Wang 2015

34
7/21/2019 Wang 2015 http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/wang-2015 1/34 Subscriber access provided by LOCK HAVEN UNIV Critical Review Practical Energy Harvesting for Microbial Fuel Cells: A Review Heming Wang, Jaedo Park, and Zhiyong Jason Ren Environ. Sci. Technol., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/es5047765 • Publication Date (Web): 11 Feb 2015 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on February 17, 2015 Just Accepted “Just Accepted” manuscripts have been peer-reviewed and accepted for publication. They are posted online prior to technical editing, formatting for publication and author proofing. The American Chemical Society provides “Just Accepted” as a free service to the research community to expedite the dissemination of scientific material as soon as possible after acceptance. “Just Accepted” manuscripts appear in full in PDF format accompanied by an HTML abstract. “Just Accepted” manuscripts have been fully peer reviewed, but should not be considered the official version of record. They are accessible to all readers and citable by the Digital Object Identifier (DOI®). “Just Accepted” is an optional service offered to authors. Therefore, the “Just Accepted” Web site may not include all articles that will be published in the journal. After a manuscript is technically edited and formatted, it will be removed from the “Just Accepted” Web site and published as an ASAP article. Note that technical editing may introduce minor changes to the manuscript text and/or graphics which could affect content, and all legal disclaimers and ethical guidelines that apply to the journal pertain. ACS cannot be held responsible for errors or consequences arising from the use of information contained in these “Just Accepted” manuscripts.

description

paper

Transcript of Wang 2015

Page 1: Wang 2015

7212019 Wang 2015

httpslidepdfcomreaderfullwang-2015 134

Subscriber access provided by LOCK HAVEN UNIV

Critical Review

Practical Energy Harvesting for Microbial Fuel Cells A ReviewHeming Wang Jaedo Park and Zhiyong Jason Ren

Environ Sci Technol Just Accepted Manuscript bull DOI 101021es5047765 bull Publication Date (Web) 11 Feb 2015

Downloaded from httppubsacsorg on February 17 2015

Just Accepted

ldquoJust Acceptedrdquo manuscripts have been peer-reviewed and accepted for publication They are posted

online prior to technical editing formatting for publication and author proofing The American ChemicalSociety provides ldquoJust Acceptedrdquo as a free service to the research community to expedite the

dissemination of scientific material as soon as possible after acceptance ldquoJust Acceptedrdquo manuscriptsappear in full in PDF format accompanied by an HTML abstract ldquoJust Acceptedrdquo manuscripts have been

fully peer reviewed but should not be considered the official version of record They are accessible to allreaders and citable by the Digital Object Identifier (DOIreg) ldquoJust Acceptedrdquo is an optional service offeredto authors Therefore the ldquoJust Acceptedrdquo Web site may not include all articles that will be published

in the journal After a manuscript is technically edited and formatted it will be removed from the ldquoJustAcceptedrdquo Web site and published as an ASAP article Note that technical editing may introduce minor

changes to the manuscript text andor graphics which could affect content and all legal disclaimersand ethical guidelines that apply to the journal pertain ACS cannot be held responsible for errors

or consequences arising from the use of information contained in these ldquoJust Acceptedrdquo manuscripts

7212019 Wang 2015

httpslidepdfcomreaderfullwang-2015 234

1

2

3

Practical Energy Harvesting for Microbial Fuel Cells A Review4

5

6

Heming Wangdagger Jae-Do Park

Dagger and Zhiyong Jason Ren

dagger 7

8

daggerDepartment of Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering9

University of Colorado Boulder Boulder Colorado 8030910

DaggerDepartment of Electrical Engineering11

University of Colorado Denver Denver Colorado 8020412

Wang E-mail hemingwangcoloradoedu13

Park E-mail jaedoparkucdenveredu14

Corresponding author Ren E-mail jasonrencoloradoedu15

Phone (303) 492-4137 Fax (303) 492-731716

17

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ABSTRACT18

The microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology offers sustainable solutions for distributed19

power systems and energy positive wastewater treatment but the generation of practically usable20

power from MFCs remains a major challenge for system scale up and application Commonly21

used external resistors wonrsquot harvest any usable energy so energy-harvesting circuits are needed22

for real world applications This review summarizes explains and discusses the different energy23

harvesting methods components and systems that can extract and condition the MFC energy for24

direct utilization This study aims to assist environmental scientists and engineers to gain25

fundamental understandings of these electronic systems and algorithms and it also offers26

research directions and insights on how to overcome the barriers so the technology can be27

further advanced and applied in larger scale28

Keywords Microbial Fuel Cell Energy Harvesting Power Management System29

Bioelectrochemical System30

31

TOC ART32

Energy

Power Management

System

HighVoltagePower

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1 INTRODUCTION35

The microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology has been intensively researched in the recent36

decade because it offers a solution for environmental sustainability by simultaneously37

performing pollutant removal and energy production MFCs use exoelectrogenic microorganisms38

to convert the chemical energy stored in biodegradable substances to direct electricity39

Furthermore the electrical current can be utilized for many other functions including producing40

value-added chemicals such as H2 in microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) or driving water41

desalination in microbial desalination cells (MDCs)1 2

The advancements in reactor architecture42

material and operation optimization of these bioelectrochemical systems (BES) have remarkably43

relieved the physical and chemical constraints of reactor systems3 4 leading to orders of44

magnitude increase in power output However one main challenge for MFCs or BESs to be used45

in real-world applications is the low energy output and to overcome this one key element that46

has been largely neglected is how to harvest and practically utilize the MFC energy based on the47

true potential of the system rather than simply reporting the measured power density using48

external resistors49

Compared to other alternative energy systems such as solar and wind MFC is a low50

power system due to its thermodynamic limitation The theoretical anode and cathode potentials51

calculated by Nernst equation are -03 V (vs NHE) and 08 V (vs NHE) respectively when52

acetate servers as the electron donor and oxygen serves as the electron acceptor Therefore the53

theoretical voltage across the two electrodes is 08 V - (-03 V) = 11 V5-7

However the54

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microbial inocula are used in the system Traditionally MFC power output is reported by58

changing the external resistance ( Rext ) at a 5-30 min interval or conducting a voltammetry59

sweep7-10

Figure 1 shows typical polarization and power density curves obtained from a lab60

scale MFC The curves demonstrate that MFC voltage is inversely proportional to the output61

current and there exists a pair of voltage and current that delivers the maximum power when62

Rext is equal to the system internal resistance ( Rint ) This peak point is called the maximum power63

point (MPP) which is the ideal operating point for MFCs and reported by most studies as the top64

power output7 11 12

However top power may not be the goal of all systems For MFCs used in65

wastewater treatment the primary goal may not be high power output but rather more efficient66

organic removal so a balance in operation during different phases needs to be considered67

whether to operate the system at the MPP for maximum power output or at the high current68

condition for the fastest substrate oxidation rate8 Similarly for H2 production in an MEC the69

ideal operating point is not MPP but rather the high current region because H 2 production70

directly correlates with electron flow (current) in the circuit and proton reduction at the cathode71

Because an additional voltage is required for MECs the operation point of MEC is beyond the72

limiting current of the polarization curve at negative voltages and the external energy input as73

well as energy content of the produced H2 should be considered in addition to the amount of H2 74

produced so the actual energy efficiency and energy recovery can be quantified13

In contrast75

the operation of MDCs depends on different needs because if high energy is desired the MPP76

will be the ideal point but if high salt removal is the primary goal then high current will be77

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addition the fixed Rext cannot always match the system Rint and extract energy at the MPP81

because the Rint of an MFC varies constantly with changes in microbial activities and operational82

parameters Studies showed that MFCs may lose more than 50 of produced power across the83

Rint if the operating voltage is not at the MPP15

84

To harvest usable MFC or BES energy resistors have to be replaced with devices that85

can capture and store energy and boost voltage for practical usage The direct outputs of a single86

MFC are primarily in the level of 700-800 mV and 100-2000 mWm2 which generally cannot87

directly power common electronics16

For example a single light emitting diode (LED) requires88

a minimum voltage of 2 V and consumes 30 mW17 18

and many wireless sensors need a voltage89

of 33 V and watt-level power for temperature pressure and humidity monitoring19-22 While90

higher power using single or multiple MFCs has been researched it was reported that larger91

power production cannot be easily achieved by just building larger MFCs or simply connecting92

MFCs in series or in parallel due to the nonlinear nature of MFCs23 24

Therefore developing93

tailored energy harvesting systems including MPP tracking and power management systems94

(PMS) are crucial for MFC and BES scale-up and real-world application Such systems generally95

composed of multiple electronics such as off-the-shelf capacitors rechargeable batteries charge96

pumps and boost converters but these devices are not designed for MFC conditions so the97

efficiency was low and initial voltage boosts were needed Customized harvesting systems have98

been reported by several groups including our group but there is very limited knowledge base99

for this important area because it requires understanding of power electronics circuitry and100

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methods We also provide discussions and our insights on the challenges and research needs of104

this field so researchers and engineers can help advance the technology development and finally105

overcome these barriers of MFC application106

107

2 ENERGY HARVESTING TECHNOLOGIES108

Since the direct energy production from MFCs is generally not sufficient for practical109

applications various circuit topologies have been developed to interface MFCs with electronic110

loads Figure 2A shows a concise flow chart of energy harvesting process from MFCs (energy111

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) where PMS (eg capacitor-based systems112

charge pump-based systems boost converter-based systems and unreported systems) as the113

central command aims to control the MFC at its optimal condition and extracts and stores the114

energy for the uses by external loads A PMS is an electronic circuit that is composed of115

electronic components such as capacitors charge pumps boost converters diodes inductors116

power switches and potentiometers with the function of harvesting MFC energy and shaping it117

to a usable form25

This is different from external resistances which have been used in most118

MFCBES studies to represent the energy output potential but not capture any usable energy119

because the current passed through the resistor is dissipated into heat 120

Table 1 lists all the commercially available parts that have been used in PMS designs for121

MFCs including the information of manufacturermodel number and the function of each122

component Additionally Table 2 summarizes the energy harvesting performances that have123

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index for necessary information needed for PMS components and functions and in the following127

sections we elaborate on each specific energy-harvesting regime for MFCs128

129

21 Capacitor-based systems130

A capacitor is composed of two conductive terminals separated by a dielectric material131

and energy is stored in the electrostatic field When a capacitor is directly connected to an MFC132

it is charged by the reactor and acts like a variable resistor because the charging current changes133

as the capacitor voltage varies26 27

The required time for a full charge is determined by the134

charging potential and capacitance27

The amount of energy 983127 (J) stored in a capacitor when the135

capacitor is charged from 983126 (V) to (V) can be calculated by136

983101

(

minus ) (1) 137

where 983126 and 983126 are the voltage across the capacitor at the beginning and end of charging138

respectively and (F) is the capacitance139

In energy harvesting systems capacitors are widely used as either final energy storage140

before utilization or transitional energy storage during energy extraction Different arrangements141

of multiple capacitors in the circuit can manipulate outputs of current voltage and power from142

MFCs To date five chargingdischarging techniques have been reported direct charging143

intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC)) alternate charging and144

discharging (ACD) charging capacitors in parallel while discharging in series and charging145

capacitive electrodes (Figure 2A and Table 2)17 27-30

146

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P 9 f 33 E i t l S i amp T h l

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reduced capacitor charging time in half and increased current generation by 35 when172

comparing with MFC stack with serial connections37

173

In the ACD mode an MFC charges capacitors first for energy collection and then the174

charged capacitors discharge the energy back to the system for MEC operation Liang et al 175

showed that the ACD mode could increase the current by 22-32 compared to the IC mode176

which was attributed to the shorter discharging time than the charging time as well as the higher177

anode potential caused by discharging the capacitor29

However power densities in the ACD178

mode were lower than those in the IC mode179

The voltage output can be increased when charging an array of capacitors connected in180

parallel and then discharging them in series By using two groups of capacitors with alternative181

charging and discharging sequence Kim et al found the output voltage was constantly enhanced182

from 07 V to as high as 25 V17

Moreover this approach does not require a minimum input183

voltage threshold so voltage can be increased without using initial boost It also effectively184

alleviated voltage reversal problem with negligible energy losses in the circuit However185

external energy supplied to control relay switches was not considered in the energy calculation186

Another study used the same array to harvest energy from multiple MFCs and power an MEC187

and it was found that energy recovery improved from 9 to 13 and H 2 production rate188

doubled from 031 to 072 m3m

3day

38 A similar study used three capacitors separately charged189

by three MFCs and then linked them in series to power an electrochemical deposition system190

(ECD) which obtained a sulfur recovery efficiency up to 465plusmn1539

191

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capacitor30

The MFC equipped with the capacitive bioanode produced a peak current density up195

to 17 Am2

which almost doubled the output of a control non-capacitive anode (09 Am2

)196

Future studies are needed to investigate the longevity of the capacitive electrodes197

198

22 Charge pump-based systems199

Charge pumps are low cost devices with simple circuit topologies In general a charge200

pump is an inductor-less DCDC converter that uses capacitors to store and transfer energy in201

order to generate either higher or lower voltages The capacitors in the charge pump circuit are202

first charged by the power source and then connected in different combinations to generate203

various voltages for different applications The S-882Z series charge pump from Seiko204

Instruments has been widely used in BES studies and it requires a minimum input voltage of 03205

V in order to generate a discharge voltage of 18-24 V (Figure 2A) The charge pump consumes206

a minimum 01-05 mA current during operation when the input voltage is 03-06 V which may207

limit its charging speed when the current is low and leads to long chargingdischarging cycles208

and low energy harvesting efficiency20 40

For example using a 316 mL air-cathode MFC as the209

power source it took 22 h for the charge pump-based circuit to output a voltage of 33 V during210

the start-up phase but a transformer-based circuit only took 25 h to output the same voltage21

211

suggesting that the energy extraction rate of the charge pump was much slower compared to the212

transformer Similar performance was observed by Wang et al who found that due to charge213

pumprsquos input current limitation its operating point was maintained at the low current region of214

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Forrestal et al found the Coulombic efficiency was only 094 indicating that the charge pump217

is not sufficient for energy harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2)

41

218

Therefore charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage MFC sources and be used for219

intermittent energy harvesting when low charging rate is acceptable such as for remote sensors220

The performance of the charge pump can be greatly improved when input current increases221

Furthermore charge pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to automatically222

control onoff and prevent reverse current flows42 43

S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the223

most commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES studies and because its224

maximum output voltage 24 V sometimes it is not sufficient to power common electronic225

devices To further increase the output voltage another layer of power converter may be placed226

after the charge pump for voltage boost227

228

23 Boost converter-based systems229

A DCDC converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC) power from one230

voltage level to another level so an unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output231

The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter) stepped up (boost converter) or232

inverted Boost converters are widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A) and the circuit of a233

boost converter includes both semiconductors such as diodes and transistors and energy storage234

components such as capacitors and inductors with a more complex structure than that in the235

charge pump While the commonly used charge pump can step up the voltage from 03 V to 18-236

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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239

voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V

21 43 45

240

Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241

voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242

STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243

MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244

very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245

TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246

output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247

MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248

decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249

system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250

MDCs (UMDCs)46

Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251

must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252

higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253

changes in environmental conditions254

To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255

capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256

converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257

components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258

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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262

consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263

biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264

the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265

source for a wireless sensor19

A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266

charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267

voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47

This method was used to268

develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269

of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270

in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271

continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272

and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273

boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49

274

The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275

voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276

is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277

Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278

worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20

279

Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280

boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50

As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281

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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284

