DCDC converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC) power from one230
voltage level to another level so an unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output231
The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter) stepped up (boost converter) or232
inverted Boost converters are widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A) and the circuit of a233
boost converter includes both semiconductors such as diodes and transistors and energy storage234
components such as capacitors and inductors with a more complex structure than that in the235
charge pump While the commonly used charge pump can step up the voltage from 03 V to 18-236
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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239
voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V
21 43 45
240
Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241
voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242
STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243
MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244
very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245
TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246
output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247
MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248
decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249
system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250
MDCs (UMDCs)46
Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251
must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252
higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253
changes in environmental conditions254
To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255
capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256
converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257
components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258
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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262
consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263
biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264
the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265
source for a wireless sensor19
A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266
charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267
voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47
This method was used to268
develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269
of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270
in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271
continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272
and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273
boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49
274
The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275
voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276
is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277
Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278
worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20
279
Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280
boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50
As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281
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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284
(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)
21
285
To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286
boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287
been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47
BMFCs utilize naturally288
occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289
and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54
One challenge of BMFCs290
is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291
in the natural water body55 56
This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292
the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293
intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45
The intermittent294
energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295
such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296
efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297
BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298
possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42
A multi-anode299
decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300
interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43
301
302
24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303
ggy
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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307
such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308
magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309
diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310
effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311
a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312
such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313
harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58
314
During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315
energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316
second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317
the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318
transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60
Adami et al developed a flyback319
converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320
obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321
commercial boost converters61
322
An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323
constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324
concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325
to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326
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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330
exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency
63
Moreover the control of MPPT can be331
applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332
reversal64
However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333
the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334
time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335
energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336
peak level in real-time12
Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337
a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65
338
Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339
control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340
MFC operation40
This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341
maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342
resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343
receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344
any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345
this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346
charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347
improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348
60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349
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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353
play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354
cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355
the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356
combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66
357
358
3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359
The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360
development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361
energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362
have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363
clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364
reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365
frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366
activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367
368
1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369
that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370
voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371
process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372
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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377
consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378
harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379
collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380
performance ICs for MFCs16 67
or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68
381
382
2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383
which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384
circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385
when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386
alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387
can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388
harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389
generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390
or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391
carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392
for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393
operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394
and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395
systems which require either a small jump start57
or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70
for self-396
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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400
consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401
up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402
implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403
404
3
More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405
to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406
capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407
capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408
electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26
409
It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410
capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411
boost circuit design57
In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412
efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413
983101
983255 98308900 (2)414
983101
983255 98308900 (3)415
where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416
step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417
the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418
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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423
that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424
is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425
426
4
The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427
current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428
devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73
429
Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430
since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431
bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432
higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433
power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434
because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435
nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436
chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437
relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438
activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439
condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440
MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441
efficiency23
One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442
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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446
controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447
avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448
the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449
450
5
While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451
harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452
charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453
receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454
electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455
microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456
results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457
community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458
selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459
efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460
electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461
from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462
transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463
more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464
interesting topic to investigate465
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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468
under Award N000141310901469
470
REFERENCES471
1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472
983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983089983091983084 31 (8) 17969830851807473
2 H983137983154983150983145983155983139983144 F 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 F983154983151983149 MFC 983156983151 M983128C 983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983148983151983143983145983139983137983148 983139983137983156983144983151983140983141983155 983137983150983140 983156983144983141983145983154474 983152983151983156983141983150983156983145983137983148 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983107983144983141983149 983123983151983139 983122983141983158 983090983088983089983088983084 39 (11) 44339830854448475
3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476
983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16659830851671477
4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478
B983157983145983155983149983137983150 C J 983118 983118983141983159 983137983152983152983148983145983139983137983156983145983151983150983155 983137983150983140 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983151983142 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148 983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148479
983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16739830851685480
5 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 B983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983149983141983156983137983148 983154983141983139983151983158983141983154983161 983142983154983151983149 983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 A 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983127983137983156983141983154 983122983141983155481
983090983088983089983092 66 219983085232482 6 D983157 983130 L983145 H G983157 983124 A 983155983156983137983156983141 983151983142 983156983144983141 983137983154983156 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 A 983152983154983151983149983145983155983145983150983143 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983142983151983154483
983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 983156983154983141983137983156983149983141983150983156 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983141983150983141983154983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983088983095983084 25 (5) 464983085482484
7 L983151983143983137983150 B E H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 B 983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 K983141983148983148983141983154 J F983154983141983143983157983145983137 983123 A983141983148983156983141983154983149983137983150 983120485
983126983141983154983155983156983154983137983141983156983141 983127 983122983137983138983137983141983161 K M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983149983141983156983144983151983140983151983148983151983143983161 983137983150983140 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148486
983090983088983088983094983084 40 (17) 51819830855192487
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983141983148983137983155983156983151983149983141983154 983143983141983150983141983154983137983156983151983154 983142983151983154 983137983157983156983151983150983151983149983151983157983155 983154983151983138983151983156983155 983120983154983151983139 983151983142 983123983120IE 983123983137983150 D983145983141983143983151 C983137983148983145983142983151983154983150983145983137 983125983123A 2010 B983137983154983085C983151983144983141983150661
983129 E983140 983123983137983150 D983145983141983143983151 C983137983148983145983142983151983154983150983145983137 983125983123A 2010 983152983152 764219831299830851662
663
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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29
Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
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30
Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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31
Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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32
Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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33
42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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P 9 f 33 E i t l S i amp T h l
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reduced capacitor charging time in half and increased current generation by 35 when172
comparing with MFC stack with serial connections37
173
In the ACD mode an MFC charges capacitors first for energy collection and then the174
charged capacitors discharge the energy back to the system for MEC operation Liang et al 175
showed that the ACD mode could increase the current by 22-32 compared to the IC mode176
which was attributed to the shorter discharging time than the charging time as well as the higher177
anode potential caused by discharging the capacitor29
However power densities in the ACD178
mode were lower than those in the IC mode179
The voltage output can be increased when charging an array of capacitors connected in180
parallel and then discharging them in series By using two groups of capacitors with alternative181
charging and discharging sequence Kim et al found the output voltage was constantly enhanced182
from 07 V to as high as 25 V17
Moreover this approach does not require a minimum input183
voltage threshold so voltage can be increased without using initial boost It also effectively184
alleviated voltage reversal problem with negligible energy losses in the circuit However185
external energy supplied to control relay switches was not considered in the energy calculation186
Another study used the same array to harvest energy from multiple MFCs and power an MEC187
and it was found that energy recovery improved from 9 to 13 and H 2 production rate188
doubled from 031 to 072 m3m
3day
38 A similar study used three capacitors separately charged189
by three MFCs and then linked them in series to power an electrochemical deposition system190
(ECD) which obtained a sulfur recovery efficiency up to 465plusmn1539
191
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capacitor30
The MFC equipped with the capacitive bioanode produced a peak current density up195
to 17 Am2
which almost doubled the output of a control non-capacitive anode (09 Am2
)196
Future studies are needed to investigate the longevity of the capacitive electrodes197
198
22 Charge pump-based systems199
Charge pumps are low cost devices with simple circuit topologies In general a charge200
pump is an inductor-less DCDC converter that uses capacitors to store and transfer energy in201
order to generate either higher or lower voltages The capacitors in the charge pump circuit are202
first charged by the power source and then connected in different combinations to generate203
various voltages for different applications The S-882Z series charge pump from Seiko204
Instruments has been widely used in BES studies and it requires a minimum input voltage of 03205
V in order to generate a discharge voltage of 18-24 V (Figure 2A) The charge pump consumes206
a minimum 01-05 mA current during operation when the input voltage is 03-06 V which may207
limit its charging speed when the current is low and leads to long chargingdischarging cycles208
and low energy harvesting efficiency20 40
For example using a 316 mL air-cathode MFC as the209
power source it took 22 h for the charge pump-based circuit to output a voltage of 33 V during210
the start-up phase but a transformer-based circuit only took 25 h to output the same voltage21
211
suggesting that the energy extraction rate of the charge pump was much slower compared to the212
transformer Similar performance was observed by Wang et al who found that due to charge213
pumprsquos input current limitation its operating point was maintained at the low current region of214
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Forrestal et al found the Coulombic efficiency was only 094 indicating that the charge pump217
is not sufficient for energy harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2)
41
218
Therefore charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage MFC sources and be used for219
intermittent energy harvesting when low charging rate is acceptable such as for remote sensors220
The performance of the charge pump can be greatly improved when input current increases221
Furthermore charge pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to automatically222
control onoff and prevent reverse current flows42 43
S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the223
most commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES studies and because its224
maximum output voltage 24 V sometimes it is not sufficient to power common electronic225
devices To further increase the output voltage another layer of power converter may be placed226
after the charge pump for voltage boost227
228
23 Boost converter-based systems229
A DCDC converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC) power from one230
voltage level to another level so an unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output231
The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter) stepped up (boost converter) or232
inverted Boost converters are widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A) and the circuit of a233
boost converter includes both semiconductors such as diodes and transistors and energy storage234
components such as capacitors and inductors with a more complex structure than that in the235
charge pump While the commonly used charge pump can step up the voltage from 03 V to 18-236
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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239
voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V
21 43 45
240
Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241
voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242
STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243
MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244
very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245
TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246
output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247
MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248
decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249
system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250
MDCs (UMDCs)46
Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251
must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252
higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253
changes in environmental conditions254
To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255
capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256
converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257
components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258
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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262
consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263
biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264
the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265
source for a wireless sensor19
A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266
charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267
voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47
This method was used to268
develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269
of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270
in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271
continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272
and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273
boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49
274
The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275
voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276
is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277
Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278
worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20
279
Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280
boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50
As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281
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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284
(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)
21
285
To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286
boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287
been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47
BMFCs utilize naturally288
occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289
and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54
One challenge of BMFCs290
is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291
in the natural water body55 56
This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292
the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293
intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45
The intermittent294
energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295
such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296
efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297
BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298
possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42
A multi-anode299
decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300
interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43
301
302
24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303
ggy
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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307
such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308
magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309
diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310
effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311