(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)

21

285

To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286

boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287

been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47

BMFCs utilize naturally288

occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289

and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54

One challenge of BMFCs290

is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291

in the natural water body55 56

This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292

the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293

intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45

The intermittent294

energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295

such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296

efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297

BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298

possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42

A multi-anode299

decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300

interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43

301

302

24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303

ggy

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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307

such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308

magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309

diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310

effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311

a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312

such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313

harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58

314

During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315

energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316

second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317

the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318

transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60

Adami et al developed a flyback319

converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320

obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321

commercial boost converters61

322

An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323

constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324

concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325

to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326

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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330

exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency

63

Moreover the control of MPPT can be331

applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332

reversal64

However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333

the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334

time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335

energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336

peak level in real-time12

Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337

a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65

338

Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339

control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340

MFC operation40

This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341

maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342

resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343

receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344

any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345

this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346

charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347

improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348

60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349

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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353

play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354

cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355

the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356

combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66

357

358

3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359

The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360

development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361

energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362

have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363

clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364

reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365

frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366

activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367

368

1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369

that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370

voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371

process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372

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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377

consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378

harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379

collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380

performance ICs for MFCs16 67

or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68

381

382

2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383

which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384

circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385

when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386

alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387

can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388

harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389

generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390

or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391

carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392

for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393

operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394

and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395

systems which require either a small jump start57

or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70

for self-396

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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400

consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401

up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402

implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403

404

3

More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405

to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406

capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407

capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408

electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26

409

It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410

capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411

boost circuit design57

In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412

efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413

983101

983255 98308900 (2)414

983101

983255 98308900 (3)415

where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416

step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417

the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418

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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423

that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424

is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425

426

4

The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427

current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428

devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73

429

Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430

since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431

bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432

higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433

power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434

because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435

nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436

chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437

relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438

activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439

condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440

MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441

efficiency23

One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442

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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446

controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447

avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448

the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449

450

5

While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451

harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452

charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453

receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454

electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455

microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456

results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457

community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458

selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459

efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460

electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461

from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462

transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463

more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464

interesting topic to investigate465

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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468

under Award N000141310901469

470

REFERENCES471

1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472

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3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476

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983090983088983088983094983084 40 (17) 51819830855192487

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13 L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983148983148 D C983144983141983150983143 983123 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127500

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17 K983145983149 983129 H983137983156983162983141983148983148 M C H983157983156983139983144983145983150983155983151983150 A J L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983152983156983157983154983145983150983143 983152983151983159983141983154 983137983156 983144983145983143983144983141983154 983158983151983148983156983137983143983141983155 983142983154983151983149511

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983148 983142 983140 983138 983148 983142 983148 983148983148 983148 983144

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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651

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663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

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30

Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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31

Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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1

2

3

Practical Energy Harvesting for Microbial Fuel Cells A Review4

5

6

Heming Wangdagger Jae-Do Park

Dagger and Zhiyong Jason Ren

dagger 7

8

daggerDepartment of Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering9

University of Colorado Boulder Boulder Colorado 8030910

DaggerDepartment of Electrical Engineering11

University of Colorado Denver Denver Colorado 8020412

Wang E-mail hemingwangcoloradoedu13

Park E-mail jaedoparkucdenveredu14

Corresponding author Ren E-mail jasonrencoloradoedu15

Phone (303) 492-4137 Fax (303) 492-731716

17

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ABSTRACT18

The microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology offers sustainable solutions for distributed19

power systems and energy positive wastewater treatment but the generation of practically usable20

power from MFCs remains a major challenge for system scale up and application Commonly21

used external resistors wonrsquot harvest any usable energy so energy-harvesting circuits are needed22

for real world applications This review summarizes explains and discusses the different energy23

harvesting methods components and systems that can extract and condition the MFC energy for24

direct utilization This study aims to assist environmental scientists and engineers to gain25

fundamental understandings of these electronic systems and algorithms and it also offers26

research directions and insights on how to overcome the barriers so the technology can be27

further advanced and applied in larger scale28

Keywords Microbial Fuel Cell Energy Harvesting Power Management System29

Bioelectrochemical System30

31

TOC ART32

Energy

Power Management

System

HighVoltagePower

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1 INTRODUCTION35

The microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology has been intensively researched in the recent36

decade because it offers a solution for environmental sustainability by simultaneously37

performing pollutant removal and energy production MFCs use exoelectrogenic microorganisms38

to convert the chemical energy stored in biodegradable substances to direct electricity39

Furthermore the electrical current can be utilized for many other functions including producing40

value-added chemicals such as H2 in microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) or driving water41

desalination in microbial desalination cells (MDCs)1 2

The advancements in reactor architecture42

material and operation optimization of these bioelectrochemical systems (BES) have remarkably43

relieved the physical and chemical constraints of reactor systems3 4 leading to orders of44

magnitude increase in power output However one main challenge for MFCs or BESs to be used45

in real-world applications is the low energy output and to overcome this one key element that46

has been largely neglected is how to harvest and practically utilize the MFC energy based on the47

true potential of the system rather than simply reporting the measured power density using48

external resistors49

Compared to other alternative energy systems such as solar and wind MFC is a low50

power system due to its thermodynamic limitation The theoretical anode and cathode potentials51

calculated by Nernst equation are -03 V (vs NHE) and 08 V (vs NHE) respectively when52

acetate servers as the electron donor and oxygen serves as the electron acceptor Therefore the53

theoretical voltage across the two electrodes is 08 V - (-03 V) = 11 V5-7

However the54

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microbial inocula are used in the system Traditionally MFC power output is reported by58

changing the external resistance ( Rext ) at a 5-30 min interval or conducting a voltammetry59

sweep7-10

Figure 1 shows typical polarization and power density curves obtained from a lab60

scale MFC The curves demonstrate that MFC voltage is inversely proportional to the output61

current and there exists a pair of voltage and current that delivers the maximum power when62

Rext is equal to the system internal resistance ( Rint ) This peak point is called the maximum power63

point (MPP) which is the ideal operating point for MFCs and reported by most studies as the top64

power output7 11 12

However top power may not be the goal of all systems For MFCs used in65

wastewater treatment the primary goal may not be high power output but rather more efficient66

organic removal so a balance in operation during different phases needs to be considered67

whether to operate the system at the MPP for maximum power output or at the high current68

condition for the fastest substrate oxidation rate8 Similarly for H2 production in an MEC the69

ideal operating point is not MPP but rather the high current region because H 2 production70

directly correlates with electron flow (current) in the circuit and proton reduction at the cathode71

Because an additional voltage is required for MECs the operation point of MEC is beyond the72

limiting current of the polarization curve at negative voltages and the external energy input as73

well as energy content of the produced H2 should be considered in addition to the amount of H2 74

produced so the actual energy efficiency and energy recovery can be quantified13

In contrast75

the operation of MDCs depends on different needs because if high energy is desired the MPP76

will be the ideal point but if high salt removal is the primary goal then high current will be77

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addition the fixed Rext cannot always match the system Rint and extract energy at the MPP81

because the Rint of an MFC varies constantly with changes in microbial activities and operational82

parameters Studies showed that MFCs may lose more than 50 of produced power across the83

Rint if the operating voltage is not at the MPP15

84

To harvest usable MFC or BES energy resistors have to be replaced with devices that85

can capture and store energy and boost voltage for practical usage The direct outputs of a single86

MFC are primarily in the level of 700-800 mV and 100-2000 mWm2 which generally cannot87

directly power common electronics16

For example a single light emitting diode (LED) requires88

a minimum voltage of 2 V and consumes 30 mW17 18

and many wireless sensors need a voltage89

of 33 V and watt-level power for temperature pressure and humidity monitoring19-22 While90

higher power using single or multiple MFCs has been researched it was reported that larger91

power production cannot be easily achieved by just building larger MFCs or simply connecting92

MFCs in series or in parallel due to the nonlinear nature of MFCs23 24

Therefore developing93

tailored energy harvesting systems including MPP tracking and power management systems94

(PMS) are crucial for MFC and BES scale-up and real-world application Such systems generally95

composed of multiple electronics such as off-the-shelf capacitors rechargeable batteries charge96

pumps and boost converters but these devices are not designed for MFC conditions so the97

efficiency was low and initial voltage boosts were needed Customized harvesting systems have98

been reported by several groups including our group but there is very limited knowledge base99

for this important area because it requires understanding of power electronics circuitry and100

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methods We also provide discussions and our insights on the challenges and research needs of104

this field so researchers and engineers can help advance the technology development and finally105

overcome these barriers of MFC application106

107

2 ENERGY HARVESTING TECHNOLOGIES108

Since the direct energy production from MFCs is generally not sufficient for practical109

applications various circuit topologies have been developed to interface MFCs with electronic110

loads Figure 2A shows a concise flow chart of energy harvesting process from MFCs (energy111

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) where PMS (eg capacitor-based systems112

charge pump-based systems boost converter-based systems and unreported systems) as the113

central command aims to control the MFC at its optimal condition and extracts and stores the114

energy for the uses by external loads A PMS is an electronic circuit that is composed of115

electronic components such as capacitors charge pumps boost converters diodes inductors116

power switches and potentiometers with the function of harvesting MFC energy and shaping it117

to a usable form25

This is different from external resistances which have been used in most118

MFCBES studies to represent the energy output potential but not capture any usable energy119

because the current passed through the resistor is dissipated into heat 120

Table 1 lists all the commercially available parts that have been used in PMS designs for121

MFCs including the information of manufacturermodel number and the function of each122

component Additionally Table 2 summarizes the energy harvesting performances that have123

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index for necessary information needed for PMS components and functions and in the following127

sections we elaborate on each specific energy-harvesting regime for MFCs128

129

21 Capacitor-based systems130

A capacitor is composed of two conductive terminals separated by a dielectric material131

and energy is stored in the electrostatic field When a capacitor is directly connected to an MFC132

it is charged by the reactor and acts like a variable resistor because the charging current changes133

as the capacitor voltage varies26 27

The required time for a full charge is determined by the134

charging potential and capacitance27

The amount of energy 983127 (J) stored in a capacitor when the135

capacitor is charged from 983126 (V) to (V) can be calculated by136

983101

(

minus ) (1) 137

where 983126 and 983126 are the voltage across the capacitor at the beginning and end of charging138

respectively and (F) is the capacitance139

In energy harvesting systems capacitors are widely used as either final energy storage140

before utilization or transitional energy storage during energy extraction Different arrangements141

of multiple capacitors in the circuit can manipulate outputs of current voltage and power from142

MFCs To date five chargingdischarging techniques have been reported direct charging143

intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC)) alternate charging and144

discharging (ACD) charging capacitors in parallel while discharging in series and charging145

capacitive electrodes (Figure 2A and Table 2)17 27-30

146

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P 9 f 33 E i t l S i amp T h l

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reduced capacitor charging time in half and increased current generation by 35 when172

comparing with MFC stack with serial connections37

173

In the ACD mode an MFC charges capacitors first for energy collection and then the174

charged capacitors discharge the energy back to the system for MEC operation Liang et al 175

showed that the ACD mode could increase the current by 22-32 compared to the IC mode176

which was attributed to the shorter discharging time than the charging time as well as the higher177

anode potential caused by discharging the capacitor29

However power densities in the ACD178

mode were lower than those in the IC mode179

The voltage output can be increased when charging an array of capacitors connected in180

parallel and then discharging them in series By using two groups of capacitors with alternative181

charging and discharging sequence Kim et al found the output voltage was constantly enhanced182

from 07 V to as high as 25 V17

Moreover this approach does not require a minimum input183

voltage threshold so voltage can be increased without using initial boost It also effectively184

alleviated voltage reversal problem with negligible energy losses in the circuit However185

external energy supplied to control relay switches was not considered in the energy calculation186

Another study used the same array to harvest energy from multiple MFCs and power an MEC187

and it was found that energy recovery improved from 9 to 13 and H 2 production rate188

doubled from 031 to 072 m3m

3day

38 A similar study used three capacitors separately charged189

by three MFCs and then linked them in series to power an electrochemical deposition system190

(ECD) which obtained a sulfur recovery efficiency up to 465plusmn1539

191

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capacitor30

The MFC equipped with the capacitive bioanode produced a peak current density up195

to 17 Am2

which almost doubled the output of a control non-capacitive anode (09 Am2

)196

Future studies are needed to investigate the longevity of the capacitive electrodes197

198

22 Charge pump-based systems199

Charge pumps are low cost devices with simple circuit topologies In general a charge200

pump is an inductor-less DCDC converter that uses capacitors to store and transfer energy in201

order to generate either higher or lower voltages The capacitors in the charge pump circuit are202

first charged by the power source and then connected in different combinations to generate203

various voltages for different applications The S-882Z series charge pump from Seiko204

Instruments has been widely used in BES studies and it requires a minimum input voltage of 03205

V in order to generate a discharge voltage of 18-24 V (Figure 2A) The charge pump consumes206

a minimum 01-05 mA current during operation when the input voltage is 03-06 V which may207

limit its charging speed when the current is low and leads to long chargingdischarging cycles208

and low energy harvesting efficiency20 40

For example using a 316 mL air-cathode MFC as the209

power source it took 22 h for the charge pump-based circuit to output a voltage of 33 V during210

the start-up phase but a transformer-based circuit only took 25 h to output the same voltage21

211

suggesting that the energy extraction rate of the charge pump was much slower compared to the212

transformer Similar performance was observed by Wang et al who found that due to charge213

pumprsquos input current limitation its operating point was maintained at the low current region of214

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Forrestal et al found the Coulombic efficiency was only 094 indicating that the charge pump217

is not sufficient for energy harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2)

41

218

Therefore charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage MFC sources and be used for219

intermittent energy harvesting when low charging rate is acceptable such as for remote sensors220

The performance of the charge pump can be greatly improved when input current increases221

Furthermore charge pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to automatically222

control onoff and prevent reverse current flows42 43

S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the223

most commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES studies and because its224

maximum output voltage 24 V sometimes it is not sufficient to power common electronic225

devices To further increase the output voltage another layer of power converter may be placed226

after the charge pump for voltage boost227

228

23 Boost converter-based systems229

A DCDC converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC) power from one230

voltage level to another level so an unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output231

The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter) stepped up (boost converter) or232

inverted Boost converters are widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A) and the circuit of a233

boost converter includes both semiconductors such as diodes and transistors and energy storage234

components such as capacitors and inductors with a more complex structure than that in the235

charge pump While the commonly used charge pump can step up the voltage from 03 V to 18-236

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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239

voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V

21 43 45

240

Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241

voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242

STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243

MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244

very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245

TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246

output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247

MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248

decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249

system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250

MDCs (UMDCs)46

Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251

must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252

higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253

changes in environmental conditions254

To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255

capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256

converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257

components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258

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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262

consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263

biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264

the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265

source for a wireless sensor19

A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266

charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267

voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47

This method was used to268

develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269

of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270

in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271

continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272

and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273

boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49

274

The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275

voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276

is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277

Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278

worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20

279

Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280

boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50

As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281

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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284

(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)