a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312
such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313
harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58
314
During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315
energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316
second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317
the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318
transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60
Adami et al developed a flyback319
converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320
obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321
commercial boost converters61
322
An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323
constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324
concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325
to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326
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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330
exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency
63
Moreover the control of MPPT can be331
applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332
reversal64
However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333
the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334
time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335
energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336
peak level in real-time12
Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337
a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65
338
Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339
control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340
MFC operation40
This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341
maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342
resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343
receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344
any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345
this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346
charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347
improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348
60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349
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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353
play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354
cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355
the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356
combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66
357
358
3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359
The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360
development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361
energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362
have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363
clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364
reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365
frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366
activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367
368
1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369
that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370
voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371
process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372
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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377
consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378
harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379
collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380
performance ICs for MFCs16 67
or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68
381
382
2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383
which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384
circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385
when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386
alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387
can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388
harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389
generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390
or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391
carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392
for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393
operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394
and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395
systems which require either a small jump start57
or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70
for self-396
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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400
consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401
up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402
implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403
404
3
More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405
to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406
capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407
capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408
electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26
409
It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410
capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411
boost circuit design57
In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412
efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413
983101
983255 98308900 (2)414
983101
983255 98308900 (3)415
where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416
step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417
the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418
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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423
that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424
is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425
426
4
The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427
current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428
devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73
429
Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430
since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431
bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432
higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433
power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434
because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435
nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436
chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437
relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438
activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439
condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440
MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441
efficiency23
One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442
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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446
controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447
avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448
the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449
450
5
While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451
harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452
charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453
receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454
electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455
microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456
results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457
community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458
selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459
efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460
electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461
from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462
transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463
more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464
interesting topic to investigate465
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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468
under Award N000141310901469
470
REFERENCES471
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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651
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663
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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29
Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
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30
Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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31
Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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32
Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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reduced capacitor charging time in half and increased current generation by 35 when172
comparing with MFC stack with serial connections37
173
In the ACD mode an MFC charges capacitors first for energy collection and then the174
charged capacitors discharge the energy back to the system for MEC operation Liang et al 175
showed that the ACD mode could increase the current by 22-32 compared to the IC mode176
which was attributed to the shorter discharging time than the charging time as well as the higher177
anode potential caused by discharging the capacitor29
However power densities in the ACD178
mode were lower than those in the IC mode179
The voltage output can be increased when charging an array of capacitors connected in180
parallel and then discharging them in series By using two groups of capacitors with alternative181
charging and discharging sequence Kim et al found the output voltage was constantly enhanced182
from 07 V to as high as 25 V17
Moreover this approach does not require a minimum input183
voltage threshold so voltage can be increased without using initial boost It also effectively184
alleviated voltage reversal problem with negligible energy losses in the circuit However185
external energy supplied to control relay switches was not considered in the energy calculation186
Another study used the same array to harvest energy from multiple MFCs and power an MEC187
and it was found that energy recovery improved from 9 to 13 and H 2 production rate188
doubled from 031 to 072 m3m
3day
38 A similar study used three capacitors separately charged189
by three MFCs and then linked them in series to power an electrochemical deposition system190
(ECD) which obtained a sulfur recovery efficiency up to 465plusmn1539
191
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capacitor30
The MFC equipped with the capacitive bioanode produced a peak current density up195
to 17 Am2
which almost doubled the output of a control non-capacitive anode (09 Am2
)196
Future studies are needed to investigate the longevity of the capacitive electrodes197
198
22 Charge pump-based systems199
Charge pumps are low cost devices with simple circuit topologies In general a charge200
pump is an inductor-less DCDC converter that uses capacitors to store and transfer energy in201
order to generate either higher or lower voltages The capacitors in the charge pump circuit are202
first charged by the power source and then connected in different combinations to generate203
various voltages for different applications The S-882Z series charge pump from Seiko204
Instruments has been widely used in BES studies and it requires a minimum input voltage of 03205
V in order to generate a discharge voltage of 18-24 V (Figure 2A) The charge pump consumes206
a minimum 01-05 mA current during operation when the input voltage is 03-06 V which may207
limit its charging speed when the current is low and leads to long chargingdischarging cycles208
and low energy harvesting efficiency20 40
For example using a 316 mL air-cathode MFC as the209
power source it took 22 h for the charge pump-based circuit to output a voltage of 33 V during210
the start-up phase but a transformer-based circuit only took 25 h to output the same voltage21
211
suggesting that the energy extraction rate of the charge pump was much slower compared to the212
transformer Similar performance was observed by Wang et al who found that due to charge213
pumprsquos input current limitation its operating point was maintained at the low current region of214
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Forrestal et al found the Coulombic efficiency was only 094 indicating that the charge pump217
is not sufficient for energy harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2)
41
218
Therefore charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage MFC sources and be used for219
intermittent energy harvesting when low charging rate is acceptable such as for remote sensors220
The performance of the charge pump can be greatly improved when input current increases221
Furthermore charge pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to automatically222
control onoff and prevent reverse current flows42 43
S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the223
most commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES studies and because its224
maximum output voltage 24 V sometimes it is not sufficient to power common electronic225
devices To further increase the output voltage another layer of power converter may be placed226
after the charge pump for voltage boost227
228
23 Boost converter-based systems229
A DCDC converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC) power from one230
voltage level to another level so an unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output231
The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter) stepped up (boost converter) or232
inverted Boost converters are widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A) and the circuit of a233
boost converter includes both semiconductors such as diodes and transistors and energy storage234
components such as capacitors and inductors with a more complex structure than that in the235
charge pump While the commonly used charge pump can step up the voltage from 03 V to 18-236
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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239
voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V
21 43 45
240
Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241
voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242
STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243
MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244
very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245
TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246
output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247
MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248
decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249
system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250
MDCs (UMDCs)46
Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251
must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252
higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253
changes in environmental conditions254
To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255
capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256
converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257
components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258
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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262
consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263
biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264
the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265
source for a wireless sensor19
A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266
charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267
voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47
This method was used to268
develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269
of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270
in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271
continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272
and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273
boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49
274
The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275
voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276
is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277
Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278
worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20
279
Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280
boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50
As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281
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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284
(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)
21
285
To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286
boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287
been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47
BMFCs utilize naturally288
occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289
and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54
One challenge of BMFCs290
is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291
in the natural water body55 56
This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292
the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293
intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45
The intermittent294
energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295
such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296
efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297
BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298
possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42
A multi-anode299
decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300
interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43
301
302
24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303
ggy
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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307
such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308
magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309
diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310
effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311
a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312
such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313
harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58
314
During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315
energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316
second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317
the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318
transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60
Adami et al developed a flyback319
converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320
obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321
commercial boost converters61
322
An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323
constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324
concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325
to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326
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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330
exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency
63
Moreover the control of MPPT can be331
applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332
reversal64
However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333
the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334
time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335
energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336
peak level in real-time12
Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337
a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65
338
Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339
control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340
MFC operation40
This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341
maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342
resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343
receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344
any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345
this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346
charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347
improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348
60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349
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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353
play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354
cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355
the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356
combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66
357
358
3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359
The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360
development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361
energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362
have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363
clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364
reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365
frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366
activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367
368
1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369
that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370
voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371
process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372
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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377
consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378
harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379
collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380
performance ICs for MFCs16 67
or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68
381
382
2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383
which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384
circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385
when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386
alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387
can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388
harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389
generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390
or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391
carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392
for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393
operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394
and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395
systems which require either a small jump start57
or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70
for self-396
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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400
consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401
up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402
implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403
404
3
More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405
to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406
capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407
capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408
electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26
409
It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410
capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411
boost circuit design57
In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412
efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413
983101
983255 98308900 (2)414
983101
983255 98308900 (3)415
where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416
step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417
the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418
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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423
that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424
is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425
426
4
The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427
current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428
devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73
429
Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430
since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431
bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432
higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433
power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434
because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435
nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436
chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437
relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438
activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439
condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440
MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441
efficiency23
One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442
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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446
controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447
avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448
the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449
450
5
While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451
harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452
charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453
receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454
electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455
microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456
results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457
community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458
selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459
efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460
electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461
from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462
transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463
more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464
interesting topic to investigate465
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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468
under Award N000141310901469
470
REFERENCES471
1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472
983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983089983091983084 31 (8) 17969830851807473
2 H983137983154983150983145983155983139983144 F 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 F983154983151983149 MFC 983156983151 M983128C 983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983148983151983143983145983139983137983148 983139983137983156983144983151983140983141983155 983137983150983140 983156983144983141983145983154474 983152983151983156983141983150983156983145983137983148 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983107983144983141983149 983123983151983139 983122983141983158 983090983088983089983088983084 39 (11) 44339830854448475
3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476
983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16659830851671477
4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478
B983157983145983155983149983137983150 C J 983118 983118983141983159 983137983152983152983148983145983139983137983156983145983151983150983155 983137983150983140 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983151983142 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148 983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148479
983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16739830851685480
5 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 B983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983149983141983156983137983148 983154983141983139983151983158983141983154983161 983142983154983151983149 983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 A 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983127983137983156983141983154 983122983141983155481
983090983088983089983092 66 219983085232482 6 D983157 983130 L983145 H G983157 983124 A 983155983156983137983156983141 983151983142 983156983144983141 983137983154983156 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 A 983152983154983151983149983145983155983145983150983143 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983142983151983154483
983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 983156983154983141983137983156983149983141983150983156 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983141983150983141983154983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983088983095983084 25 (5) 464983085482484
7 L983151983143983137983150 B E H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 B 983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 K983141983148983148983141983154 J F983154983141983143983157983145983137 983123 A983141983148983156983141983154983149983137983150 983120485
983126983141983154983155983156983154983137983141983156983141 983127 983122983137983138983137983141983161 K M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983149983141983156983144983151983140983151983148983151983143983161 983137983150983140 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148486
983090983088983088983094983084 40 (17) 51819830855192487
8 983122983141983150 983130 983129983137983150 H 983127983137983150983143 983127 M983141983150983139983144 M M 983122983141983143983137983150 J M C983144983137983154983137983156983141983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983156488
983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148983148983161 983137983150983140 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148983148983161 983149983141983137983150983145983150983143983142983157983148 983156983145983149983141 983155983139983137983148983141983155 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983089983084 45 (6) 2435983085489
2441490 9 L983161983151983150 D 983129 B983157983154983141983156 F 983126983151983143983141983148 983124 M M983151983150983145983141983154 J983085M I983155 983154983141983155983145983155983156983137983150983139983141 983142983157983156983145983148983141 C983144983137983150983143983145983150983143 983141983160983156983141983154983150983137983148491
983154983141983155983145983155983156983137983150983139983141 983140983151983141983155 983150983151983156 983145983149983152983154983151983158983141 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983106983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983155983156983154983161 983090983088983089983088983084 78 (1) 29830857492
10 983127983137983156983155983151983150 983126 J L983151983143983137983150 B E A983150983137983148983161983155983145983155 983151983142 983152983151983148983137983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983149983141983156983144983151983140983155 983142983151983154 983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983152983151983159983141983154 983151983158983141983154983155983144983151983151983156493
983145983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983109983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149 983107983151983149983149983157983150 983090983088983089983089983084 13 (1) 5498308556494
11 D983141983143983154983141983150983150983141 983118 B983157983154983141983156 F A983148983148983137983154983140 B B983141983158983145983148983137983139983153983157983137 983120 E983148983141983139983156983154983145983139983137983148 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983143983141983150983141983154983137983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983137 983148983137983154983143983141495
983150983157983149983138983141983154 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983151983152983141983154983137983156983145983150983143 983137983156 983149983137983160983145983149983157983149 983152983151983159983141983154 983152983151983145983150983156 983141983148983141983139983156983154983145983139983137983148 983148983151983137983140 983114 983120983151983159983141983154 983123983151983157983154983139983141983155 983090983088983089983090983084 496
205 188983085193497
12 983120983137983154983147 J983085D 983122983141983150 983130 H983161983155983156983141983154983141983155983145983155 983139983151983150983156983154983151983148983148983141983154 983138983137983155983141983140 983149983137983160983145983149983157983149 983152983151983159983141983154 983152983151983145983150983156 983156983154983137983139983147983145983150983143 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983144983137983154983158983141983155983156983145983150983143498 983155983161983155983156983141983149 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983114 983120983151983159983141983154 983123983151983157983154983139983141983155 983090983088983089983090983084 205 (9) 151983085156499
13 L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983148983148 D C983144983141983150983143 983123 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127500
983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 A M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983148983161983155983145983155 983139983141983148983148983155 983142983151983154 983144983145983143983144 983161983145983141983148983140 983144983161983140983154983151983143983141983150 983143983137983155 983152983154983151983140983157983139983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983151983154983143983137983150983145983139 983149983137983156983156983141983154501
983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983088983096983084 42 (23) 86309830858640502
14 J983137983139983151983138983155983151983150 K 983123 D983154983141983159 D M H983141 983130 983125983155983141 983151983142 983137 983148983145983156983141983154983085983155983139983137983148983141 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983140983141983155983137983148983145983150983137983156983145983151983150 983139983141983148983148 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149503
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17 K983145983149 983129 H983137983156983162983141983148983148 M C H983157983156983139983144983145983150983155983151983150 A J L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983152983156983157983154983145983150983143 983152983151983159983141983154 983137983156 983144983145983143983144983141983154 983158983151983148983156983137983143983141983155 983142983154983151983149511
983137983154983154983137983161983155 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983159983145983156983144983151983157983156 983158983151983148983156983137983143983141 983154983141983155983141983154983155983137983148 983109983150983141983154983143983161 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983090983088983089983089983084 4 (11) 46629830854667512
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983148 983142 983140 983138 983148 983142 983148 983148983148 983148 983144
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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651
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663
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
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Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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capacitor30
The MFC equipped with the capacitive bioanode produced a peak current density up195
to 17 Am2
which almost doubled the output of a control non-capacitive anode (09 Am2
)196
Future studies are needed to investigate the longevity of the capacitive electrodes197
198
22 Charge pump-based systems199
Charge pumps are low cost devices with simple circuit topologies In general a charge200
pump is an inductor-less DCDC converter that uses capacitors to store and transfer energy in201
order to generate either higher or lower voltages The capacitors in the charge pump circuit are202
first charged by the power source and then connected in different combinations to generate203
various voltages for different applications The S-882Z series charge pump from Seiko204
Instruments has been widely used in BES studies and it requires a minimum input voltage of 03205
V in order to generate a discharge voltage of 18-24 V (Figure 2A) The charge pump consumes206
a minimum 01-05 mA current during operation when the input voltage is 03-06 V which may207
limit its charging speed when the current is low and leads to long chargingdischarging cycles208
and low energy harvesting efficiency20 40
For example using a 316 mL air-cathode MFC as the209
power source it took 22 h for the charge pump-based circuit to output a voltage of 33 V during210
the start-up phase but a transformer-based circuit only took 25 h to output the same voltage21
211
suggesting that the energy extraction rate of the charge pump was much slower compared to the212
transformer Similar performance was observed by Wang et al who found that due to charge213
pumprsquos input current limitation its operating point was maintained at the low current region of214
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Forrestal et al found the Coulombic efficiency was only 094 indicating that the charge pump217
is not sufficient for energy harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2)
41
218
Therefore charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage MFC sources and be used for219
intermittent energy harvesting when low charging rate is acceptable such as for remote sensors220
The performance of the charge pump can be greatly improved when input current increases221
Furthermore charge pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to automatically222
control onoff and prevent reverse current flows42 43
S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the223
most commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES studies and because its224
maximum output voltage 24 V sometimes it is not sufficient to power common electronic225
devices To further increase the output voltage another layer of power converter may be placed226
after the charge pump for voltage boost227
228
23 Boost converter-based systems229
A DCDC converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC) power from one230
voltage level to another level so an unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output231
The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter) stepped up (boost converter) or232
inverted Boost converters are widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A) and the circuit of a233
boost converter includes both semiconductors such as diodes and transistors and energy storage234
components such as capacitors and inductors with a more complex structure than that in the235
charge pump While the commonly used charge pump can step up the voltage from 03 V to 18-236
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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239
voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V
21 43 45
240
Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241
voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242
STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243
MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244
very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245
TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246
output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247
MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248
decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249
system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250
MDCs (UMDCs)46
Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251
must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252
higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253
changes in environmental conditions254
To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255
capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256
converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257
components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258
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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262
consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263
biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264
the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265
source for a wireless sensor19
A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266
charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267
voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47
This method was used to268
develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269
of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270
in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271
continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272
and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273
boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49
274
The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275
voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276
is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277
Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278
worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20
279
Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280
boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50
As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281
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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284
(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)
21
285
To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286
boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287
been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47
BMFCs utilize naturally288
occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289
and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54
One challenge of BMFCs290
is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291
in the natural water body55 56
This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292
the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293
intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45
The intermittent294
energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295
such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296
efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297
BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298
possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42
A multi-anode299
decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300
interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43
301
302
24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303
ggy
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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307
such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308
magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309
diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310
effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311
a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312
such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313
harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58
314
During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315
energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316
second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317
the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318
transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60
Adami et al developed a flyback319
converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320
obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321
commercial boost converters61
322
An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323
constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324
concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325
to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326
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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330
exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency
63
Moreover the control of MPPT can be331
applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332
reversal64
However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333
the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334
time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335
energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336
peak level in real-time12
Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337
a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65
338
Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339
control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340
MFC operation40
This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341
maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342
resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343
receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344
any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345
this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346
charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347
improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348
60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349
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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353
play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354
cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355
the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356
combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66
357
358
3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359
The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360
development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361
energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362
have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363
clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364
reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365
frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366
activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367
368
1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369
that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370
voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371
process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372
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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377
consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378
harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379
collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380
performance ICs for MFCs16 67
or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68
381
382
2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383
which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384
circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385
when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386
alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387
can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388
harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389
generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390
or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391
carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392
for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393
operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394
and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395
systems which require either a small jump start57
or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70
for self-396
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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400
consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401
up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402
implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403
404
3
More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405
to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406
capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407
capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408
electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26
409
It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410
capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411
boost circuit design57
In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412
efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413
983101
983255 98308900 (2)414
983101
983255 98308900 (3)415
where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416
step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417
the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418
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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423
that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424
is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425
426
4
The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427
current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428
devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73
429
Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430
since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431
bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432
higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433
power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434
because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435
nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436
chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437
relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438
activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439
condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440
MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441
efficiency23
One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442
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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446
controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447
avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448
the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449
450
5
While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451
harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452
charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453
receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454
electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455
microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456
results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457
community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458
selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459
efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460
electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461
from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462
transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463
more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464
interesting topic to investigate465
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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468
under Award N000141310901469
470
REFERENCES471
1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472
983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983089983091983084 31 (8) 17969830851807473
2 H983137983154983150983145983155983139983144 F 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 F983154983151983149 MFC 983156983151 M983128C 983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983148983151983143983145983139983137983148 983139983137983156983144983151983140983141983155 983137983150983140 983156983144983141983145983154474 983152983151983156983141983150983156983145983137983148 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983107983144983141983149 983123983151983139 983122983141983158 983090983088983089983088983084 39 (11) 44339830854448475
3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476
983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16659830851671477
4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478
B983157983145983155983149983137983150 C J 983118 983118983141983159 983137983152983152983148983145983139983137983156983145983151983150983155 983137983150983140 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983151983142 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148 983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148479
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5 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 B983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983149983141983156983137983148 983154983141983139983151983158983141983154983161 983142983154983151983149 983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 A 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983127983137983156983141983154 983122983141983155481
983090983088983089983092 66 219983085232482 6 D983157 983130 L983145 H G983157 983124 A 983155983156983137983156983141 983151983142 983156983144983141 983137983154983156 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 A 983152983154983151983149983145983155983145983150983143 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983142983151983154483
983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 983156983154983141983137983156983149983141983150983156 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983141983150983141983154983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983088983095983084 25 (5) 464983085482484