21

285

To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286

boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287

been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47

BMFCs utilize naturally288

occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289

and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54

One challenge of BMFCs290

is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291

in the natural water body55 56

This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292

the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293

intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45

The intermittent294

energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295

such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296

efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297

BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298

possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42

A multi-anode299

decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300

interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43

301

302

24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303

ggy

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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307

such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308

magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309

diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310

effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311

a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312

such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313

harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58

314

During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315

energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316

second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317

the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318

transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60

Adami et al developed a flyback319

converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320

obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321

commercial boost converters61

322

An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323

constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324

concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325

to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326

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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330

exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency

63

Moreover the control of MPPT can be331

applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332

reversal64

However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333

the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334

time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335

energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336

peak level in real-time12

Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337

a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65

338

Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339

control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340

MFC operation40

This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341

maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342

resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343

receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344

any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345

this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346

charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347

improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348

60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349

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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353

play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354

cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355

the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356

combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66

357

358

3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359

The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360

development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361

energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362

have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363

clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364

reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365

frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366

activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367

368

1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369

that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370

voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371

process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372

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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377

consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378

harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379

collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380

performance ICs for MFCs16 67

or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68

381

382

2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383

which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384

circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385

when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386

alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387

can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388

harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389

generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390

or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391

carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392

for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393

operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394

and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395

systems which require either a small jump start57

or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70

for self-396

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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400

consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401

up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402

implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403

404

3

More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405

to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406

capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407

capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408

electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26

409

It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410

capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411

boost circuit design57

In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412

efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413

983101

983255 98308900 (2)414

983101

983255 98308900 (3)415

where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416

step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417

the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418

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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423

that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424

is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425

426

4

The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427

current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428

devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73

429

Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430

since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431

bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432

higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433

power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434

because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435

nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436

chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437

relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438

activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439

condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440

MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441

efficiency23

One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442

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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446

controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447

avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448

the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449

450

5

While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451

harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452

charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453

receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454

electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455

microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456

results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457

community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458

selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459

efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460

electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461

from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462

transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463

more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464

interesting topic to investigate465

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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468

under Award N000141310901469

470

REFERENCES471

1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472

983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983089983091983084 31 (8) 17969830851807473

2 H983137983154983150983145983155983139983144 F 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 F983154983151983149 MFC 983156983151 M983128C 983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983148983151983143983145983139983137983148 983139983137983156983144983151983140983141983155 983137983150983140 983156983144983141983145983154474 983152983151983156983141983150983156983145983137983148 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983107983144983141983149 983123983151983139 983122983141983158 983090983088983089983088983084 39 (11) 44339830854448475

3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476

983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16659830851671477

4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478

B983157983145983155983149983137983150 C J 983118 983118983141983159 983137983152983152983148983145983139983137983156983145983151983150983155 983137983150983140 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983151983142 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148 983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148479

983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16739830851685480

5 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 B983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983149983141983156983137983148 983154983141983139983151983158983141983154983161 983142983154983151983149 983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 A 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983127983137983156983141983154 983122983141983155481

983090983088983089983092 66 219983085232482 6 D983157 983130 L983145 H G983157 983124 A 983155983156983137983156983141 983151983142 983156983144983141 983137983154983156 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 A 983152983154983151983149983145983155983145983150983143 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983142983151983154483

983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 983156983154983141983137983156983149983141983150983156 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983141983150983141983154983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983088983095983084 25 (5) 464983085482484

7 L983151983143983137983150 B E H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 B 983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 K983141983148983148983141983154 J F983154983141983143983157983145983137 983123 A983141983148983156983141983154983149983137983150 983120485

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79 A983150983140983141983154983155983151983150 I A I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983139K983137983161 983124 983119991257B983154983145983141983150 B M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C I983150 983105 983144983161983138983154983145983140 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983140983145983141983148983141983139983156983154983145983139660

983141983148983137983155983156983151983149983141983154 983143983141983150983141983154983137983156983151983154 983142983151983154 983137983157983156983151983150983151983149983151983157983155 983154983151983138983151983156983155 983120983154983151983139 983151983142 983123983120IE 983123983137983150 D983145983141983143983151 C983137983148983145983142983151983154983150983145983137 983125983123A 2010 B983137983154983085C983151983144983141983150661

983129 E983140 983123983137983150 D983145983141983143983151 C983137983148983145983142983151983154983150983145983137 983125983123A 2010 983152983152 764219831299830851662

663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

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30

Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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31

Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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ABSTRACT18

The microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology offers sustainable solutions for distributed19

power systems and energy positive wastewater treatment but the generation of practically usable20

power from MFCs remains a major challenge for system scale up and application Commonly21

used external resistors wonrsquot harvest any usable energy so energy-harvesting circuits are needed22

for real world applications This review summarizes explains and discusses the different energy23

harvesting methods components and systems that can extract and condition the MFC energy for24

direct utilization This study aims to assist environmental scientists and engineers to gain25

fundamental understandings of these electronic systems and algorithms and it also offers26

research directions and insights on how to overcome the barriers so the technology can be27

further advanced and applied in larger scale28

Keywords Microbial Fuel Cell Energy Harvesting Power Management System29

Bioelectrochemical System30

31

TOC ART32

Energy

Power Management

System

HighVoltagePower

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1 INTRODUCTION35

The microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology has been intensively researched in the recent36

decade because it offers a solution for environmental sustainability by simultaneously37

performing pollutant removal and energy production MFCs use exoelectrogenic microorganisms38

to convert the chemical energy stored in biodegradable substances to direct electricity39

Furthermore the electrical current can be utilized for many other functions including producing40

value-added chemicals such as H2 in microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) or driving water41

desalination in microbial desalination cells (MDCs)1 2

The advancements in reactor architecture42

material and operation optimization of these bioelectrochemical systems (BES) have remarkably43

relieved the physical and chemical constraints of reactor systems3 4 leading to orders of44

magnitude increase in power output However one main challenge for MFCs or BESs to be used45

in real-world applications is the low energy output and to overcome this one key element that46

has been largely neglected is how to harvest and practically utilize the MFC energy based on the47

true potential of the system rather than simply reporting the measured power density using48

external resistors49

Compared to other alternative energy systems such as solar and wind MFC is a low50

power system due to its thermodynamic limitation The theoretical anode and cathode potentials51

calculated by Nernst equation are -03 V (vs NHE) and 08 V (vs NHE) respectively when52

acetate servers as the electron donor and oxygen serves as the electron acceptor Therefore the53

theoretical voltage across the two electrodes is 08 V - (-03 V) = 11 V5-7

However the54

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microbial inocula are used in the system Traditionally MFC power output is reported by58

changing the external resistance ( Rext ) at a 5-30 min interval or conducting a voltammetry59

sweep7-10

Figure 1 shows typical polarization and power density curves obtained from a lab60

scale MFC The curves demonstrate that MFC voltage is inversely proportional to the output61

current and there exists a pair of voltage and current that delivers the maximum power when62

Rext is equal to the system internal resistance ( Rint ) This peak point is called the maximum power63

point (MPP) which is the ideal operating point for MFCs and reported by most studies as the top64

power output7 11 12

However top power may not be the goal of all systems For MFCs used in65

wastewater treatment the primary goal may not be high power output but rather more efficient66

organic removal so a balance in operation during different phases needs to be considered67

whether to operate the system at the MPP for maximum power output or at the high current68

condition for the fastest substrate oxidation rate8 Similarly for H2 production in an MEC the69

ideal operating point is not MPP but rather the high current region because H 2 production70

directly correlates with electron flow (current) in the circuit and proton reduction at the cathode71

Because an additional voltage is required for MECs the operation point of MEC is beyond the72

limiting current of the polarization curve at negative voltages and the external energy input as73

well as energy content of the produced H2 should be considered in addition to the amount of H2 74

produced so the actual energy efficiency and energy recovery can be quantified13

In contrast75

the operation of MDCs depends on different needs because if high energy is desired the MPP76

will be the ideal point but if high salt removal is the primary goal then high current will be77

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addition the fixed Rext cannot always match the system Rint and extract energy at the MPP81

because the Rint of an MFC varies constantly with changes in microbial activities and operational82

parameters Studies showed that MFCs may lose more than 50 of produced power across the83

Rint if the operating voltage is not at the MPP15

84

To harvest usable MFC or BES energy resistors have to be replaced with devices that85

can capture and store energy and boost voltage for practical usage The direct outputs of a single86

MFC are primarily in the level of 700-800 mV and 100-2000 mWm2 which generally cannot87

directly power common electronics16

For example a single light emitting diode (LED) requires88

a minimum voltage of 2 V and consumes 30 mW17 18

and many wireless sensors need a voltage89

of 33 V and watt-level power for temperature pressure and humidity monitoring19-22 While90

higher power using single or multiple MFCs has been researched it was reported that larger91

power production cannot be easily achieved by just building larger MFCs or simply connecting92

MFCs in series or in parallel due to the nonlinear nature of MFCs23 24

Therefore developing93

tailored energy harvesting systems including MPP tracking and power management systems94

(PMS) are crucial for MFC and BES scale-up and real-world application Such systems generally95

composed of multiple electronics such as off-the-shelf capacitors rechargeable batteries charge96

pumps and boost converters but these devices are not designed for MFC conditions so the97

efficiency was low and initial voltage boosts were needed Customized harvesting systems have98

been reported by several groups including our group but there is very limited knowledge base99

for this important area because it requires understanding of power electronics circuitry and100

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methods We also provide discussions and our insights on the challenges and research needs of104

this field so researchers and engineers can help advance the technology development and finally105

overcome these barriers of MFC application106

107

2 ENERGY HARVESTING TECHNOLOGIES108

Since the direct energy production from MFCs is generally not sufficient for practical109

applications various circuit topologies have been developed to interface MFCs with electronic110

loads Figure 2A shows a concise flow chart of energy harvesting process from MFCs (energy111

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) where PMS (eg capacitor-based systems112

charge pump-based systems boost converter-based systems and unreported systems) as the113

central command aims to control the MFC at its optimal condition and extracts and stores the114

energy for the uses by external loads A PMS is an electronic circuit that is composed of115

electronic components such as capacitors charge pumps boost converters diodes inductors116

power switches and potentiometers with the function of harvesting MFC energy and shaping it117

to a usable form25

This is different from external resistances which have been used in most118

MFCBES studies to represent the energy output potential but not capture any usable energy119

because the current passed through the resistor is dissipated into heat 120

Table 1 lists all the commercially available parts that have been used in PMS designs for121

MFCs including the information of manufacturermodel number and the function of each122

component Additionally Table 2 summarizes the energy harvesting performances that have123

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index for necessary information needed for PMS components and functions and in the following127

sections we elaborate on each specific energy-harvesting regime for MFCs128

129

21 Capacitor-based systems130

A capacitor is composed of two conductive terminals separated by a dielectric material131

and energy is stored in the electrostatic field When a capacitor is directly connected to an MFC132

it is charged by the reactor and acts like a variable resistor because the charging current changes133

as the capacitor voltage varies26 27

The required time for a full charge is determined by the134

charging potential and capacitance27

The amount of energy 983127 (J) stored in a capacitor when the135

capacitor is charged from 983126 (V) to (V) can be calculated by136

983101

(

minus ) (1) 137

where 983126 and 983126 are the voltage across the capacitor at the beginning and end of charging138

respectively and (F) is the capacitance139

In energy harvesting systems capacitors are widely used as either final energy storage140

before utilization or transitional energy storage during energy extraction Different arrangements141

of multiple capacitors in the circuit can manipulate outputs of current voltage and power from142

MFCs To date five chargingdischarging techniques have been reported direct charging143

intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC)) alternate charging and144

discharging (ACD) charging capacitors in parallel while discharging in series and charging145

capacitive electrodes (Figure 2A and Table 2)17 27-30

146

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P 9 f 33 E i t l S i amp T h l

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reduced capacitor charging time in half and increased current generation by 35 when172

comparing with MFC stack with serial connections37

173

In the ACD mode an MFC charges capacitors first for energy collection and then the174

charged capacitors discharge the energy back to the system for MEC operation Liang et al 175

showed that the ACD mode could increase the current by 22-32 compared to the IC mode176

which was attributed to the shorter discharging time than the charging time as well as the higher177

anode potential caused by discharging the capacitor29

However power densities in the ACD178

mode were lower than those in the IC mode179

The voltage output can be increased when charging an array of capacitors connected in180

parallel and then discharging them in series By using two groups of capacitors with alternative181

charging and discharging sequence Kim et al found the output voltage was constantly enhanced182

from 07 V to as high as 25 V17

Moreover this approach does not require a minimum input183

voltage threshold so voltage can be increased without using initial boost It also effectively184

alleviated voltage reversal problem with negligible energy losses in the circuit However185

external energy supplied to control relay switches was not considered in the energy calculation186

Another study used the same array to harvest energy from multiple MFCs and power an MEC187

and it was found that energy recovery improved from 9 to 13 and H 2 production rate188

doubled from 031 to 072 m3m

3day

38 A similar study used three capacitors separately charged189

by three MFCs and then linked them in series to power an electrochemical deposition system190

(ECD) which obtained a sulfur recovery efficiency up to 465plusmn1539

191

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capacitor30

The MFC equipped with the capacitive bioanode produced a peak current density up195

to 17 Am2

which almost doubled the output of a control non-capacitive anode (09 Am2

)196

Future studies are needed to investigate the longevity of the capacitive electrodes197

198

22 Charge pump-based systems199

Charge pumps are low cost devices with simple circuit topologies In general a charge200

pump is an inductor-less DCDC converter that uses capacitors to store and transfer energy in201

order to generate either higher or lower voltages The capacitors in the charge pump circuit are202

first charged by the power source and then connected in different combinations to generate203

various voltages for different applications The S-882Z series charge pump from Seiko204

Instruments has been widely used in BES studies and it requires a minimum input voltage of 03205

V in order to generate a discharge voltage of 18-24 V (Figure 2A) The charge pump consumes206

a minimum 01-05 mA current during operation when the input voltage is 03-06 V which may207

limit its charging speed when the current is low and leads to long chargingdischarging cycles208

and low energy harvesting efficiency20 40

For example using a 316 mL air-cathode MFC as the209

power source it took 22 h for the charge pump-based circuit to output a voltage of 33 V during210

the start-up phase but a transformer-based circuit only took 25 h to output the same voltage21

211

suggesting that the energy extraction rate of the charge pump was much slower compared to the212

transformer Similar performance was observed by Wang et al who found that due to charge213

pumprsquos input current limitation its operating point was maintained at the low current region of214

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Forrestal et al found the Coulombic efficiency was only 094 indicating that the charge pump217

is not sufficient for energy harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2)

41

218

Therefore charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage MFC sources and be used for219

intermittent energy harvesting when low charging rate is acceptable such as for remote sensors220

The performance of the charge pump can be greatly improved when input current increases221

Furthermore charge pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to automatically222

control onoff and prevent reverse current flows42 43

S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the223

most commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES studies and because its224

maximum output voltage 24 V sometimes it is not sufficient to power common electronic225

devices To further increase the output voltage another layer of power converter may be placed226

after the charge pump for voltage boost227

228

23 Boost converter-based systems229

A DCDC converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC) power from one230

voltage level to another level so an unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output231