7 L983151983143983137983150 B E H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 B 983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 K983141983148983148983141983154 J F983154983141983143983157983145983137 983123 A983141983148983156983141983154983149983137983150 983120485
983126983141983154983155983156983154983137983141983156983141 983127 983122983137983138983137983141983161 K M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983149983141983156983144983151983140983151983148983151983143983161 983137983150983140 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148486
983090983088983088983094983084 40 (17) 51819830855192487
8 983122983141983150 983130 983129983137983150 H 983127983137983150983143 983127 M983141983150983139983144 M M 983122983141983143983137983150 J M C983144983137983154983137983156983141983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983156488
983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148983148983161 983137983150983140 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148983148983161 983149983141983137983150983145983150983143983142983157983148 983156983145983149983141 983155983139983137983148983141983155 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983089983084 45 (6) 2435983085489
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Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
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1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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29
Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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30
Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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31
Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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32
Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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33
42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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Forrestal et al found the Coulombic efficiency was only 094 indicating that the charge pump217
is not sufficient for energy harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2)
41
218
Therefore charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage MFC sources and be used for219
intermittent energy harvesting when low charging rate is acceptable such as for remote sensors220
The performance of the charge pump can be greatly improved when input current increases221
Furthermore charge pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to automatically222
control onoff and prevent reverse current flows42 43
S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the223
most commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES studies and because its224
maximum output voltage 24 V sometimes it is not sufficient to power common electronic225
devices To further increase the output voltage another layer of power converter may be placed226
after the charge pump for voltage boost227
228
23 Boost converter-based systems229
A DCDC converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC) power from one230
voltage level to another level so an unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output231
The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter) stepped up (boost converter) or232
inverted Boost converters are widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A) and the circuit of a233
boost converter includes both semiconductors such as diodes and transistors and energy storage234
components such as capacitors and inductors with a more complex structure than that in the235
charge pump While the commonly used charge pump can step up the voltage from 03 V to 18-236
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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239
voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V
21 43 45
240
Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241
voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242
STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243
MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244
very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245
TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246
output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247
MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248
decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249
system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250
MDCs (UMDCs)46
Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251
must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252
higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253
changes in environmental conditions254
To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255
capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256
converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257
components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258
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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262
consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263
biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264
the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265
source for a wireless sensor19
A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266
charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267
voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47
This method was used to268
develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269
of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270
in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271
continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272
and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273
boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49
274
The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275
voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276
is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277
Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278
worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20
279
Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280
boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50
As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281
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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284
(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)
21
285
To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286
boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287
been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47
BMFCs utilize naturally288
occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289
and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54
One challenge of BMFCs290
is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291
in the natural water body55 56
This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292
the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293
intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45
The intermittent294
energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295
such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296
efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297
BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298
possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42
A multi-anode299
decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300
interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43
301
302
24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303
ggy
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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307
such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308
magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309
diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310
effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311
a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312
such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313
harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58
314
During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315
energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316
second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317
the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318
transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60
Adami et al developed a flyback319
converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320
obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321
commercial boost converters61
322
An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323
constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324
concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325
to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326
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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330
exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency
63
Moreover the control of MPPT can be331
applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332
reversal64
However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333
the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334
time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335
energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336
peak level in real-time12
Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337
a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65
338
Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339
control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340
MFC operation40
This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341
maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342
resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343
receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344
any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345
this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346
charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347
improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348
60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349
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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353
play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354
cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355
the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356
combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66
357
358
3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359
The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360
development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361
energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362
have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363
clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364
reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365
frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366
activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367
368
1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369
that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370
voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371
process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372
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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377
consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378
harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379
collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380
performance ICs for MFCs16 67
or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68
381
382
2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383
which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384
circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385
when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386
alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387
can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388
harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389
generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390
or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391
carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392
for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393
operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394
and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395
systems which require either a small jump start57
or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70
for self-396
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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400
consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401
up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402
implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403
404
3
More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405
to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406
capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407
capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408
electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26
409
It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410
capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411
boost circuit design57
In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412
efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413
983101
983255 98308900 (2)414
983101
983255 98308900 (3)415
where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416
step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417
the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418
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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423
that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424
is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425
426
4
The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427
current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428
devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73
429
Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430
since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431
bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432
higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433
power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434
because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435
nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436
chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437
relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438
activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439
condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440
MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441
efficiency23
One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442
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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446
controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447
avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448
the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449
450
5
While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451
harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452
charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453
receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454
electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455
microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456
results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457
community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458
selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459
efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460
electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461
from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462
transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463
more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464
interesting topic to investigate465
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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468
under Award N000141310901469
470
REFERENCES471
1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472
983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983089983091983084 31 (8) 17969830851807473
2 H983137983154983150983145983155983139983144 F 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 F983154983151983149 MFC 983156983151 M983128C 983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983148983151983143983145983139983137983148 983139983137983156983144983151983140983141983155 983137983150983140 983156983144983141983145983154474 983152983151983156983141983150983156983145983137983148 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983107983144983141983149 983123983151983139 983122983141983158 983090983088983089983088983084 39 (11) 44339830854448475
3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476
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4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478
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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651
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D983151983154983156983149983157983150983140 G983141983154983149983137983150983161 2003 983152983152 792983085799653
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663
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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29
Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
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30
Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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31
Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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32
Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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33
42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239
voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V
21 43 45
240
Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241
voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242
STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243
MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244
very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245
TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246
output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247
MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248
decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249
system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250
MDCs (UMDCs)46
Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251
must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252
higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253
changes in environmental conditions254
To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255
capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256
converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257
components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258
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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262
consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263
biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264
the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265
source for a wireless sensor19
A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266
charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267
voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47
This method was used to268
develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269
of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270
in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271
continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272
and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273
boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49
274
The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275
voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276
is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277
Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278
worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20
279
Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280
boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50
As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281
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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284
(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)
21
285
To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286
boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287
been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47
BMFCs utilize naturally288
occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289
and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54
One challenge of BMFCs290
is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291
in the natural water body55 56
This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292
the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293
intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45
The intermittent294
energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295
such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296
efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297
BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298
possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42
A multi-anode299
decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300
interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43
301
302
24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303
ggy
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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307
such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308
magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309
diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310
effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311
a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312
such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313
harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58
314
During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315
energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316
second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317
the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318
transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60
Adami et al developed a flyback319
converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320
obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321
commercial boost converters61
322
An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323
constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324
concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325
to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326
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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330
exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency
63
Moreover the control of MPPT can be331
applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332
reversal64
However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333
the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334
time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335
energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336
peak level in real-time12
Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337
a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65
338
Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339
control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340
MFC operation40
This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341
maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342
resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343
receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344
any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345
this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346
charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347
improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348
60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349
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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353
play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354
cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355
the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356
combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66
357
358
3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359
The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360
development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361
energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362
have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363
clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364
reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365
frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366
activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367
368
1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369
that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370
voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371
process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372
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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377
consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378
harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379
collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380
performance ICs for MFCs16 67
or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68
381
382
2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383
which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384
circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385
when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386
alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387
can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388
harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389
generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390
or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391
carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392
for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393
operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394
and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395
systems which require either a small jump start57
or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70
for self-396
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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400
consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401
up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402
implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403