The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter) stepped up (boost converter) or232

inverted Boost converters are widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A) and the circuit of a233

boost converter includes both semiconductors such as diodes and transistors and energy storage234

components such as capacitors and inductors with a more complex structure than that in the235

charge pump While the commonly used charge pump can step up the voltage from 03 V to 18-236

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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239

voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V

21 43 45

240

Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241

voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242

STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243

MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244

very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245

TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246

output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247

MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248

decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249

system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250

MDCs (UMDCs)46

Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251

must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252

higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253

changes in environmental conditions254

To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255

capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256

converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257

components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258

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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262

consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263

biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264

the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265

source for a wireless sensor19

A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266

charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267

voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47

This method was used to268

develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269

of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270

in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271

continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272

and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273

boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49

274

The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275

voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276

is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277

Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278

worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20

279

Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280

boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50

As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281

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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284

(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)

21

285

To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286

boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287

been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47

BMFCs utilize naturally288

occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289

and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54

One challenge of BMFCs290

is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291

in the natural water body55 56

This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292

the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293

intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45

The intermittent294

energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295

such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296

efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297

BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298

possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42

A multi-anode299

decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300

interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43

301

302

24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303

ggy

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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307

such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308

magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309

diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310

effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311

a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312

such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313

harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58

314

During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315

energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316

second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317

the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318

transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60

Adami et al developed a flyback319

converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320

obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321

commercial boost converters61

322

An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323

constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324

concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325

to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326

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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330

exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency

63

Moreover the control of MPPT can be331

applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332

reversal64

However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333

the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334

time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335

energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336

peak level in real-time12

Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337

a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65

338

Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339

control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340

MFC operation40

This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341

maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342

resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343

receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344

any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345

this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346

charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347

improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348

60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349

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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353

play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354

cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355

the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356

combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66

357

358

3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359

The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360

development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361

energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362

have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363

clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364

reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365

frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366

activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367

368

1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369

that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370

voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371

process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372

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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377

consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378

harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379

collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380

performance ICs for MFCs16 67

or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68

381

382

2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383

which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384

circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385

when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386

alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387

can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388

harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389

generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390

or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391

carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392

for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393

operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394

and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395

systems which require either a small jump start57

or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70

for self-396

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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400

consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401

up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402

implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403

404

3

More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405

to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406

capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407

capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408

electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26

409

It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410

capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411

boost circuit design57

In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412

efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413

983101

983255 98308900 (2)414

983101

983255 98308900 (3)415

where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416

step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417

the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418

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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423

that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424

is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425

426

4

The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427

current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428

devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73

429

Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430

since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431

bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432

higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433

power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434

because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435

nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436

chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437

relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438

activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439

condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440

MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441

efficiency23

One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442

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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446

controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447

avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448

the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449

450

5

While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451

harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452

charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453

receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454

electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455

microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456

results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457

community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458

selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459

efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460

electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461

from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462

transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463

more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464

interesting topic to investigate465

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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468

under Award N000141310901469

470

REFERENCES471

1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472

983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983089983091983084 31 (8) 17969830851807473

2 H983137983154983150983145983155983139983144 F 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 F983154983151983149 MFC 983156983151 M983128C 983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983148983151983143983145983139983137983148 983139983137983156983144983151983140983141983155 983137983150983140 983156983144983141983145983154474 983152983151983156983141983150983156983145983137983148 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983107983144983141983149 983123983151983139 983122983141983158 983090983088983089983088983084 39 (11) 44339830854448475

3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476

983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16659830851671477

4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478

B983157983145983155983149983137983150 C J 983118 983118983141983159 983137983152983152983148983145983139983137983156983145983151983150983155 983137983150983140 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983151983142 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148 983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148479

983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16739830851685480

5 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 B983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983149983141983156983137983148 983154983141983139983151983158983141983154983161 983142983154983151983149 983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 A 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983127983137983156983141983154 983122983141983155481

983090983088983089983092 66 219983085232482 6 D983157 983130 L983145 H G983157 983124 A 983155983156983137983156983141 983151983142 983156983144983141 983137983154983156 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 A 983152983154983151983149983145983155983145983150983143 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983142983151983154483

983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 983156983154983141983137983156983149983141983150983156 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983141983150983141983154983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983088983095983084 25 (5) 464983085482484

7 L983151983143983137983150 B E H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 B 983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 K983141983148983148983141983154 J F983154983141983143983157983145983137 983123 A983141983148983156983141983154983149983137983150 983120485

983126983141983154983155983156983154983137983141983156983141 983127 983122983137983138983137983141983161 K M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983149983141983156983144983151983140983151983148983151983143983161 983137983150983140 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148486

983090983088983088983094983084 40 (17) 51819830855192487

8 983122983141983150 983130 983129983137983150 H 983127983137983150983143 983127 M983141983150983139983144 M M 983122983141983143983137983150 J M C983144983137983154983137983156983141983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983156488

983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148983148983161 983137983150983140 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148983148983161 983149983141983137983150983145983150983143983142983157983148 983156983145983149983141 983155983139983137983148983141983155 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983089983084 45 (6) 2435983085489

2441490 9 L983161983151983150 D 983129 B983157983154983141983156 F 983126983151983143983141983148 983124 M M983151983150983145983141983154 J983085M I983155 983154983141983155983145983155983156983137983150983139983141 983142983157983156983145983148983141 C983144983137983150983143983145983150983143 983141983160983156983141983154983150983137983148491

983154983141983155983145983155983156983137983150983139983141 983140983151983141983155 983150983151983156 983145983149983152983154983151983158983141 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983106983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983155983156983154983161 983090983088983089983088983084 78 (1) 29830857492

10 983127983137983156983155983151983150 983126 J L983151983143983137983150 B E A983150983137983148983161983155983145983155 983151983142 983152983151983148983137983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983149983141983156983144983151983140983155 983142983151983154 983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983152983151983159983141983154 983151983158983141983154983155983144983151983151983156493

983145983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983109983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149 983107983151983149983149983157983150 983090983088983089983089983084 13 (1) 5498308556494

11 D983141983143983154983141983150983150983141 983118 B983157983154983141983156 F A983148983148983137983154983140 B B983141983158983145983148983137983139983153983157983137 983120 E983148983141983139983156983154983145983139983137983148 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983143983141983150983141983154983137983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983137 983148983137983154983143983141495

983150983157983149983138983141983154 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983151983152983141983154983137983156983145983150983143 983137983156 983149983137983160983145983149983157983149 983152983151983159983141983154 983152983151983145983150983156 983141983148983141983139983156983154983145983139983137983148 983148983151983137983140 983114 983120983151983159983141983154 983123983151983157983154983139983141983155 983090983088983089983090983084 496

205 188983085193497

12 983120983137983154983147 J983085D 983122983141983150 983130 H983161983155983156983141983154983141983155983145983155 983139983151983150983156983154983151983148983148983141983154 983138983137983155983141983140 983149983137983160983145983149983157983149 983152983151983159983141983154 983152983151983145983150983156 983156983154983137983139983147983145983150983143 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983144983137983154983158983141983155983156983145983150983143498 983155983161983155983156983141983149 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983114 983120983151983159983141983154 983123983151983157983154983139983141983155 983090983088983089983090983084 205 (9) 151983085156499

13 L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983148983148 D C983144983141983150983143 983123 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127500

983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 A M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983148983161983155983145983155 983139983141983148983148983155 983142983151983154 983144983145983143983144 983161983145983141983148983140 983144983161983140983154983151983143983141983150 983143983137983155 983152983154983151983140983157983139983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983151983154983143983137983150983145983139 983149983137983156983156983141983154501

983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983088983096983084 42 (23) 86309830858640502

14 J983137983139983151983138983155983151983150 K 983123 D983154983141983159 D M H983141 983130 983125983155983141 983151983142 983137 983148983145983156983141983154983085983155983139983137983148983141 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983140983141983155983137983148983145983150983137983156983145983151983150 983139983141983148983148 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149503

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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651

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663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

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Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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1 INTRODUCTION35

The microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology has been intensively researched in the recent36

decade because it offers a solution for environmental sustainability by simultaneously37

performing pollutant removal and energy production MFCs use exoelectrogenic microorganisms38

to convert the chemical energy stored in biodegradable substances to direct electricity39

Furthermore the electrical current can be utilized for many other functions including producing40

value-added chemicals such as H2 in microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) or driving water41

desalination in microbial desalination cells (MDCs)1 2

The advancements in reactor architecture42

material and operation optimization of these bioelectrochemical systems (BES) have remarkably43

relieved the physical and chemical constraints of reactor systems3 4 leading to orders of44

magnitude increase in power output However one main challenge for MFCs or BESs to be used45

in real-world applications is the low energy output and to overcome this one key element that46

has been largely neglected is how to harvest and practically utilize the MFC energy based on the47

true potential of the system rather than simply reporting the measured power density using48

external resistors49

Compared to other alternative energy systems such as solar and wind MFC is a low50

power system due to its thermodynamic limitation The theoretical anode and cathode potentials51

calculated by Nernst equation are -03 V (vs NHE) and 08 V (vs NHE) respectively when52

acetate servers as the electron donor and oxygen serves as the electron acceptor Therefore the53

theoretical voltage across the two electrodes is 08 V - (-03 V) = 11 V5-7

However the54

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microbial inocula are used in the system Traditionally MFC power output is reported by58

changing the external resistance ( Rext ) at a 5-30 min interval or conducting a voltammetry59

sweep7-10

Figure 1 shows typical polarization and power density curves obtained from a lab60

scale MFC The curves demonstrate that MFC voltage is inversely proportional to the output61

current and there exists a pair of voltage and current that delivers the maximum power when62

Rext is equal to the system internal resistance ( Rint ) This peak point is called the maximum power63

point (MPP) which is the ideal operating point for MFCs and reported by most studies as the top64

power output7 11 12

However top power may not be the goal of all systems For MFCs used in65

wastewater treatment the primary goal may not be high power output but rather more efficient66

organic removal so a balance in operation during different phases needs to be considered67

whether to operate the system at the MPP for maximum power output or at the high current68

condition for the fastest substrate oxidation rate8 Similarly for H2 production in an MEC the69

ideal operating point is not MPP but rather the high current region because H 2 production70

directly correlates with electron flow (current) in the circuit and proton reduction at the cathode71

Because an additional voltage is required for MECs the operation point of MEC is beyond the72

limiting current of the polarization curve at negative voltages and the external energy input as73

well as energy content of the produced H2 should be considered in addition to the amount of H2 74

produced so the actual energy efficiency and energy recovery can be quantified13

In contrast75

the operation of MDCs depends on different needs because if high energy is desired the MPP76

will be the ideal point but if high salt removal is the primary goal then high current will be77

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addition the fixed Rext cannot always match the system Rint and extract energy at the MPP81

because the Rint of an MFC varies constantly with changes in microbial activities and operational82

parameters Studies showed that MFCs may lose more than 50 of produced power across the83

Rint if the operating voltage is not at the MPP15

84

To harvest usable MFC or BES energy resistors have to be replaced with devices that85

can capture and store energy and boost voltage for practical usage The direct outputs of a single86

MFC are primarily in the level of 700-800 mV and 100-2000 mWm2 which generally cannot87

directly power common electronics16

For example a single light emitting diode (LED) requires88

a minimum voltage of 2 V and consumes 30 mW17 18

and many wireless sensors need a voltage89

of 33 V and watt-level power for temperature pressure and humidity monitoring19-22 While90

higher power using single or multiple MFCs has been researched it was reported that larger91

power production cannot be easily achieved by just building larger MFCs or simply connecting92

MFCs in series or in parallel due to the nonlinear nature of MFCs23 24

Therefore developing93

tailored energy harvesting systems including MPP tracking and power management systems94

(PMS) are crucial for MFC and BES scale-up and real-world application Such systems generally95

composed of multiple electronics such as off-the-shelf capacitors rechargeable batteries charge96

pumps and boost converters but these devices are not designed for MFC conditions so the97

efficiency was low and initial voltage boosts were needed Customized harvesting systems have98

been reported by several groups including our group but there is very limited knowledge base99

for this important area because it requires understanding of power electronics circuitry and100

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methods We also provide discussions and our insights on the challenges and research needs of104

this field so researchers and engineers can help advance the technology development and finally105

overcome these barriers of MFC application106

107

2 ENERGY HARVESTING TECHNOLOGIES108

Since the direct energy production from MFCs is generally not sufficient for practical109

applications various circuit topologies have been developed to interface MFCs with electronic110

loads Figure 2A shows a concise flow chart of energy harvesting process from MFCs (energy111

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) where PMS (eg capacitor-based systems112

charge pump-based systems boost converter-based systems and unreported systems) as the113

central command aims to control the MFC at its optimal condition and extracts and stores the114

energy for the uses by external loads A PMS is an electronic circuit that is composed of115

electronic components such as capacitors charge pumps boost converters diodes inductors116

power switches and potentiometers with the function of harvesting MFC energy and shaping it117

to a usable form25

This is different from external resistances which have been used in most118

MFCBES studies to represent the energy output potential but not capture any usable energy119

because the current passed through the resistor is dissipated into heat 120

Table 1 lists all the commercially available parts that have been used in PMS designs for121

MFCs including the information of manufacturermodel number and the function of each122

component Additionally Table 2 summarizes the energy harvesting performances that have123

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index for necessary information needed for PMS components and functions and in the following127

sections we elaborate on each specific energy-harvesting regime for MFCs128

129

21 Capacitor-based systems130

A capacitor is composed of two conductive terminals separated by a dielectric material131

and energy is stored in the electrostatic field When a capacitor is directly connected to an MFC132

it is charged by the reactor and acts like a variable resistor because the charging current changes133

as the capacitor voltage varies26 27

The required time for a full charge is determined by the134

charging potential and capacitance27

The amount of energy 983127 (J) stored in a capacitor when the135

capacitor is charged from 983126 (V) to (V) can be calculated by136

983101

(

minus ) (1) 137

where 983126 and 983126 are the voltage across the capacitor at the beginning and end of charging138

respectively and (F) is the capacitance139

In energy harvesting systems capacitors are widely used as either final energy storage140

before utilization or transitional energy storage during energy extraction Different arrangements141

of multiple capacitors in the circuit can manipulate outputs of current voltage and power from142

MFCs To date five chargingdischarging techniques have been reported direct charging143

intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC)) alternate charging and144

discharging (ACD) charging capacitors in parallel while discharging in series and charging145

capacitive electrodes (Figure 2A and Table 2)17 27-30

146

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P 9 f 33 E i t l S i amp T h l

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reduced capacitor charging time in half and increased current generation by 35 when172

comparing with MFC stack with serial connections37

173

In the ACD mode an MFC charges capacitors first for energy collection and then the174

charged capacitors discharge the energy back to the system for MEC operation Liang et al 175

showed that the ACD mode could increase the current by 22-32 compared to the IC mode176

which was attributed to the shorter discharging time than the charging time as well as the higher177

anode potential caused by discharging the capacitor29

However power densities in the ACD178

mode were lower than those in the IC mode179

The voltage output can be increased when charging an array of capacitors connected in180

parallel and then discharging them in series By using two groups of capacitors with alternative181

charging and discharging sequence Kim et al found the output voltage was constantly enhanced182

from 07 V to as high as 25 V17

Moreover this approach does not require a minimum input183

voltage threshold so voltage can be increased without using initial boost It also effectively184

alleviated voltage reversal problem with negligible energy losses in the circuit However185

external energy supplied to control relay switches was not considered in the energy calculation186