404
3
More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405
to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406
capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407
capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408
electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26
409
It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410
capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411
boost circuit design57
In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412
efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413
983101
983255 98308900 (2)414
983101
983255 98308900 (3)415
where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416
step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417
the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418
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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423
that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424
is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425
426
4
The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427
current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428
devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73
429
Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430
since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431
bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432
higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433
power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434
because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435
nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436
chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437
relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438
activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439
condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440
MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441
efficiency23
One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442
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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446
controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447
avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448
the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449
450
5
While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451
harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452
charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453
receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454
electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455
microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456
results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457
community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458
selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459
efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460
electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461
from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462
transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463
more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464
interesting topic to investigate465
Page 22 of 33Environmental Science amp Technology
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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468
under Award N000141310901469
470
REFERENCES471
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71 E983159983145983150983143 983124 H983137 983120 983124 B983137983138983137983157983156983137 J 983124 983124983137983150983143 983118 983124 H983141983151 D B983141983161983141983150983137983148 H 983123983139983137983148983141983085983157983152 983151983142 983155983141983140983145983149983141983150983156641
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72 983127983151983156983137983159983137983085B983141983154983143983141983150 A 983121 C983144983137983140983159983145983139983147 D B 983122983145983139983144983156983141983154 K E 983124983141983150983140983141983154 L M 983122983141983145983149983141983154983155 C E G983151983150983143 983129 I983150643
983148 983142 983140 983138 983148 983142 983148 983148983148 983148 983144
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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651
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D983151983154983156983149983157983150983140 G983141983154983149983137983150983161 2003 983152983152 792983085799653
76 M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J H983151983154983155983142983145983141983148983140 I E983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139983137983148983148983161 983137983157983156983151983150983151983149983151983157983155 983154983151983138983151983156983155 F983151983151983140654
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77 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J H983151983154983155983142983145983141983148983140 I E983139983151B983151983156983085II A983150 983137983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983137983143983141983150983156 983159983145983156983144 983137656
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79 A983150983140983141983154983155983151983150 I A I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983139K983137983161 983124 983119991257B983154983145983141983150 B M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C I983150 983105 983144983161983138983154983145983140 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983140983145983141983148983141983139983156983154983145983139660
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983129 E983140 983123983137983150 D983145983141983143983151 C983137983148983145983142983151983154983150983145983137 983125983123A 2010 983152983152 764219831299830851662
663
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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29
Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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30
Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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31
Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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32
Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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33
42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262
consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263
biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264
the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265
source for a wireless sensor19
A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266
charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267
voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47
This method was used to268
develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269
of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270
in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271
continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272
and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273
boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49
274
The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275
voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276
is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277
Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278
worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20
279
Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280
boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50
As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281
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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284
(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)
21
285
To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286
boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287
been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47
BMFCs utilize naturally288
occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289
and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54
One challenge of BMFCs290
is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291
in the natural water body55 56
This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292
the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293
intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45
The intermittent294
energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295
such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296
efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297
BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298
possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42
A multi-anode299
decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300
interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43
301
302
24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303
ggy
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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307
such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308
magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309
diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310
effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311
a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312
such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313
harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58
314
During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315
energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316
second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317
the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318
transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60
Adami et al developed a flyback319
converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320
obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321
commercial boost converters61
322
An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323
constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324
concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325
to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326
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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330
exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency
63
Moreover the control of MPPT can be331
applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332
reversal64
However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333
the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334
time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335
energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336
peak level in real-time12
Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337
a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65
338
Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339
control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340
MFC operation40
This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341
maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342
resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343
receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344
any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345
this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346
charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347
improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348
60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349
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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353
play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354
cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355
the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356
combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66
357
358
3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359
The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360
development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361
energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362
have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363
clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364
reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365
frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366
activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367
368
1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369
that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370
voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371
process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372
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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377
consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378
harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379
collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380
performance ICs for MFCs16 67
or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68
381
382
2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383
which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384
circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385
when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386
alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387
can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388
harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389
generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390
or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391
carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392
for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393
operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394
and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395
systems which require either a small jump start57
or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70
for self-396
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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400
consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401
up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402
implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403
404
3
More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405
to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406
capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407
capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408
electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26
409
It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410
capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411
boost circuit design57
In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412
efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413
983101
983255 98308900 (2)414
983101
983255 98308900 (3)415
where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416
step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417
the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418
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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423
that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424
is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425
426
4
The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427
current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428
devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73
429
Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430
since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431
bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432
higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433
power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434
because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435
nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436
chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437
relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438
activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439
condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440
MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441
efficiency23
One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442
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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446
controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447
avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448
the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449
450
5
While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451
harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452
charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453
receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454
electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455
microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456
results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457
community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458
selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459
efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460
electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461
from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462
transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463
more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464
interesting topic to investigate465
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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468
under Award N000141310901469
470
REFERENCES471
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70 D983141983143983154983141983150983150983141 983118 B983157983154983141983156 F M983151983154983141983148 F A983140983137983149983145 983123983085E L983137983138983154983151983157983155983155983141 D A983148983148983137983154983140 B 983130983137983151983157983145 A 983123983141983148983142983085983155983156983137983154983156983145983150983143638
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71 E983159983145983150983143 983124 H983137 983120 983124 B983137983138983137983157983156983137 J 983124 983124983137983150983143 983118 983124 H983141983151 D B983141983161983141983150983137983148 H 983123983139983137983148983141983085983157983152 983151983142 983155983141983140983145983149983141983150983156641
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72 983127983151983156983137983159983137983085B983141983154983143983141983150 A 983121 C983144983137983140983159983145983139983147 D B 983122983145983139983144983156983141983154 K E 983124983141983150983140983141983154 L M 983122983141983145983149983141983154983155 C E G983151983150983143 983129 I983150643
983148 983142 983140 983138 983148 983142 983148 983148983148 983148 983144
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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651
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79 A983150983140983141983154983155983151983150 I A I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983139K983137983161 983124 983119991257B983154983145983141983150 B M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C I983150 983105 983144983161983138983154983145983140 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983140983145983141983148983141983139983156983154983145983139660
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983129 E983140 983123983137983150 D983145983141983143983151 C983137983148983145983142983151983154983150983145983137 983125983123A 2010 983152983152 764219831299830851662
663
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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29
Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
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30
Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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31
Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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32
Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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33
42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284
(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)
21
285
To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286
boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287
been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47
BMFCs utilize naturally288
occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289
and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54
One challenge of BMFCs290
is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291
in the natural water body55 56
This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292
the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293
intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45
The intermittent294
energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295
such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296
efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297
BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298
possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42
A multi-anode299
decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300
interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43
301
302
24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303
ggy
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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307
such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308
magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309
diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310
effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311
a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312
such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313
harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58
314
During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315
energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316
second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317
the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318
transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60
Adami et al developed a flyback319
converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320
obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321
commercial boost converters61
322
An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323
constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324
concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325
to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326
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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330
exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency
63
Moreover the control of MPPT can be331
applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332
reversal64
However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333
the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334
time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335
energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336
peak level in real-time12
Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337
a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65
338
Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339
control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340
MFC operation40
This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341
maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342
resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343
receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344
any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345
this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346
charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347
improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348
60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349
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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353
play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354
cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355
the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356
combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66
357
358
3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359
The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360
development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361
energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362
have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363
clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364
reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365
frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366
activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367
368
1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369
that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370
voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371
process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372
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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377
consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378
harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379
collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380
performance ICs for MFCs16 67
or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68
381
382
2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383
which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384
circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385
when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386
alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387
can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388
harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389
generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390
or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391
carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392
for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393
operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394
and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395
systems which require either a small jump start57
or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70
for self-396
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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400
consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401
up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402
implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403
404
3
More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405
to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406
capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407
capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408
electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26
409
It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410
capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411
boost circuit design57
In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412
efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413
983101
983255 98308900 (2)414
983101
983255 98308900 (3)415
where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416
step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417
the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418
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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423
that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424
is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425
426
4
The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427
current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428
devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73
429
Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430
since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431
bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432
higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433
power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434
because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435
nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436
chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437
relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438
activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439
condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440
MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441
efficiency23
One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442
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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446
controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447
avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448
the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449
450
5
While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451
harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452
charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453
receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454
electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455
microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456
results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457
community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458
selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459
efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460
electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461
from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462
transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463
more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464
interesting topic to investigate465
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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468
under Award N000141310901469
470
REFERENCES471
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3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476
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4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478
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983090983088983089983092 66 219983085232482 6 D983157 983130 L983145 H G983157 983124 A 983155983156983137983156983141 983151983142 983156983144983141 983137983154983156 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 A 983152983154983151983149983145983155983145983150983143 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983142983151983154483
983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 983156983154983141983137983156983149983141983150983156 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983141983150983141983154983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983088983095983084 25 (5) 464983085482484
7 L983151983143983137983150 B E H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 B 983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 K983141983148983148983141983154 J F983154983141983143983157983145983137 983123 A983141983148983156983141983154983149983137983150 983120485
983126983141983154983155983156983154983137983141983156983141 983127 983122983137983138983137983141983161 K M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983149983141983156983144983151983140983151983148983151983143983161 983137983150983140 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148486
983090983088983088983094983084 40 (17) 51819830855192487
8 983122983141983150 983130 983129983137983150 H 983127983137983150983143 983127 M983141983150983139983144 M M 983122983141983143983137983150 J M C983144983137983154983137983156983141983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983156488
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2441490 9 L983161983151983150 D 983129 B983157983154983141983156 F 983126983151983143983141983148 983124 M M983151983150983145983141983154 J983085M I983155 983154983141983155983145983155983156983137983150983139983141 983142983157983156983145983148983141 C983144983137983150983143983145983150983143 983141983160983156983141983154983150983137983148491
983154983141983155983145983155983156983137983150983139983141 983140983151983141983155 983150983151983156 983145983149983152983154983151983158983141 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983106983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983155983156983154983161 983090983088983089983088983084 78 (1) 29830857492
10 983127983137983156983155983151983150 983126 J L983151983143983137983150 B E A983150983137983148983161983155983145983155 983151983142 983152983151983148983137983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983149983141983156983144983151983140983155 983142983151983154 983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983152983151983159983141983154 983151983158983141983154983155983144983151983151983156493
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11 D983141983143983154983141983150983150983141 983118 B983157983154983141983156 F A983148983148983137983154983140 B B983141983158983145983148983137983139983153983157983137 983120 E983148983141983139983156983154983145983139983137983148 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983143983141983150983141983154983137983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983137 983148983137983154983143983141495
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205 188983085193497
12 983120983137983154983147 J983085D 983122983141983150 983130 H983161983155983156983141983154983141983155983145983155 983139983151983150983156983154983151983148983148983141983154 983138983137983155983141983140 983149983137983160983145983149983157983149 983152983151983159983141983154 983152983151983145983150983156 983156983154983137983139983147983145983150983143 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983144983137983154983158983141983155983156983145983150983143498 983155983161983155983156983141983149 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983114 983120983151983159983141983154 983123983151983157983154983139983141983155 983090983088983089983090983084 205 (9) 151983085156499
13 L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983148983148 D C983144983141983150983143 983123 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127500
983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 A M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983148983161983155983145983155 983139983141983148983148983155 983142983151983154 983144983145983143983144 983161983145983141983148983140 983144983161983140983154983151983143983141983150 983143983137983155 983152983154983151983140983157983139983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983151983154983143983137983150983145983139 983149983137983156983156983141983154501
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17 K983145983149 983129 H983137983156983162983141983148983148 M C H983157983156983139983144983145983150983155983151983150 A J L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983152983156983157983154983145983150983143 983152983151983159983141983154 983137983156 983144983145983143983144983141983154 983158983151983148983156983137983143983141983155 983142983154983151983149511
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18 D983145983137983149983151983150983140 D C983151983161983148983141 983123 983123983139983137983154983149983137983143983150983137983150983145 983123 H983137983161983141983155 J 983127983145983154983141983148983141983155983155 983155983141983150983155983151983154 983150983141983156983159983151983154983147983155 983137983150983140 983139983144983141983149983151983085513
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68 983127983145983150983142983145983141983148983140 J C983144983137983149983138983141983154983155 L D 983123983156983145983150983139983144983139983151983149983138983141 A 983122983151983155983155983145983156983141983154 J I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I 983124983144983141 983152983151983159983141983154 983151983142 983143983148983151983158983141632
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70 D983141983143983154983141983150983150983141 983118 B983157983154983141983156 F M983151983154983141983148 F A983140983137983149983145 983123983085E L983137983138983154983151983157983155983155983141 D A983148983148983137983154983140 B 983130983137983151983157983145 A 983123983141983148983142983085983155983156983137983154983156983145983150983143638
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71 E983159983145983150983143 983124 H983137 983120 983124 B983137983138983137983157983156983137 J 983124 983124983137983150983143 983118 983124 H983141983151 D B983141983161983141983150983137983148 H 983123983139983137983148983141983085983157983152 983151983142 983155983141983140983145983149983141983150983156641
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72 983127983151983156983137983159983137983085B983141983154983143983141983150 A 983121 C983144983137983140983159983145983139983147 D B 983122983145983139983144983156983141983154 K E 983124983141983150983140983141983154 L M 983122983141983145983149983141983154983155 C E G983151983150983143 983129 I983150643
983148 983142 983140 983138 983148 983142 983148 983148983148 983148 983144
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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651
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76 M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J H983151983154983155983142983145983141983148983140 I E983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139983137983148983148983161 983137983157983156983151983150983151983149983151983157983155 983154983151983138983151983156983155 F983151983151983140654
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983120983154983151983139983141983141983140983145983150983143983155 983151983142 983156983144983141 A983148983145983142983141 983128II C983151983150983142983141983154983141983150983139983141 983119983140983141983150983155983141 D983141983150983149983137983154983147 2010 983119983140983141983150983155983141 D983141983150983149983137983154983147 2010659
79 A983150983140983141983154983155983151983150 I A I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983139K983137983161 983124 983119991257B983154983145983141983150 B M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C I983150 983105 983144983161983138983154983145983140 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983140983145983141983148983141983139983156983154983145983139660
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983129 E983140 983123983137983150 D983145983141983143983151 C983137983148983145983142983151983154983150983145983137 983125983123A 2010 983152983152 764219831299830851662
663
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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29
Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
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30
Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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31
Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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32
Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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33
42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307
such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308
magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309
diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310
effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311
a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312
such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313
harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58
314
During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315
energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316
second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317
the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318
transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60
Adami et al developed a flyback319
converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320
obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321
commercial boost converters61
322
An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323
constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324
concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325
to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326
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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330
exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency
63
Moreover the control of MPPT can be331
applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332
reversal64
However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333
the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334
time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335
energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336
peak level in real-time12
Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337
a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65
338
Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339
control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340
MFC operation40
This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341
maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342
resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343
receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344
any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345
this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346
charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347
improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348
60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349
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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353
play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354
cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355
the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356
combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66
357
358
3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359
The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360
development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361
energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362
have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363
clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364
reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365
frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366
activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367
368
1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369
that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370
voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371
process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372
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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377
consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378
harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379
collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380
performance ICs for MFCs16 67
or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68
381
382
2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383
which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384
circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385
when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386
alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387
can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388
harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389
generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390
or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391
carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392
for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393
operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394
and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395
systems which require either a small jump start57
or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70
for self-396
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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400
consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401
up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402
implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403
404
3
More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405
to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406
capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407
capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408
electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26
409
It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410
capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411
boost circuit design57
In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412
efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413
983101
983255 98308900 (2)414
983101
983255 98308900 (3)415
where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416
step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417
the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418
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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423
that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424
is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425
426
4
The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427
current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428
devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73
429
Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430
since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431
bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432
higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433
power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434
because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435
nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436
chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437
relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438
activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439
condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440
MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441
efficiency23
One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442
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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446
controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447
avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448
the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449
450
5
While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451
harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452
charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453
receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454
electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455
microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456
results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457
community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458
selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459
efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460
electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461
from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462
transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463
more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464
interesting topic to investigate465
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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468
under Award N000141310901469
470
REFERENCES471
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3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476
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4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478
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983090983088983089983092 66 219983085232482 6 D983157 983130 L983145 H G983157 983124 A 983155983156983137983156983141 983151983142 983156983144983141 983137983154983156 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 A 983152983154983151983149983145983155983145983150983143 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983142983151983154483
983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 983156983154983141983137983156983149983141983150983156 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983141983150983141983154983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983088983095983084 25 (5) 464983085482484
7 L983151983143983137983150 B E H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 B 983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 K983141983148983148983141983154 J F983154983141983143983157983145983137 983123 A983141983148983156983141983154983149983137983150 983120485
983126983141983154983155983156983154983137983141983156983141 983127 983122983137983138983137983141983161 K M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983149983141983156983144983151983140983151983148983151983143983161 983137983150983140 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148486
983090983088983088983094983084 40 (17) 51819830855192487
8 983122983141983150 983130 983129983137983150 H 983127983137983150983143 983127 M983141983150983139983144 M M 983122983141983143983137983150 J M C983144983137983154983137983156983141983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983156488
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2441490 9 L983161983151983150 D 983129 B983157983154983141983156 F 983126983151983143983141983148 983124 M M983151983150983145983141983154 J983085M I983155 983154983141983155983145983155983156983137983150983139983141 983142983157983156983145983148983141 C983144983137983150983143983145983150983143 983141983160983156983141983154983150983137983148491
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10 983127983137983156983155983151983150 983126 J L983151983143983137983150 B E A983150983137983148983161983155983145983155 983151983142 983152983151983148983137983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983149983141983156983144983151983140983155 983142983151983154 983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983152983151983159983141983154 983151983158983141983154983155983144983151983151983156493
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11 D983141983143983154983141983150983150983141 983118 B983157983154983141983156 F A983148983148983137983154983140 B B983141983158983145983148983137983139983153983157983137 983120 E983148983141983139983156983154983145983139983137983148 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983143983141983150983141983154983137983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983137 983148983137983154983143983141495
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205 188983085193497
12 983120983137983154983147 J983085D 983122983141983150 983130 H983161983155983156983141983154983141983155983145983155 983139983151983150983156983154983151983148983148983141983154 983138983137983155983141983140 983149983137983160983145983149983157983149 983152983151983159983141983154 983152983151983145983150983156 983156983154983137983139983147983145983150983143 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983144983137983154983158983141983155983156983145983150983143498 983155983161983155983156983141983149 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983114 983120983151983159983141983154 983123983151983157983154983139983141983155 983090983088983089983090983084 205 (9) 151983085156499
13 L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983148983148 D C983144983141983150983143 983123 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127500
983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 A M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983148983161983155983145983155 983139983141983148983148983155 983142983151983154 983144983145983143983144 983161983145983141983148983140 983144983161983140983154983151983143983141983150 983143983137983155 983152983154983151983140983157983139983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983151983154983143983137983150983145983139 983149983137983156983156983141983154501
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17 K983145983149 983129 H983137983156983162983141983148983148 M C H983157983156983139983144983145983150983155983151983150 A J L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983152983156983157983154983145983150983143 983152983151983159983141983154 983137983156 983144983145983143983144983141983154 983158983151983148983156983137983143983141983155 983142983154983151983149511
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18 D983145983137983149983151983150983140 D C983151983161983148983141 983123 983123983139983137983154983149983137983143983150983137983150983145 983123 H983137983161983141983155 J 983127983145983154983141983148983141983155983155 983155983141983150983155983151983154 983150983141983156983159983151983154983147983155 983137983150983140 983139983144983141983149983151983085513
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70 D983141983143983154983141983150983150983141 983118 B983157983154983141983156 F M983151983154983141983148 F A983140983137983149983145 983123983085E L983137983138983154983151983157983155983155983141 D A983148983148983137983154983140 B 983130983137983151983157983145 A 983123983141983148983142983085983155983156983137983154983156983145983150983143638
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72 983127983151983156983137983159983137983085B983141983154983143983141983150 A 983121 C983144983137983140983159983145983139983147 D B 983122983145983139983144983156983141983154 K E 983124983141983150983140983141983154 L M 983122983141983145983149983141983154983155 C E G983151983150983143 983129 I983150643
983148 983142 983140 983138 983148 983142 983148 983148983148 983148 983144
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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651