Another study used the same array to harvest energy from multiple MFCs and power an MEC187

and it was found that energy recovery improved from 9 to 13 and H 2 production rate188

doubled from 031 to 072 m3m

3day

38 A similar study used three capacitors separately charged189

by three MFCs and then linked them in series to power an electrochemical deposition system190

(ECD) which obtained a sulfur recovery efficiency up to 465plusmn1539

191

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capacitor30

The MFC equipped with the capacitive bioanode produced a peak current density up195

to 17 Am2

which almost doubled the output of a control non-capacitive anode (09 Am2

)196

Future studies are needed to investigate the longevity of the capacitive electrodes197

198

22 Charge pump-based systems199

Charge pumps are low cost devices with simple circuit topologies In general a charge200

pump is an inductor-less DCDC converter that uses capacitors to store and transfer energy in201

order to generate either higher or lower voltages The capacitors in the charge pump circuit are202

first charged by the power source and then connected in different combinations to generate203

various voltages for different applications The S-882Z series charge pump from Seiko204

Instruments has been widely used in BES studies and it requires a minimum input voltage of 03205

V in order to generate a discharge voltage of 18-24 V (Figure 2A) The charge pump consumes206

a minimum 01-05 mA current during operation when the input voltage is 03-06 V which may207

limit its charging speed when the current is low and leads to long chargingdischarging cycles208

and low energy harvesting efficiency20 40

For example using a 316 mL air-cathode MFC as the209

power source it took 22 h for the charge pump-based circuit to output a voltage of 33 V during210

the start-up phase but a transformer-based circuit only took 25 h to output the same voltage21

211

suggesting that the energy extraction rate of the charge pump was much slower compared to the212

transformer Similar performance was observed by Wang et al who found that due to charge213

pumprsquos input current limitation its operating point was maintained at the low current region of214

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Forrestal et al found the Coulombic efficiency was only 094 indicating that the charge pump217

is not sufficient for energy harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2)

41

218

Therefore charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage MFC sources and be used for219

intermittent energy harvesting when low charging rate is acceptable such as for remote sensors220

The performance of the charge pump can be greatly improved when input current increases221

Furthermore charge pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to automatically222

control onoff and prevent reverse current flows42 43

S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the223

most commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES studies and because its224

maximum output voltage 24 V sometimes it is not sufficient to power common electronic225

devices To further increase the output voltage another layer of power converter may be placed226

after the charge pump for voltage boost227

228

23 Boost converter-based systems229

A DCDC converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC) power from one230

voltage level to another level so an unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output231

The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter) stepped up (boost converter) or232

inverted Boost converters are widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A) and the circuit of a233

boost converter includes both semiconductors such as diodes and transistors and energy storage234

components such as capacitors and inductors with a more complex structure than that in the235

charge pump While the commonly used charge pump can step up the voltage from 03 V to 18-236

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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239

voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V

21 43 45

240

Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241

voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242

STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243

MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244

very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245

TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246

output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247

MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248

decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249

system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250

MDCs (UMDCs)46

Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251

must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252

higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253

changes in environmental conditions254

To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255

capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256

converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257

components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258

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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262

consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263

biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264

the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265

source for a wireless sensor19

A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266

charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267

voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47

This method was used to268

develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269

of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270

in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271

continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272

and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273

boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49

274

The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275

voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276

is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277

Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278

worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20

279

Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280

boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50

As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281

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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284

(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)

21

285

To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286

boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287

been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47

BMFCs utilize naturally288

occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289

and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54

One challenge of BMFCs290

is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291

in the natural water body55 56

This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292

the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293

intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45

The intermittent294

energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295

such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296

efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297

BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298

possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42

A multi-anode299

decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300

interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43

301

302

24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303

ggy

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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307

such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308

magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309

diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310

effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311

a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312

such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313

harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58

314

During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315

energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316

second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317

the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318

transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60

Adami et al developed a flyback319

converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320

obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321

commercial boost converters61

322

An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323

constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324

concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325

to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326

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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330

exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency

63

Moreover the control of MPPT can be331

applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332

reversal64

However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333

the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334

time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335

energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336

peak level in real-time12

Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337

a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65

338

Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339

control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340

MFC operation40

This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341

maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342

resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343

receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344

any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345

this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346

charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347

improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348

60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349

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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353

play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354

cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355

the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356

combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66

357

358

3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359

The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360

development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361

energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362

have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363

clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364

reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365

frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366

activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367

368

1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369

that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370

voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371

process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372

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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377

consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378

harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379

collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380

performance ICs for MFCs16 67

or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68

381

382

2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383

which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384

circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385

when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386

alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387

can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388

harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389

generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390

or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391

carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392

for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393

operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394

and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395

systems which require either a small jump start57

or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70

for self-396

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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400

consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401

up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402

implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403

404

3

More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405

to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406

capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407

capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408

electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26

409

It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410

capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411

boost circuit design57

In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412

efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413

983101

983255 98308900 (2)414

983101

983255 98308900 (3)415

where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416

step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417

the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418

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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423

that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424

is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425

426

4

The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427

current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428

devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73

429

Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430

since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431

bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432

higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433

power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434

because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435

nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436

chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437

relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438

activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439

condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440

MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441

efficiency23

One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442

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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446

controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447

avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448

the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449

450

5

While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451

harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452

charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453

receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454

electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455

microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456

results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457

community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458

selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459

efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460

electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461

from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462

transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463

more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464

interesting topic to investigate465

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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468

under Award N000141310901469

470

REFERENCES471

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983148 983142 983140 983138 983148 983142 983148 983148983148 983148 983144

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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651

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663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

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30

Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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31

Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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microbial inocula are used in the system Traditionally MFC power output is reported by58

changing the external resistance ( Rext ) at a 5-30 min interval or conducting a voltammetry59

sweep7-10

Figure 1 shows typical polarization and power density curves obtained from a lab60

scale MFC The curves demonstrate that MFC voltage is inversely proportional to the output61

current and there exists a pair of voltage and current that delivers the maximum power when62

Rext is equal to the system internal resistance ( Rint ) This peak point is called the maximum power63

point (MPP) which is the ideal operating point for MFCs and reported by most studies as the top64

power output7 11 12

However top power may not be the goal of all systems For MFCs used in65

wastewater treatment the primary goal may not be high power output but rather more efficient66

organic removal so a balance in operation during different phases needs to be considered67

whether to operate the system at the MPP for maximum power output or at the high current68

condition for the fastest substrate oxidation rate8 Similarly for H2 production in an MEC the69

ideal operating point is not MPP but rather the high current region because H 2 production70

directly correlates with electron flow (current) in the circuit and proton reduction at the cathode71

Because an additional voltage is required for MECs the operation point of MEC is beyond the72

limiting current of the polarization curve at negative voltages and the external energy input as73

well as energy content of the produced H2 should be considered in addition to the amount of H2 74

produced so the actual energy efficiency and energy recovery can be quantified13

In contrast75

the operation of MDCs depends on different needs because if high energy is desired the MPP76

will be the ideal point but if high salt removal is the primary goal then high current will be77

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addition the fixed Rext cannot always match the system Rint and extract energy at the MPP81

because the Rint of an MFC varies constantly with changes in microbial activities and operational82

parameters Studies showed that MFCs may lose more than 50 of produced power across the83

Rint if the operating voltage is not at the MPP15

84

To harvest usable MFC or BES energy resistors have to be replaced with devices that85

can capture and store energy and boost voltage for practical usage The direct outputs of a single86

MFC are primarily in the level of 700-800 mV and 100-2000 mWm2 which generally cannot87

directly power common electronics16

For example a single light emitting diode (LED) requires88

a minimum voltage of 2 V and consumes 30 mW17 18

and many wireless sensors need a voltage89

of 33 V and watt-level power for temperature pressure and humidity monitoring19-22 While90

higher power using single or multiple MFCs has been researched it was reported that larger91

power production cannot be easily achieved by just building larger MFCs or simply connecting92

MFCs in series or in parallel due to the nonlinear nature of MFCs23 24

Therefore developing93

tailored energy harvesting systems including MPP tracking and power management systems94

(PMS) are crucial for MFC and BES scale-up and real-world application Such systems generally95

composed of multiple electronics such as off-the-shelf capacitors rechargeable batteries charge96

pumps and boost converters but these devices are not designed for MFC conditions so the97

efficiency was low and initial voltage boosts were needed Customized harvesting systems have98

been reported by several groups including our group but there is very limited knowledge base99

for this important area because it requires understanding of power electronics circuitry and100

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methods We also provide discussions and our insights on the challenges and research needs of104

this field so researchers and engineers can help advance the technology development and finally105

overcome these barriers of MFC application106

107

2 ENERGY HARVESTING TECHNOLOGIES108

Since the direct energy production from MFCs is generally not sufficient for practical109

applications various circuit topologies have been developed to interface MFCs with electronic110

loads Figure 2A shows a concise flow chart of energy harvesting process from MFCs (energy111

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) where PMS (eg capacitor-based systems112

charge pump-based systems boost converter-based systems and unreported systems) as the113

central command aims to control the MFC at its optimal condition and extracts and stores the114

energy for the uses by external loads A PMS is an electronic circuit that is composed of115

electronic components such as capacitors charge pumps boost converters diodes inductors116

power switches and potentiometers with the function of harvesting MFC energy and shaping it117

to a usable form25

This is different from external resistances which have been used in most118

MFCBES studies to represent the energy output potential but not capture any usable energy119

because the current passed through the resistor is dissipated into heat 120

Table 1 lists all the commercially available parts that have been used in PMS designs for121

MFCs including the information of manufacturermodel number and the function of each122

component Additionally Table 2 summarizes the energy harvesting performances that have123

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index for necessary information needed for PMS components and functions and in the following127

sections we elaborate on each specific energy-harvesting regime for MFCs128

129

21 Capacitor-based systems130

A capacitor is composed of two conductive terminals separated by a dielectric material131

and energy is stored in the electrostatic field When a capacitor is directly connected to an MFC132

it is charged by the reactor and acts like a variable resistor because the charging current changes133

as the capacitor voltage varies26 27

The required time for a full charge is determined by the134

charging potential and capacitance27

The amount of energy 983127 (J) stored in a capacitor when the135

capacitor is charged from 983126 (V) to (V) can be calculated by136

983101

(

minus ) (1) 137

where 983126 and 983126 are the voltage across the capacitor at the beginning and end of charging138

respectively and (F) is the capacitance139

In energy harvesting systems capacitors are widely used as either final energy storage140

before utilization or transitional energy storage during energy extraction Different arrangements141

of multiple capacitors in the circuit can manipulate outputs of current voltage and power from142

MFCs To date five chargingdischarging techniques have been reported direct charging143

intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC)) alternate charging and144

discharging (ACD) charging capacitors in parallel while discharging in series and charging145

capacitive electrodes (Figure 2A and Table 2)17 27-30

146

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P 9 f 33 E i t l S i amp T h l

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reduced capacitor charging time in half and increased current generation by 35 when172

comparing with MFC stack with serial connections37

173

In the ACD mode an MFC charges capacitors first for energy collection and then the174

charged capacitors discharge the energy back to the system for MEC operation Liang et al 175

showed that the ACD mode could increase the current by 22-32 compared to the IC mode176

which was attributed to the shorter discharging time than the charging time as well as the higher177

anode potential caused by discharging the capacitor29

However power densities in the ACD178

mode were lower than those in the IC mode179

The voltage output can be increased when charging an array of capacitors connected in180

parallel and then discharging them in series By using two groups of capacitors with alternative181

charging and discharging sequence Kim et al found the output voltage was constantly enhanced182

from 07 V to as high as 25 V17

Moreover this approach does not require a minimum input183

voltage threshold so voltage can be increased without using initial boost It also effectively184

alleviated voltage reversal problem with negligible energy losses in the circuit However185

external energy supplied to control relay switches was not considered in the energy calculation186

Another study used the same array to harvest energy from multiple MFCs and power an MEC187

and it was found that energy recovery improved from 9 to 13 and H 2 production rate188

doubled from 031 to 072 m3m

3day

38 A similar study used three capacitors separately charged189

by three MFCs and then linked them in series to power an electrochemical deposition system190

(ECD) which obtained a sulfur recovery efficiency up to 465plusmn1539

191

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capacitor30

The MFC equipped with the capacitive bioanode produced a peak current density up195

to 17 Am2

which almost doubled the output of a control non-capacitive anode (09 Am2

)196

Future studies are needed to investigate the longevity of the capacitive electrodes197

198

22 Charge pump-based systems199

Charge pumps are low cost devices with simple circuit topologies In general a charge200

pump is an inductor-less DCDC converter that uses capacitors to store and transfer energy in201

order to generate either higher or lower voltages The capacitors in the charge pump circuit are202

first charged by the power source and then connected in different combinations to generate203

various voltages for different applications The S-882Z series charge pump from Seiko204

Instruments has been widely used in BES studies and it requires a minimum input voltage of 03205

V in order to generate a discharge voltage of 18-24 V (Figure 2A) The charge pump consumes206

a minimum 01-05 mA current during operation when the input voltage is 03-06 V which may207

limit its charging speed when the current is low and leads to long chargingdischarging cycles208

and low energy harvesting efficiency20 40

For example using a 316 mL air-cathode MFC as the209

power source it took 22 h for the charge pump-based circuit to output a voltage of 33 V during210

the start-up phase but a transformer-based circuit only took 25 h to output the same voltage21

211

suggesting that the energy extraction rate of the charge pump was much slower compared to the212

transformer Similar performance was observed by Wang et al who found that due to charge213

pumprsquos input current limitation its operating point was maintained at the low current region of214

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Forrestal et al found the Coulombic efficiency was only 094 indicating that the charge pump217

is not sufficient for energy harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2)

41

218

Therefore charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage MFC sources and be used for219

intermittent energy harvesting when low charging rate is acceptable such as for remote sensors220

The performance of the charge pump can be greatly improved when input current increases221

Furthermore charge pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to automatically222

control onoff and prevent reverse current flows42 43

S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the223

most commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES studies and because its224

maximum output voltage 24 V sometimes it is not sufficient to power common electronic225

devices To further increase the output voltage another layer of power converter may be placed226

after the charge pump for voltage boost227

228

23 Boost converter-based systems229

A DCDC converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC) power from one230

voltage level to another level so an unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output231

The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter) stepped up (boost converter) or232

inverted Boost converters are widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A) and the circuit of a233

boost converter includes both semiconductors such as diodes and transistors and energy storage234

components such as capacitors and inductors with a more complex structure than that in the235

charge pump While the commonly used charge pump can step up the voltage from 03 V to 18-236

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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239

voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V

21 43 45

240

Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241

voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242

STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243

MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244

very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245

TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246

output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247

MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248

decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249

system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250

MDCs (UMDCs)46

Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251

must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252

higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253

changes in environmental conditions254

To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255

capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256

converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257

components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258

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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262

consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263

biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264

the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265

source for a wireless sensor19

A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266

charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267

voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47

This method was used to268

develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269

of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270

in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271

continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272

and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273

boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49

274

The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275

voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276

is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277

Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278

worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20

279

Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280

boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50

As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281

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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284

(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)

21

285

To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286

boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287

been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47

BMFCs utilize naturally288

occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289

and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54

One challenge of BMFCs290

is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291

in the natural water body55 56

This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292

the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293

intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45

The intermittent294

energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295

such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296

efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297

BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298

possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42

A multi-anode299

decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300

interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43

301

302

24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303

ggy

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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307

such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308

magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309

diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310

effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311

a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312

such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313

harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58

314

During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315

energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316

second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317

the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318

transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60

Adami et al developed a flyback319

converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320

obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321

commercial boost converters61

322

An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323

constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324

concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325

to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326

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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330

exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency

63

Moreover the control of MPPT can be331

applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332

reversal64

However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333

the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334

time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335

energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336

peak level in real-time12

Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337

a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65

338

Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339

control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340

MFC operation40

This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341

maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342

resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343

receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344

any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345

this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346

charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347

improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348

60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349

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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353

play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354

cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355

the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356

combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66

357

358

3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359

The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360

development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361

energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362

have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363

clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364

reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365

frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366

activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367

368

1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369

that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370

voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371

process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372

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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377

consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378

harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379

collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380

performance ICs for MFCs16 67

or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68

381

382

2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383

which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384

circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385

when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386

alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387

can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388

harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389

generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390

or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391

carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392

for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393

operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394

and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395

systems which require either a small jump start57

or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70

for self-396

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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400

consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401

up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402

implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403

404

3

More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405

to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406

capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407

capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408

electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26

409

It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410

capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411

boost circuit design57

In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412

efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413

983101

983255 98308900 (2)414

983101

983255 98308900 (3)415

where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416

step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417

the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418

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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423

that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424

is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425

426

4

The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427

current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428

devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73

429

Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430

since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431

bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432

higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433

power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434

because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435

nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436

chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437

relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438

activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439

condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440

MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441

efficiency23

One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442

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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446

controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447

avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448

the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449

450

5

While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451

harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452

charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453

receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454

electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455

microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456

results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457

community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458

selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459

efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460

electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461

from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462

transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463

more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464

interesting topic to investigate465

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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468

under Award N000141310901469

470

REFERENCES471

1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472

983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983089983091983084 31 (8) 17969830851807473

2 H983137983154983150983145983155983139983144 F 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 F983154983151983149 MFC 983156983151 M983128C 983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983148983151983143983145983139983137983148 983139983137983156983144983151983140983141983155 983137983150983140 983156983144983141983145983154474 983152983151983156983141983150983156983145983137983148 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983107983144983141983149 983123983151983139 983122983141983158 983090983088983089983088983084 39 (11) 44339830854448475

3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476

983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16659830851671477

4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478

B983157983145983155983149983137983150 C J 983118 983118983141983159 983137983152983152983148983145983139983137983156983145983151983150983155 983137983150983140 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983151983142 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148 983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148479

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5 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 B983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983149983141983156983137983148 983154983141983139983151983158983141983154983161 983142983154983151983149 983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 A 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983127983137983156983141983154 983122983141983155481

983090983088983089983092 66 219983085232482 6 D983157 983130 L983145 H G983157 983124 A 983155983156983137983156983141 983151983142 983156983144983141 983137983154983156 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 A 983152983154983151983149983145983155983145983150983143 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983142983151983154483

983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 983156983154983141983137983156983149983141983150983156 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983141983150983141983154983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983088983095983084 25 (5) 464983085482484

7 L983151983143983137983150 B E H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 B 983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 K983141983148983148983141983154 J F983154983141983143983157983145983137 983123 A983141983148983156983141983154983149983137983150 983120485

983126983141983154983155983156983154983137983141983156983141 983127 983122983137983138983137983141983161 K M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983149983141983156983144983151983140983151983148983151983143983161 983137983150983140 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148486

983090983088983088983094983084 40 (17) 51819830855192487

8 983122983141983150 983130 983129983137983150 H 983127983137983150983143 983127 M983141983150983139983144 M M 983122983141983143983137983150 J M C983144983137983154983137983156983141983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983156488

983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148983148983161 983137983150983140 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148983148983161 983149983141983137983150983145983150983143983142983157983148 983156983145983149983141 983155983139983137983148983141983155 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983089983084 45 (6) 2435983085489

2441490 9 L983161983151983150 D 983129 B983157983154983141983156 F 983126983151983143983141983148 983124 M M983151983150983145983141983154 J983085M I983155 983154983141983155983145983155983156983137983150983139983141 983142983157983156983145983148983141 C983144983137983150983143983145983150983143 983141983160983156983141983154983150983137983148491

983154983141983155983145983155983156983137983150983139983141 983140983151983141983155 983150983151983156 983145983149983152983154983151983158983141 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983106983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983155983156983154983161 983090983088983089983088983084 78 (1) 29830857492

10 983127983137983156983155983151983150 983126 J L983151983143983137983150 B E A983150983137983148983161983155983145983155 983151983142 983152983151983148983137983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983149983141983156983144983151983140983155 983142983151983154 983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983152983151983159983141983154 983151983158983141983154983155983144983151983151983156493

983145983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983109983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149 983107983151983149983149983157983150 983090983088983089983089983084 13 (1) 5498308556494

11 D983141983143983154983141983150983150983141 983118 B983157983154983141983156 F A983148983148983137983154983140 B B983141983158983145983148983137983139983153983157983137 983120 E983148983141983139983156983154983145983139983137983148 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983143983141983150983141983154983137983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983137 983148983137983154983143983141495

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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651

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663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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addition the fixed Rext cannot always match the system Rint and extract energy at the MPP81

because the Rint of an MFC varies constantly with changes in microbial activities and operational82

parameters Studies showed that MFCs may lose more than 50 of produced power across the83

Rint if the operating voltage is not at the MPP15

84

To harvest usable MFC or BES energy resistors have to be replaced with devices that85

can capture and store energy and boost voltage for practical usage The direct outputs of a single86

MFC are primarily in the level of 700-800 mV and 100-2000 mWm2 which generally cannot87

directly power common electronics16

For example a single light emitting diode (LED) requires88

a minimum voltage of 2 V and consumes 30 mW17 18

and many wireless sensors need a voltage89

of 33 V and watt-level power for temperature pressure and humidity monitoring19-22 While90

higher power using single or multiple MFCs has been researched it was reported that larger91

power production cannot be easily achieved by just building larger MFCs or simply connecting92

MFCs in series or in parallel due to the nonlinear nature of MFCs23 24

Therefore developing93

tailored energy harvesting systems including MPP tracking and power management systems94

(PMS) are crucial for MFC and BES scale-up and real-world application Such systems generally95

composed of multiple electronics such as off-the-shelf capacitors rechargeable batteries charge96

pumps and boost converters but these devices are not designed for MFC conditions so the97

efficiency was low and initial voltage boosts were needed Customized harvesting systems have98

been reported by several groups including our group but there is very limited knowledge base99

for this important area because it requires understanding of power electronics circuitry and100

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methods We also provide discussions and our insights on the challenges and research needs of104

this field so researchers and engineers can help advance the technology development and finally105

overcome these barriers of MFC application106

107

2 ENERGY HARVESTING TECHNOLOGIES108

Since the direct energy production from MFCs is generally not sufficient for practical109

applications various circuit topologies have been developed to interface MFCs with electronic110

loads Figure 2A shows a concise flow chart of energy harvesting process from MFCs (energy111

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) where PMS (eg capacitor-based systems112

charge pump-based systems boost converter-based systems and unreported systems) as the113

central command aims to control the MFC at its optimal condition and extracts and stores the114

energy for the uses by external loads A PMS is an electronic circuit that is composed of115

electronic components such as capacitors charge pumps boost converters diodes inductors116

power switches and potentiometers with the function of harvesting MFC energy and shaping it117

to a usable form25

This is different from external resistances which have been used in most118

MFCBES studies to represent the energy output potential but not capture any usable energy119

because the current passed through the resistor is dissipated into heat 120

Table 1 lists all the commercially available parts that have been used in PMS designs for121

MFCs including the information of manufacturermodel number and the function of each122

component Additionally Table 2 summarizes the energy harvesting performances that have123

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index for necessary information needed for PMS components and functions and in the following127

sections we elaborate on each specific energy-harvesting regime for MFCs128

129

21 Capacitor-based systems130

A capacitor is composed of two conductive terminals separated by a dielectric material131

and energy is stored in the electrostatic field When a capacitor is directly connected to an MFC132

it is charged by the reactor and acts like a variable resistor because the charging current changes133

as the capacitor voltage varies26 27

The required time for a full charge is determined by the134

charging potential and capacitance27

The amount of energy 983127 (J) stored in a capacitor when the135

capacitor is charged from 983126 (V) to (V) can be calculated by136

983101

(

minus ) (1) 137

where 983126 and 983126 are the voltage across the capacitor at the beginning and end of charging138

respectively and (F) is the capacitance139

In energy harvesting systems capacitors are widely used as either final energy storage140

before utilization or transitional energy storage during energy extraction Different arrangements141

of multiple capacitors in the circuit can manipulate outputs of current voltage and power from142

MFCs To date five chargingdischarging techniques have been reported direct charging143

intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC)) alternate charging and144

discharging (ACD) charging capacitors in parallel while discharging in series and charging145

capacitive electrodes (Figure 2A and Table 2)17 27-30

146

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P 9 f 33 E i t l S i amp T h l

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reduced capacitor charging time in half and increased current generation by 35 when172

comparing with MFC stack with serial connections37

173

In the ACD mode an MFC charges capacitors first for energy collection and then the174

charged capacitors discharge the energy back to the system for MEC operation Liang et al 175

showed that the ACD mode could increase the current by 22-32 compared to the IC mode176

which was attributed to the shorter discharging time than the charging time as well as the higher177

anode potential caused by discharging the capacitor29

However power densities in the ACD178

mode were lower than those in the IC mode179

The voltage output can be increased when charging an array of capacitors connected in180

parallel and then discharging them in series By using two groups of capacitors with alternative181

charging and discharging sequence Kim et al found the output voltage was constantly enhanced182

from 07 V to as high as 25 V17

Moreover this approach does not require a minimum input183

voltage threshold so voltage can be increased without using initial boost It also effectively184

alleviated voltage reversal problem with negligible energy losses in the circuit However185

external energy supplied to control relay switches was not considered in the energy calculation186

Another study used the same array to harvest energy from multiple MFCs and power an MEC187

and it was found that energy recovery improved from 9 to 13 and H 2 production rate188

doubled from 031 to 072 m3m

3day

38 A similar study used three capacitors separately charged189

by three MFCs and then linked them in series to power an electrochemical deposition system190

(ECD) which obtained a sulfur recovery efficiency up to 465plusmn1539

191

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capacitor30

The MFC equipped with the capacitive bioanode produced a peak current density up195

to 17 Am2

which almost doubled the output of a control non-capacitive anode (09 Am2

)196

Future studies are needed to investigate the longevity of the capacitive electrodes197

198

22 Charge pump-based systems199

Charge pumps are low cost devices with simple circuit topologies In general a charge200

pump is an inductor-less DCDC converter that uses capacitors to store and transfer energy in201

order to generate either higher or lower voltages The capacitors in the charge pump circuit are202

first charged by the power source and then connected in different combinations to generate203

various voltages for different applications The S-882Z series charge pump from Seiko204

Instruments has been widely used in BES studies and it requires a minimum input voltage of 03205

V in order to generate a discharge voltage of 18-24 V (Figure 2A) The charge pump consumes206

a minimum 01-05 mA current during operation when the input voltage is 03-06 V which may207

limit its charging speed when the current is low and leads to long chargingdischarging cycles208

and low energy harvesting efficiency20 40

For example using a 316 mL air-cathode MFC as the209

power source it took 22 h for the charge pump-based circuit to output a voltage of 33 V during210

the start-up phase but a transformer-based circuit only took 25 h to output the same voltage21

211

suggesting that the energy extraction rate of the charge pump was much slower compared to the212

transformer Similar performance was observed by Wang et al who found that due to charge213

pumprsquos input current limitation its operating point was maintained at the low current region of214

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Forrestal et al found the Coulombic efficiency was only 094 indicating that the charge pump217

is not sufficient for energy harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2)

41

218

Therefore charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage MFC sources and be used for219

intermittent energy harvesting when low charging rate is acceptable such as for remote sensors220

The performance of the charge pump can be greatly improved when input current increases221

Furthermore charge pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to automatically222

control onoff and prevent reverse current flows42 43

S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the223

most commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES studies and because its224

maximum output voltage 24 V sometimes it is not sufficient to power common electronic225

devices To further increase the output voltage another layer of power converter may be placed226

after the charge pump for voltage boost227

228

23 Boost converter-based systems229

A DCDC converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC) power from one230

voltage level to another level so an unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output231

The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter) stepped up (boost converter) or232

inverted Boost converters are widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A) and the circuit of a233

boost converter includes both semiconductors such as diodes and transistors and energy storage234

components such as capacitors and inductors with a more complex structure than that in the235

charge pump While the commonly used charge pump can step up the voltage from 03 V to 18-236

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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239

voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V

21 43 45

240

Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241

voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242

STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243

MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244

very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245

TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246

output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247

MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248

decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249

system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250

MDCs (UMDCs)46

Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251

must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252

higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253

changes in environmental conditions254

To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255

capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256

converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257

components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258

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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262

consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263

biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264

the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265

source for a wireless sensor19

A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266

charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267

voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47

This method was used to268

develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269

of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270

in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271

continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272

and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273

boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49

274

The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275

voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276

is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277

Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278

worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20

279

Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280

boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50

As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281

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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284

(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)

21

285

To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286

boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287

been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47

BMFCs utilize naturally288

occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289

and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54

One challenge of BMFCs290

is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291

in the natural water body55 56

This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292

the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293

intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45

The intermittent294

energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295

such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296

efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297

BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298

possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42

A multi-anode299

decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300

interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43

301

302

24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303

ggy

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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307

such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308

magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309

diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310

effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311

a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312

such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313

harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58

314

During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315

energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316

second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317

the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318

transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60

Adami et al developed a flyback319

converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320

obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321

commercial boost converters61

322

An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323

constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324

concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325

to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326

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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330

exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency

63

Moreover the control of MPPT can be331

applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332

reversal64

However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333

the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334

time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335

energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336

peak level in real-time12

Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337

a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65

338

Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339

control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340

MFC operation40

This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341

maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342

resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343

receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344

any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345

this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346

charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347

improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348

60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349

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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353

play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354

cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355

the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356

combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66

357

358

3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359

The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360

development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361

energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362

have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363

clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364

reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365

frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366

activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367

368

1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369

that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370

voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371

process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372

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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377

consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378

harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379

collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380

performance ICs for MFCs16 67

or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68

381

382

2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383

which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384

circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385

when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386

alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387

can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388

harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389

generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390

or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391

carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392

for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393

operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394

and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395

systems which require either a small jump start57

or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70

for self-396

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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400

consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401

up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402

implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403

404

3

More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405

to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406

capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407

capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408

electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26

409

It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410

capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411

boost circuit design57

In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412

efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413

983101

983255 98308900 (2)414

983101

983255 98308900 (3)415

where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416

step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417

the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418

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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423

that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424

is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425

426

4

The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427

current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428

devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73

429

Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430

since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431

bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432

higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433

power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434

because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435

nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436

chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437

relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438

activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439

condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440

MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441

efficiency23

One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442

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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446

controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447

avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448

the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449

450

5

While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451

harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452

charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453

receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454

electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455

microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456

results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457

community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458

selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459

efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460

electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461

from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462

transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463

more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464

interesting topic to investigate465

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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468

under Award N000141310901469

470

REFERENCES471

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983148 983142 983140 983138 983148 983142 983148 983148983148 983148 983144