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76 M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J H983151983154983155983142983145983141983148983140 I E983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139983137983148983148983161 983137983157983156983151983150983151983149983151983157983155 983154983151983138983151983156983155 F983151983151983140654
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79 A983150983140983141983154983155983151983150 I A I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983139K983137983161 983124 983119991257B983154983145983141983150 B M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C I983150 983105 983144983161983138983154983145983140 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983140983145983141983148983141983139983156983154983145983139660
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983129 E983140 983123983137983150 D983145983141983143983151 C983137983148983145983142983151983154983150983145983137 983125983123A 2010 983152983152 764219831299830851662
663
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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29
Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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30
Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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31
Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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32
Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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33
42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330
exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency
63
Moreover the control of MPPT can be331
applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332
reversal64
However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333
the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334
time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335
energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336
peak level in real-time12
Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337
a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65
338
Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339
control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340
MFC operation40
This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341
maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342
resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343
receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344
any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345
this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346
charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347
improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348
60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349
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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353
play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354
cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355
the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356
combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66
357
358
3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359
The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360
development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361
energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362
have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363
clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364
reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365
frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366
activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367
368
1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369
that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370
voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371
process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372
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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377
consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378
harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379
collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380
performance ICs for MFCs16 67
or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68
381
382
2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383
which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384
circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385
when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386
alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387
can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388
harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389
generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390
or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391
carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392
for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393
operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394
and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395
systems which require either a small jump start57
or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70
for self-396
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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400
consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401
up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402
implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403
404
3
More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405
to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406
capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407
capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408
electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26
409
It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410
capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411
boost circuit design57
In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412
efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413
983101
983255 98308900 (2)414
983101
983255 98308900 (3)415
where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416
step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417
the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418
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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423
that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424
is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425
426
4
The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427
current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428
devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73
429
Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430
since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431
bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432
higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433
power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434
because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435
nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436
chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437
relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438
activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439
condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440
MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441
efficiency23
One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442
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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446
controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447
avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448
the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449
450
5
While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451
harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452
charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453
receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454
electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455
microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456
results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457
community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458
selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459
efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460
electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461
from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462
transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463
more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464
interesting topic to investigate465
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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468
under Award N000141310901469
470
REFERENCES471
1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472
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3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476
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13 L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983148983148 D C983144983141983150983143 983123 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127500
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983105983152983152983148983145983139983137983156983145983151983150983155 (983109983120983109 2011) IEEE B983145983154983149983145983150983143983144983137983149 2011 983152983152 198308510637
70 D983141983143983154983141983150983150983141 983118 B983157983154983141983156 F M983151983154983141983148 F A983140983137983149983145 983123983085E L983137983138983154983151983157983155983155983141 D A983148983148983137983154983140 B 983130983137983151983157983145 A 983123983141983148983142983085983155983156983137983154983156983145983150983143638
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71 E983159983145983150983143 983124 H983137 983120 983124 B983137983138983137983157983156983137 J 983124 983124983137983150983143 983118 983124 H983141983151 D B983141983161983141983150983137983148 H 983123983139983137983148983141983085983157983152 983151983142 983155983141983140983145983149983141983150983156641
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72 983127983151983156983137983159983137983085B983141983154983143983141983150 A 983121 C983144983137983140983159983145983139983147 D B 983122983145983139983144983156983141983154 K E 983124983141983150983140983141983154 L M 983122983141983145983149983141983154983155 C E G983151983150983143 983129 I983150643
983148 983142 983140 983138 983148 983142 983148 983148983148 983148 983144
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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651
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76 M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J H983151983154983155983142983145983141983148983140 I E983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139983137983148983148983161 983137983157983156983151983150983151983149983151983157983155 983154983151983138983151983156983155 F983151983151983140654
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983120983154983151983139983141983141983140983145983150983143983155 983151983142 983156983144983141 A983148983145983142983141 983128II C983151983150983142983141983154983141983150983139983141 983119983140983141983150983155983141 D983141983150983149983137983154983147 2010 983119983140983141983150983155983141 D983141983150983149983137983154983147 2010659
79 A983150983140983141983154983155983151983150 I A I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983139K983137983161 983124 983119991257B983154983145983141983150 B M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C I983150 983105 983144983161983138983154983145983140 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983140983145983141983148983141983139983156983154983145983139660
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983129 E983140 983123983137983150 D983145983141983143983151 C983137983148983145983142983151983154983150983145983137 983125983123A 2010 983152983152 764219831299830851662
663
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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29
Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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30
Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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31
Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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32
Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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33
42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353
play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354
cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355
the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356
combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66
357
358
3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359
The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360
development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361
energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362
have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363
clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364
reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365
frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366
activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367
368
1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369
that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370
voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371
process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372
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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377
consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378
harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379
collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380
performance ICs for MFCs16 67
or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68
381
382
2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383
which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384
circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385
when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386
alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387
can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388
harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389
generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390
or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391
carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392
for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393
operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394
and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395
systems which require either a small jump start57
or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70
for self-396
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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400
consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401
up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402
implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403
404
3
More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405
to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406
capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407
capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408
electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26
409
It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410
capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411
boost circuit design57
In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412
efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413
983101
983255 98308900 (2)414
983101
983255 98308900 (3)415
where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416
step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417
the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418
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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423
that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424
is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425
426
4
The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427
current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428
devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73
429
Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430
since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431
bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432
higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433
power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434
because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435
nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436
chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437
relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438
activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439
condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440
MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441
efficiency23
One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442
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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446
controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447
avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448
the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449
450
5
While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451
harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452
charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453
receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454
electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455
microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456
results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457
community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458
selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459
efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460
electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461
from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462
transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463
more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464
interesting topic to investigate465
Page 22 of 33Environmental Science amp Technology
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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468
under Award N000141310901469
470
REFERENCES471
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72 983127983151983156983137983159983137983085B983141983154983143983141983150 A 983121 C983144983137983140983159983145983139983147 D B 983122983145983139983144983156983141983154 K E 983124983141983150983140983141983154 L M 983122983141983145983149983141983154983155 C E G983151983150983143 983129 I983150643
983148 983142 983140 983138 983148 983142 983148 983148983148 983148 983144
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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651
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79 A983150983140983141983154983155983151983150 I A I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983139K983137983161 983124 983119991257B983154983145983141983150 B M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C I983150 983105 983144983161983138983154983145983140 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983140983145983141983148983141983139983156983154983145983139660
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983129 E983140 983123983137983150 D983145983141983143983151 C983137983148983145983142983151983154983150983145983137 983125983123A 2010 983152983152 764219831299830851662
663
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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29
Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
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30
Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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31
Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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32
Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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33
42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377
consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378
harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379
collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380
performance ICs for MFCs16 67
or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68
381
382
2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383
which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384
circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385
when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386
alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387
can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388
harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389
generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390
or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391
carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392
for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393
operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394
and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395
systems which require either a small jump start57
or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70
for self-396
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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400
consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401
up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402
implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403
404
3
More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405
to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406
capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407
capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408
electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26
409
It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410
capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411
boost circuit design57
In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412
efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413
983101
983255 98308900 (2)414
983101
983255 98308900 (3)415
where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416
step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417
the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418
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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423
that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424
is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425
426
4
The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427
current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428
devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73
429
Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430
since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431
bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432
higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433
power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434
because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435
nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436
chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437
relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438
activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439
condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440
MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441
efficiency23
One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442
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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446
controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447
avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448
the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449
450
5
While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451
harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452
charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453
receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454
electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455
microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456
results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457
community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458
selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459
efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460
electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461
from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462
transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463
more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464
interesting topic to investigate465
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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468
under Award N000141310901469
470
REFERENCES471
1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472
983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983089983091983084 31 (8) 17969830851807473
2 H983137983154983150983145983155983139983144 F 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 F983154983151983149 MFC 983156983151 M983128C 983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983148983151983143983145983139983137983148 983139983137983156983144983151983140983141983155 983137983150983140 983156983144983141983145983154474 983152983151983156983141983150983156983145983137983148 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983107983144983141983149 983123983151983139 983122983141983158 983090983088983089983088983084 39 (11) 44339830854448475
3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476
983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16659830851671477
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663
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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29
Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
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30
Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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31
Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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32
Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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33
42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400
consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401
up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402
implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403
404
3