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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651

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663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

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30

Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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31

Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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methods We also provide discussions and our insights on the challenges and research needs of104

this field so researchers and engineers can help advance the technology development and finally105

overcome these barriers of MFC application106

107

2 ENERGY HARVESTING TECHNOLOGIES108

Since the direct energy production from MFCs is generally not sufficient for practical109

applications various circuit topologies have been developed to interface MFCs with electronic110

loads Figure 2A shows a concise flow chart of energy harvesting process from MFCs (energy111

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) where PMS (eg capacitor-based systems112

charge pump-based systems boost converter-based systems and unreported systems) as the113

central command aims to control the MFC at its optimal condition and extracts and stores the114

energy for the uses by external loads A PMS is an electronic circuit that is composed of115

electronic components such as capacitors charge pumps boost converters diodes inductors116

power switches and potentiometers with the function of harvesting MFC energy and shaping it117

to a usable form25

This is different from external resistances which have been used in most118

MFCBES studies to represent the energy output potential but not capture any usable energy119

because the current passed through the resistor is dissipated into heat 120

Table 1 lists all the commercially available parts that have been used in PMS designs for121

MFCs including the information of manufacturermodel number and the function of each122

component Additionally Table 2 summarizes the energy harvesting performances that have123

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index for necessary information needed for PMS components and functions and in the following127

sections we elaborate on each specific energy-harvesting regime for MFCs128

129

21 Capacitor-based systems130

A capacitor is composed of two conductive terminals separated by a dielectric material131

and energy is stored in the electrostatic field When a capacitor is directly connected to an MFC132

it is charged by the reactor and acts like a variable resistor because the charging current changes133

as the capacitor voltage varies26 27

The required time for a full charge is determined by the134

charging potential and capacitance27

The amount of energy 983127 (J) stored in a capacitor when the135

capacitor is charged from 983126 (V) to (V) can be calculated by136

983101

(

minus ) (1) 137

where 983126 and 983126 are the voltage across the capacitor at the beginning and end of charging138

respectively and (F) is the capacitance139

In energy harvesting systems capacitors are widely used as either final energy storage140

before utilization or transitional energy storage during energy extraction Different arrangements141

of multiple capacitors in the circuit can manipulate outputs of current voltage and power from142

MFCs To date five chargingdischarging techniques have been reported direct charging143

intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC)) alternate charging and144

discharging (ACD) charging capacitors in parallel while discharging in series and charging145

capacitive electrodes (Figure 2A and Table 2)17 27-30

146

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P 9 f 33 E i t l S i amp T h l

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reduced capacitor charging time in half and increased current generation by 35 when172

comparing with MFC stack with serial connections37

173

In the ACD mode an MFC charges capacitors first for energy collection and then the174

charged capacitors discharge the energy back to the system for MEC operation Liang et al 175

showed that the ACD mode could increase the current by 22-32 compared to the IC mode176

which was attributed to the shorter discharging time than the charging time as well as the higher177

anode potential caused by discharging the capacitor29

However power densities in the ACD178

mode were lower than those in the IC mode179

The voltage output can be increased when charging an array of capacitors connected in180

parallel and then discharging them in series By using two groups of capacitors with alternative181

charging and discharging sequence Kim et al found the output voltage was constantly enhanced182

from 07 V to as high as 25 V17

Moreover this approach does not require a minimum input183

voltage threshold so voltage can be increased without using initial boost It also effectively184

alleviated voltage reversal problem with negligible energy losses in the circuit However185

external energy supplied to control relay switches was not considered in the energy calculation186

Another study used the same array to harvest energy from multiple MFCs and power an MEC187

and it was found that energy recovery improved from 9 to 13 and H 2 production rate188

doubled from 031 to 072 m3m

3day

38 A similar study used three capacitors separately charged189

by three MFCs and then linked them in series to power an electrochemical deposition system190

(ECD) which obtained a sulfur recovery efficiency up to 465plusmn1539

191

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capacitor30

The MFC equipped with the capacitive bioanode produced a peak current density up195

to 17 Am2

which almost doubled the output of a control non-capacitive anode (09 Am2

)196

Future studies are needed to investigate the longevity of the capacitive electrodes197

198

22 Charge pump-based systems199

Charge pumps are low cost devices with simple circuit topologies In general a charge200

pump is an inductor-less DCDC converter that uses capacitors to store and transfer energy in201

order to generate either higher or lower voltages The capacitors in the charge pump circuit are202

first charged by the power source and then connected in different combinations to generate203

various voltages for different applications The S-882Z series charge pump from Seiko204

Instruments has been widely used in BES studies and it requires a minimum input voltage of 03205

V in order to generate a discharge voltage of 18-24 V (Figure 2A) The charge pump consumes206

a minimum 01-05 mA current during operation when the input voltage is 03-06 V which may207

limit its charging speed when the current is low and leads to long chargingdischarging cycles208

and low energy harvesting efficiency20 40

For example using a 316 mL air-cathode MFC as the209

power source it took 22 h for the charge pump-based circuit to output a voltage of 33 V during210

the start-up phase but a transformer-based circuit only took 25 h to output the same voltage21

211

suggesting that the energy extraction rate of the charge pump was much slower compared to the212

transformer Similar performance was observed by Wang et al who found that due to charge213

pumprsquos input current limitation its operating point was maintained at the low current region of214

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Forrestal et al found the Coulombic efficiency was only 094 indicating that the charge pump217

is not sufficient for energy harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2)

41

218

Therefore charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage MFC sources and be used for219

intermittent energy harvesting when low charging rate is acceptable such as for remote sensors220

The performance of the charge pump can be greatly improved when input current increases221

Furthermore charge pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to automatically222

control onoff and prevent reverse current flows42 43

S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the223

most commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES studies and because its224

maximum output voltage 24 V sometimes it is not sufficient to power common electronic225

devices To further increase the output voltage another layer of power converter may be placed226

after the charge pump for voltage boost227

228

23 Boost converter-based systems229

A DCDC converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC) power from one230

voltage level to another level so an unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output231

The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter) stepped up (boost converter) or232

inverted Boost converters are widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A) and the circuit of a233

boost converter includes both semiconductors such as diodes and transistors and energy storage234

components such as capacitors and inductors with a more complex structure than that in the235

charge pump While the commonly used charge pump can step up the voltage from 03 V to 18-236

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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239

voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V

21 43 45

240

Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241

voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242

STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243

MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244

very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245

TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246

output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247

MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248

decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249

system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250

MDCs (UMDCs)46

Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251

must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252

higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253

changes in environmental conditions254

To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255

capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256

converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257

components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258

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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262

consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263

biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264

the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265

source for a wireless sensor19

A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266

charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267

voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47

This method was used to268

develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269

of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270

in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271

continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272

and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273

boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49

274

The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275

voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276

is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277

Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278

worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20

279

Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280

boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50

As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281

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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284

(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)

21

285

To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286

boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287

been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47

BMFCs utilize naturally288

occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289

and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54

One challenge of BMFCs290

is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291

in the natural water body55 56

This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292

the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293

intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45

The intermittent294

energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295

such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296

efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297

BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298

possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42

A multi-anode299

decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300

interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43

301

302

24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303

ggy

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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307

such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308

magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309

diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310

effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311

a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312

such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313

harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58

314

During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315

energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316

second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317

the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318

transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60

Adami et al developed a flyback319

converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320

obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321

commercial boost converters61

322

An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323

constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324

concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325

to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326

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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330

exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency

63

Moreover the control of MPPT can be331

applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332

reversal64

However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333

the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334

time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335

energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336

peak level in real-time12

Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337

a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65

338

Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339

control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340

MFC operation40

This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341

maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342

resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343

receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344

any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345

this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346

charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347

improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348

60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349

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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353

play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354

cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355

the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356

combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66

357

358

3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359

The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360

development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361

energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362

have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363

clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364

reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365

frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366

activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367

368

1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369

that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370

voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371

process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372

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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377

consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378

harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379

collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380

performance ICs for MFCs16 67

or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68

381

382

2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383

which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384

circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385

when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386

alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387

can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388

harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389

generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390

or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391

carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392

for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393

operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394

and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395

systems which require either a small jump start57

or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70

for self-396

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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400

consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401

up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402

implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403

404

3

More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405

to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406

capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407

capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408

electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26

409

It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410

capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411

boost circuit design57

In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412

efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413

983101

983255 98308900 (2)414

983101

983255 98308900 (3)415

where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416

step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417

the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418

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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423

that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424

is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425

426

4

The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427

current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428

devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73

429

Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430

since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431

bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432

higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433

power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434

because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435

nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436

chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437

relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438

activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439

condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440

MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441

efficiency23

One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442

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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446

controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447

avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448

the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449

450

5

While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451

harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452

charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453

receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454

electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455

microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456

results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457

community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458

selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459

efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460

electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461

from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462

transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463

more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464

interesting topic to investigate465

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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468

under Award N000141310901469

470

REFERENCES471

1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472

983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983089983091983084 31 (8) 17969830851807473

2 H983137983154983150983145983155983139983144 F 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 F983154983151983149 MFC 983156983151 M983128C 983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983148983151983143983145983139983137983148 983139983137983156983144983151983140983141983155 983137983150983140 983156983144983141983145983154474 983152983151983156983141983150983156983145983137983148 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983107983144983141983149 983123983151983139 983122983141983158 983090983088983089983088983084 39 (11) 44339830854448475

3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476

983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16659830851671477

4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478

B983157983145983155983149983137983150 C J 983118 983118983141983159 983137983152983152983148983145983139983137983156983145983151983150983155 983137983150983140 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983151983142 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148 983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148479

983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16739830851685480

5 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 B983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983149983141983156983137983148 983154983141983139983151983158983141983154983161 983142983154983151983149 983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 A 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983127983137983156983141983154 983122983141983155481

983090983088983089983092 66 219983085232482 6 D983157 983130 L983145 H G983157 983124 A 983155983156983137983156983141 983151983142 983156983144983141 983137983154983156 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 A 983152983154983151983149983145983155983145983150983143 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983142983151983154483

983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 983156983154983141983137983156983149983141983150983156 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983141983150983141983154983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983088983095983084 25 (5) 464983085482484

7 L983151983143983137983150 B E H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 B 983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 K983141983148983148983141983154 J F983154983141983143983157983145983137 983123 A983141983148983156983141983154983149983137983150 983120485

983126983141983154983155983156983154983137983141983156983141 983127 983122983137983138983137983141983161 K M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983149983141983156983144983151983140983151983148983151983143983161 983137983150983140 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148486

983090983088983088983094983084 40 (17) 51819830855192487

8 983122983141983150 983130 983129983137983150 H 983127983137983150983143 983127 M983141983150983139983144 M M 983122983141983143983137983150 J M C983144983137983154983137983156983141983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983156488

983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148983148983161 983137983150983140 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148983148983161 983149983141983137983150983145983150983143983142983157983148 983156983145983149983141 983155983139983137983148983141983155 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983089983084 45 (6) 2435983085489

2441490 9 L983161983151983150 D 983129 B983157983154983141983156 F 983126983151983143983141983148 983124 M M983151983150983145983141983154 J983085M I983155 983154983141983155983145983155983156983137983150983139983141 983142983157983156983145983148983141 C983144983137983150983143983145983150983143 983141983160983156983141983154983150983137983148491

983154983141983155983145983155983156983137983150983139983141 983140983151983141983155 983150983151983156 983145983149983152983154983151983158983141 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983106983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983155983156983154983161 983090983088983089983088983084 78 (1) 29830857492

10 983127983137983156983155983151983150 983126 J L983151983143983137983150 B E A983150983137983148983161983155983145983155 983151983142 983152983151983148983137983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983149983141983156983144983151983140983155 983142983151983154 983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983152983151983159983141983154 983151983158983141983154983155983144983151983151983156493

983145983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983109983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149 983107983151983149983149983157983150 983090983088983089983089983084 13 (1) 5498308556494

11 D983141983143983154983141983150983150983141 983118 B983157983154983141983156 F A983148983148983137983154983140 B B983141983158983145983148983137983139983153983157983137 983120 E983148983141983139983156983154983145983139983137983148 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983143983141983150983141983154983137983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983137 983148983137983154983143983141495

983150983157983149983138983141983154 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983151983152983141983154983137983156983145983150983143 983137983156 983149983137983160983145983149983157983149 983152983151983159983141983154 983152983151983145983150983156 983141983148983141983139983156983154983145983139983137983148 983148983151983137983140 983114 983120983151983159983141983154 983123983151983157983154983139983141983155 983090983088983089983090983084 496

205 188983085193497

12 983120983137983154983147 J983085D 983122983141983150 983130 H983161983155983156983141983154983141983155983145983155 983139983151983150983156983154983151983148983148983141983154 983138983137983155983141983140 983149983137983160983145983149983157983149 983152983151983159983141983154 983152983151983145983150983156 983156983154983137983139983147983145983150983143 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983144983137983154983158983141983155983156983145983150983143498 983155983161983155983156983141983149 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983114 983120983151983159983141983154 983123983151983157983154983139983141983155 983090983088983089983090983084 205 (9) 151983085156499

13 L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983148983148 D C983144983141983150983143 983123 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127500

983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 A M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983148983161983155983145983155 983139983141983148983148983155 983142983151983154 983144983145983143983144 983161983145983141983148983140 983144983161983140983154983151983143983141983150 983143983137983155 983152983154983151983140983157983139983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983151983154983143983137983150983145983139 983149983137983156983156983141983154501

983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983088983096983084 42 (23) 86309830858640502

14 J983137983139983151983138983155983151983150 K 983123 D983154983141983159 D M H983141 983130 983125983155983141 983151983142 983137 983148983145983156983141983154983085983155983139983137983148983141 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983140983141983155983137983148983145983150983137983156983145983151983150 983139983141983148983148 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149503

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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651

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663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

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Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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index for necessary information needed for PMS components and functions and in the following127

sections we elaborate on each specific energy-harvesting regime for MFCs128

129

21 Capacitor-based systems130

A capacitor is composed of two conductive terminals separated by a dielectric material131

and energy is stored in the electrostatic field When a capacitor is directly connected to an MFC132

it is charged by the reactor and acts like a variable resistor because the charging current changes133

as the capacitor voltage varies26 27

The required time for a full charge is determined by the134

charging potential and capacitance27

The amount of energy 983127 (J) stored in a capacitor when the135

capacitor is charged from 983126 (V) to (V) can be calculated by136

983101

(

minus ) (1) 137

where 983126 and 983126 are the voltage across the capacitor at the beginning and end of charging138

respectively and (F) is the capacitance139

In energy harvesting systems capacitors are widely used as either final energy storage140

before utilization or transitional energy storage during energy extraction Different arrangements141

of multiple capacitors in the circuit can manipulate outputs of current voltage and power from142