More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405
to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406
capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407
capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408
electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26
409
It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410
capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411
boost circuit design57
In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412
efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413
983101
983255 98308900 (2)414
983101
983255 98308900 (3)415
where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416
step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417
the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418
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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423
that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424
is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425
426
4
The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427
current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428
devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73
429
Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430
since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431
bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432
higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433
power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434
because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435
nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436
chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437
relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438
activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439
condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440
MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441
efficiency23
One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442
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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446
controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447
avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448
the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449
450
5
While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451
harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452
charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453
receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454
electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455
microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456
results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457
community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458
selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459
efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460
electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461
from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462
transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463
more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464
interesting topic to investigate465
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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468
under Award N000141310901469
470
REFERENCES471
1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472
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3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476
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4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478
B983157983145983155983149983137983150 C J 983118 983118983141983159 983137983152983152983148983145983139983137983156983145983151983150983155 983137983150983140 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983151983142 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148 983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148479
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5 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 B983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983149983141983156983137983148 983154983141983139983151983158983141983154983161 983142983154983151983149 983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 A 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983127983137983156983141983154 983122983141983155481
983090983088983089983092 66 219983085232482 6 D983157 983130 L983145 H G983157 983124 A 983155983156983137983156983141 983151983142 983156983144983141 983137983154983156 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 A 983152983154983151983149983145983155983145983150983143 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983142983151983154483
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7 L983151983143983137983150 B E H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 B 983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 K983141983148983148983141983154 J F983154983141983143983157983145983137 983123 A983141983148983156983141983154983149983137983150 983120485
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983129 E983140 983123983137983150 D983145983141983143983151 C983137983148983145983142983151983154983150983145983137 983125983123A 2010 983152983152 764219831299830851662
663
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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29
Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
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30
Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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31
Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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32
Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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33
42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423
that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424
is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425
426
4
The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427
current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428
devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73
429
Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430
since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431
bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432
higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433
power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434
because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435
nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436
chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437
relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438
activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439
condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440
MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441
efficiency23
One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442
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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446
controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447
avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448
the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449
450
5
While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451
harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452
charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453
receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454
electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455
microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456
results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457
community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458
selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459
efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460
electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461
from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462
transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463
more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464
interesting topic to investigate465
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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468
under Award N000141310901469
470
REFERENCES471
1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472
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3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476
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4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478
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7 L983151983143983137983150 B E H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 B 983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 K983141983148983148983141983154 J F983154983141983143983157983145983137 983123 A983141983148983156983141983154983149983137983150 983120485
983126983141983154983155983156983154983137983141983156983141 983127 983122983137983138983137983141983161 K M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983149983141983156983144983151983140983151983148983151983143983161 983137983150983140 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148486
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70 D983141983143983154983141983150983150983141 983118 B983157983154983141983156 F M983151983154983141983148 F A983140983137983149983145 983123983085E L983137983138983154983151983157983155983155983141 D A983148983148983137983154983140 B 983130983137983151983157983145 A 983123983141983148983142983085983155983156983137983154983156983145983150983143638
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72 983127983151983156983137983159983137983085B983141983154983143983141983150 A 983121 C983144983137983140983159983145983139983147 D B 983122983145983139983144983156983141983154 K E 983124983141983150983140983141983154 L M 983122983141983145983149983141983154983155 C E G983151983150983143 983129 I983150643
983148 983142 983140 983138 983148 983142 983148 983148983148 983148 983144
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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651
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663
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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32
Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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33
42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446
controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447
avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448
the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449
450
5
While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451
harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452
charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453
receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454
electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455
microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456
results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457
community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458
selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459
efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460
electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461
from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462
transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463
more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464
interesting topic to investigate465
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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468
under Award N000141310901469
470
REFERENCES471
1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472
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B983157983145983155983149983137983150 C J 983118 983118983141983159 983137983152983152983148983145983139983137983156983145983151983150983155 983137983150983140 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983151983142 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148 983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148479
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7 L983151983143983137983150 B E H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 B 983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 K983141983148983148983141983154 J F983154983141983143983157983145983137 983123 A983141983148983156983141983154983149983137983150 983120485
983126983141983154983155983156983154983137983141983156983141 983127 983122983137983138983137983141983161 K M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983149983141983156983144983151983140983151983148983151983143983161 983137983150983140 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148486
983090983088983088983094983084 40 (17) 51819830855192487
8 983122983141983150 983130 983129983137983150 H 983127983137983150983143 983127 M983141983150983139983144 M M 983122983141983143983137983150 J M C983144983137983154983137983156983141983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983156488
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2441490 9 L983161983151983150 D 983129 B983157983154983141983156 F 983126983151983143983141983148 983124 M M983151983150983145983141983154 J983085M I983155 983154983141983155983145983155983156983137983150983139983141 983142983157983156983145983148983141 C983144983137983150983143983145983150983143 983141983160983156983141983154983150983137983148491
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10 983127983137983156983155983151983150 983126 J L983151983143983137983150 B E A983150983137983148983161983155983145983155 983151983142 983152983151983148983137983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983149983141983156983144983151983140983155 983142983151983154 983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983152983151983159983141983154 983151983158983141983154983155983144983151983151983156493
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11 D983141983143983154983141983150983150983141 983118 B983157983154983141983156 F A983148983148983137983154983140 B B983141983158983145983148983137983139983153983157983137 983120 E983148983141983139983156983154983145983139983137983148 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983143983141983150983141983154983137983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983137 983148983137983154983143983141495
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205 188983085193497
12 983120983137983154983147 J983085D 983122983141983150 983130 H983161983155983156983141983154983141983155983145983155 983139983151983150983156983154983151983148983148983141983154 983138983137983155983141983140 983149983137983160983145983149983157983149 983152983151983159983141983154 983152983151983145983150983156 983156983154983137983139983147983145983150983143 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983144983137983154983158983141983155983156983145983150983143498 983155983161983155983156983141983149 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983114 983120983151983159983141983154 983123983151983157983154983139983141983155 983090983088983089983090983084 205 (9) 151983085156499
13 L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983148983148 D C983144983141983150983143 983123 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127500
983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 A M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983148983161983155983145983155 983139983141983148983148983155 983142983151983154 983144983145983143983144 983161983145983141983148983140 983144983161983140983154983151983143983141983150 983143983137983155 983152983154983151983140983157983139983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983151983154983143983137983150983145983139 983149983137983156983156983141983154501
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18 D983145983137983149983151983150983140 D C983151983161983148983141 983123 983123983139983137983154983149983137983143983150983137983150983145 983123 H983137983161983141983155 J 983127983145983154983141983148983141983155983155 983155983141983150983155983151983154 983150983141983156983159983151983154983147983155 983137983150983140 983139983144983141983149983151983085513
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983148 983142 983140 983138 983148 983142 983148 983148983148 983148 983144
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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651
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983129 E983140 983123983137983150 D983145983141983143983151 C983137983148983145983142983151983154983150983145983137 983125983123A 2010 983152983152 764219831299830851662
663
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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29
Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
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30
Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468
under Award N000141310901469
470
REFERENCES471
1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472
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3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476
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663
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
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Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
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Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651
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663
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
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Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651
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663
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Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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31
Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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663
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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29
Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
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30
Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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31
Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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32
Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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33
42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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664665
Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666
microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667
generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668
the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669
670
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2
)
V o l t a g e ( m V )
Current density (Am2)
MFC
High voltagelow current
LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC
MDC
Maximum power points
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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29
Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
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30
Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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31
Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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671672
673
674
675676
677
678
679680
Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681
generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682
A
B
C
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29
Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
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Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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31
Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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33
42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686
Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref
Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field
Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable
AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions
46
Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down
43 45 47
Boost converter
STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)
A DCDC converter to step up the voltage
Linear Technologies (LTC3108)
Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)
Texas Instruments (TPS61201)
Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)
Inductor
Triad Magnetics (RC-7)
Energy storage in a magnetic field66
Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)
TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)
Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)
Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)
Diode
Micro Commercial Components
(1N5711)
A switch that blocks reverse current flow
40 66
Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)
Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)
Metaleoxideesemicondu
ctor feld-effect transistor
(MOSFET)
Vishay (Si3460BDV)
A transistor that switches electronic signals
Vishay (Si3499DV)
Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)
ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)
Junction gate field-effect
transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals
61
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30
Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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31
Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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Comparator
Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and
output a digital signal indicating whether the
voltagecurrent reaches the set level
OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as
square waves57
Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)
Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting
687
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31
Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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httpslidepdfcomreaderfullwang-2015 3234
31
Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688
689
NO BES
Main electronic
components
Input
voltage (V)
Input power
(mW)
Output
voltage (V)
Output power
(mW)
Efficiency
()
Need external
power (YN)
Maximum power
point (YN) Ref
Capacitor-based systems Direct charging
140 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Capacitor
42-455 952 b N N 35
28 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 75
38 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 76 77
48 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 78
524 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 32
624 single-chamber
MFC-stack N N 33
724 single-chamber
MFC-stack
Rechargeable
battery N N 34
Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))
8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36
10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37
Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)
11Two-chamber
MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29
Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series
12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N
13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N
14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes
15 Two-chamber MFC
Quasi-capacitor
(capacitive
electrode)
N N 30
Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC
Charge pump
Capacitor
0633 10 43 N N 40
17Three-chamber
MCDC094 b N N 41
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32
Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
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32
Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems
18
Upflow MDC
(UMDC)
Rechargeable
battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866
a
Y N
46
19 Benthic MFC
Capacitor
DCDC boost
converter
21 33 N N 19
20Upflow MDC
(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46
21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47
22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352
753 b N N 49 36 3697
23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48
2412 two-chamber MFC-
stack 3 1800 Y N74
2512 two-chamber MFC-
stack3-5 1800 Y N 79
26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N
Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems
27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61
28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
DCDC boostconverter
079 037 33 95 N N
29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21
30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50
Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems
31 Single-chamber MFC
Capacitor
charge pump
DCDC boost
converter
03 33 95 533 N N
32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N
33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44
34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45
35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42
36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-
3780 b
N N 43
37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73
38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71
Custom-designed systems
39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor diode
02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57
40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66
Maximum power point-based systems
41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
inductor diode
0316-
037225 360a Y Y 40
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42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
ACS Paragon Plus Environment
7212019 Wang 2015
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullwang-2015 3434
33
42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor
transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59
43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor
inductor
028-033 759a Y Y
44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y
12
45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor
transformer
diode
03 06-2 73 N Y 65
46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69
47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70
48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51
Integrated circuit-based systems
49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC
capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68
50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-
designed IC
036 032825 85
17 N Y 16
04 0512 30
51Two-chamber
miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67
a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690
b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691
external power is included in the calculation692
ACS Paragon Plus Environment