MFCs To date five chargingdischarging techniques have been reported direct charging143

intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC)) alternate charging and144

discharging (ACD) charging capacitors in parallel while discharging in series and charging145

capacitive electrodes (Figure 2A and Table 2)17 27-30

146

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P 9 f 33 E i t l S i amp T h l

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reduced capacitor charging time in half and increased current generation by 35 when172

comparing with MFC stack with serial connections37

173

In the ACD mode an MFC charges capacitors first for energy collection and then the174

charged capacitors discharge the energy back to the system for MEC operation Liang et al 175

showed that the ACD mode could increase the current by 22-32 compared to the IC mode176

which was attributed to the shorter discharging time than the charging time as well as the higher177

anode potential caused by discharging the capacitor29

However power densities in the ACD178

mode were lower than those in the IC mode179

The voltage output can be increased when charging an array of capacitors connected in180

parallel and then discharging them in series By using two groups of capacitors with alternative181

charging and discharging sequence Kim et al found the output voltage was constantly enhanced182

from 07 V to as high as 25 V17

Moreover this approach does not require a minimum input183

voltage threshold so voltage can be increased without using initial boost It also effectively184

alleviated voltage reversal problem with negligible energy losses in the circuit However185

external energy supplied to control relay switches was not considered in the energy calculation186

Another study used the same array to harvest energy from multiple MFCs and power an MEC187

and it was found that energy recovery improved from 9 to 13 and H 2 production rate188

doubled from 031 to 072 m3m

3day

38 A similar study used three capacitors separately charged189

by three MFCs and then linked them in series to power an electrochemical deposition system190

(ECD) which obtained a sulfur recovery efficiency up to 465plusmn1539

191

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capacitor30

The MFC equipped with the capacitive bioanode produced a peak current density up195

to 17 Am2

which almost doubled the output of a control non-capacitive anode (09 Am2

)196

Future studies are needed to investigate the longevity of the capacitive electrodes197

198

22 Charge pump-based systems199

Charge pumps are low cost devices with simple circuit topologies In general a charge200

pump is an inductor-less DCDC converter that uses capacitors to store and transfer energy in201

order to generate either higher or lower voltages The capacitors in the charge pump circuit are202

first charged by the power source and then connected in different combinations to generate203

various voltages for different applications The S-882Z series charge pump from Seiko204

Instruments has been widely used in BES studies and it requires a minimum input voltage of 03205

V in order to generate a discharge voltage of 18-24 V (Figure 2A) The charge pump consumes206

a minimum 01-05 mA current during operation when the input voltage is 03-06 V which may207

limit its charging speed when the current is low and leads to long chargingdischarging cycles208

and low energy harvesting efficiency20 40

For example using a 316 mL air-cathode MFC as the209

power source it took 22 h for the charge pump-based circuit to output a voltage of 33 V during210

the start-up phase but a transformer-based circuit only took 25 h to output the same voltage21

211

suggesting that the energy extraction rate of the charge pump was much slower compared to the212

transformer Similar performance was observed by Wang et al who found that due to charge213

pumprsquos input current limitation its operating point was maintained at the low current region of214

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Forrestal et al found the Coulombic efficiency was only 094 indicating that the charge pump217

is not sufficient for energy harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2)

41

218

Therefore charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage MFC sources and be used for219

intermittent energy harvesting when low charging rate is acceptable such as for remote sensors220

The performance of the charge pump can be greatly improved when input current increases221

Furthermore charge pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to automatically222

control onoff and prevent reverse current flows42 43

S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the223

most commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES studies and because its224

maximum output voltage 24 V sometimes it is not sufficient to power common electronic225

devices To further increase the output voltage another layer of power converter may be placed226

after the charge pump for voltage boost227

228

23 Boost converter-based systems229

A DCDC converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC) power from one230

voltage level to another level so an unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output231

The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter) stepped up (boost converter) or232

inverted Boost converters are widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A) and the circuit of a233

boost converter includes both semiconductors such as diodes and transistors and energy storage234

components such as capacitors and inductors with a more complex structure than that in the235

charge pump While the commonly used charge pump can step up the voltage from 03 V to 18-236

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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239

voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V

21 43 45

240

Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241

voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242

STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243

MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244

very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245

TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246

output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247

MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248

decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249

system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250

MDCs (UMDCs)46

Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251

must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252

higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253

changes in environmental conditions254

To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255

capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256

converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257

components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258

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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262

consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263

biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264

the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265

source for a wireless sensor19

A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266

charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267

voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47

This method was used to268

develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269

of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270

in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271

continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272

and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273

boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49

274

The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275

voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276

is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277

Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278

worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20

279

Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280

boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50

As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281

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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284

(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)

21

285

To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286

boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287

been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47

BMFCs utilize naturally288

occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289

and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54

One challenge of BMFCs290

is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291

in the natural water body55 56

This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292

the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293

intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45

The intermittent294

energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295

such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296

efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297

BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298

possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42

A multi-anode299

decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300

interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43

301

302

24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303

ggy

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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307

such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308

magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309

diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310

effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311

a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312

such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313

harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58

314

During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315

energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316

second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317

the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318

transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60

Adami et al developed a flyback319

converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320

obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321

commercial boost converters61

322

An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323

constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324

concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325

to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326

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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330

exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency

63

Moreover the control of MPPT can be331

applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332

reversal64

However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333

the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334

time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335

energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336

peak level in real-time12

Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337

a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65

338

Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339

control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340

MFC operation40

This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341

maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342

resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343

receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344

any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345

this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346

charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347

improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348

60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349

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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353

play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354

cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355

the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356

combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66

357

358

3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359

The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360

development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361

energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362

have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363

clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364

reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365

frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366

activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367

368

1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369

that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370

voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371

process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372

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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377

consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378

harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379

collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380

performance ICs for MFCs16 67

or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68

381

382

2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383

which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384

circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385

when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386

alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387

can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388

harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389

generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390

or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391

carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392

for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393

operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394

and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395

systems which require either a small jump start57

or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70

for self-396

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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400

consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401

up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402

implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403

404

3

More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405

to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406

capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407

capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408

electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26

409

It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410

capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411

boost circuit design57

In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412

efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413

983101

983255 98308900 (2)414

983101

983255 98308900 (3)415

where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416

step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417

the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418

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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423

that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424

is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425

426

4

The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427

current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428

devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73

429

Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430

since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431

bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432

higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433

power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434

because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435

nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436

chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437

relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438

activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439

condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440

MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441

efficiency23

One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442

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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446

controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447

avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448

the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449

450

5

While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451

harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452

charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453

receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454

electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455

microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456

results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457

community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458

selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459

efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460

electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461

from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462

transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463

more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464

interesting topic to investigate465

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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468

under Award N000141310901469

470

REFERENCES471

1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472

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2 H983137983154983150983145983155983139983144 F 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 F983154983151983149 MFC 983156983151 M983128C 983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983148983151983143983145983139983137983148 983139983137983156983144983151983140983141983155 983137983150983140 983156983144983141983145983154474 983152983151983156983141983150983156983145983137983148 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983107983144983141983149 983123983151983139 983122983141983158 983090983088983089983088983084 39 (11) 44339830854448475

3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476

983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16659830851671477

4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478

B983157983145983155983149983137983150 C J 983118 983118983141983159 983137983152983152983148983145983139983137983156983145983151983150983155 983137983150983140 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983151983142 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148 983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148479

983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16739830851685480

5 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 B983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983149983141983156983137983148 983154983141983139983151983158983141983154983161 983142983154983151983149 983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 A 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983127983137983156983141983154 983122983141983155481

983090983088983089983092 66 219983085232482 6 D983157 983130 L983145 H G983157 983124 A 983155983156983137983156983141 983151983142 983156983144983141 983137983154983156 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 A 983152983154983151983149983145983155983145983150983143 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983142983151983154483

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79 A983150983140983141983154983155983151983150 I A I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983139K983137983161 983124 983119991257B983154983145983141983150 B M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C I983150 983105 983144983161983138983154983145983140 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983140983145983141983148983141983139983156983154983145983139660

983141983148983137983155983156983151983149983141983154 983143983141983150983141983154983137983156983151983154 983142983151983154 983137983157983156983151983150983151983149983151983157983155 983154983151983138983151983156983155 983120983154983151983139 983151983142 983123983120IE 983123983137983150 D983145983141983143983151 C983137983148983145983142983151983154983150983145983137 983125983123A 2010 B983137983154983085C983151983144983141983150661

983129 E983140 983123983137983150 D983145983141983143983151 C983137983148983145983142983151983154983150983145983137 983125983123A 2010 983152983152 764219831299830851662

663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

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30

Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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31

Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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P 9 f 33 E i t l S i amp T h l

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reduced capacitor charging time in half and increased current generation by 35 when172

comparing with MFC stack with serial connections37

173

In the ACD mode an MFC charges capacitors first for energy collection and then the174

charged capacitors discharge the energy back to the system for MEC operation Liang et al 175

showed that the ACD mode could increase the current by 22-32 compared to the IC mode176

which was attributed to the shorter discharging time than the charging time as well as the higher177

anode potential caused by discharging the capacitor29

However power densities in the ACD178

mode were lower than those in the IC mode179

The voltage output can be increased when charging an array of capacitors connected in180

parallel and then discharging them in series By using two groups of capacitors with alternative181

charging and discharging sequence Kim et al found the output voltage was constantly enhanced182

from 07 V to as high as 25 V17

Moreover this approach does not require a minimum input183

voltage threshold so voltage can be increased without using initial boost It also effectively184

alleviated voltage reversal problem with negligible energy losses in the circuit However185

external energy supplied to control relay switches was not considered in the energy calculation186

Another study used the same array to harvest energy from multiple MFCs and power an MEC187

and it was found that energy recovery improved from 9 to 13 and H 2 production rate188

doubled from 031 to 072 m3m

3day

38 A similar study used three capacitors separately charged189

by three MFCs and then linked them in series to power an electrochemical deposition system190

(ECD) which obtained a sulfur recovery efficiency up to 465plusmn1539

191

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capacitor30

The MFC equipped with the capacitive bioanode produced a peak current density up195

to 17 Am2

which almost doubled the output of a control non-capacitive anode (09 Am2

)196

Future studies are needed to investigate the longevity of the capacitive electrodes197

198

22 Charge pump-based systems199

Charge pumps are low cost devices with simple circuit topologies In general a charge200

pump is an inductor-less DCDC converter that uses capacitors to store and transfer energy in201

order to generate either higher or lower voltages The capacitors in the charge pump circuit are202

first charged by the power source and then connected in different combinations to generate203

various voltages for different applications The S-882Z series charge pump from Seiko204

Instruments has been widely used in BES studies and it requires a minimum input voltage of 03205

V in order to generate a discharge voltage of 18-24 V (Figure 2A) The charge pump consumes206

a minimum 01-05 mA current during operation when the input voltage is 03-06 V which may207

limit its charging speed when the current is low and leads to long chargingdischarging cycles208

and low energy harvesting efficiency20 40

For example using a 316 mL air-cathode MFC as the209

power source it took 22 h for the charge pump-based circuit to output a voltage of 33 V during210

the start-up phase but a transformer-based circuit only took 25 h to output the same voltage21

211

suggesting that the energy extraction rate of the charge pump was much slower compared to the212

transformer Similar performance was observed by Wang et al who found that due to charge213

pumprsquos input current limitation its operating point was maintained at the low current region of214

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Forrestal et al found the Coulombic efficiency was only 094 indicating that the charge pump217

is not sufficient for energy harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2)

41

218

Therefore charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage MFC sources and be used for219

intermittent energy harvesting when low charging rate is acceptable such as for remote sensors220

The performance of the charge pump can be greatly improved when input current increases221

Furthermore charge pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to automatically222

control onoff and prevent reverse current flows42 43

S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the223

most commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES studies and because its224

maximum output voltage 24 V sometimes it is not sufficient to power common electronic225

devices To further increase the output voltage another layer of power converter may be placed226

after the charge pump for voltage boost227

228

23 Boost converter-based systems229

A DCDC converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC) power from one230

voltage level to another level so an unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output231

The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter) stepped up (boost converter) or232

inverted Boost converters are widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A) and the circuit of a233

boost converter includes both semiconductors such as diodes and transistors and energy storage234

components such as capacitors and inductors with a more complex structure than that in the235

charge pump While the commonly used charge pump can step up the voltage from 03 V to 18-236

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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239

voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V

21 43 45

240

Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241

voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242

STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243

MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244

very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245

TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246

output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247

MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248

decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249

system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250

MDCs (UMDCs)46

Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251

must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252

higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253

changes in environmental conditions254

To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255

capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256

converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257

components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258

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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262

consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263

biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264

the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265

source for a wireless sensor19

A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266

charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267

voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47

This method was used to268

develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269

of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270

in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271

continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272

and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273

boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49

274

The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275

voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276

is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277

Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278

worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20

279

Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280

boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50

As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281

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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284

(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)

21

285

To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286

boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287

been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47

BMFCs utilize naturally288

occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289

and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54

One challenge of BMFCs290

is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291

in the natural water body55 56

This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292

the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293

intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45

The intermittent294

energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295

such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296

efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297

BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298

possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42

A multi-anode299

decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300

interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43

301

302

24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303

ggy

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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307

such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308

magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309

diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310

effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311

a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312

such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313

harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58

314

During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315

energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316

second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317

the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318

transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60

Adami et al developed a flyback319

converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320

obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321

commercial boost converters61

322

An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323

constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324

concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325

to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326

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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330

exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency

63

Moreover the control of MPPT can be331

applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332

reversal64

However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333

the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334

time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335

energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336

peak level in real-time12

Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337

a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65

338

Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339

control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340

MFC operation40

This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341

maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342

resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343

receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344

any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345

this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346

charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347

improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348

60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349

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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353

play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354

cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355

the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356

combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66

357

358

3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359

The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360

development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361

energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362

have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363

clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364

reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365

frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366

activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367

368

1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369

that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370

voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371

process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372

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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377

consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378

harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379

collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380

performance ICs for MFCs16 67

or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68

381

382

2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383

which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384

circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385

when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386

alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387

can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388

harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389

generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390

or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391

carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392

for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393

operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394

and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395

systems which require either a small jump start57

or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70

for self-396

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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400

consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401

up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402

implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403

404

3

More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405

to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406

capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407

capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408

electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26

409

It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410

capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411

boost circuit design57

In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412

efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413

983101

983255 98308900 (2)414

983101

983255 98308900 (3)415

where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416

step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417

the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418

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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423

that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424

is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425

426

4

The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427

current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428

devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73

429

Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430

since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431

bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432

higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433

power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434

because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435

nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436

chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437

relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438

activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439

condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440

MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441

efficiency23

One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442

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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446

controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447

avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448

the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449

450

5

While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451

harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452

charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453

receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454

electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455

microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456

results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457

community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458

selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459

efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460

electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461

from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462

transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463

more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464

interesting topic to investigate465

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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468

under Award N000141310901469

470

REFERENCES471

1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472

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3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476

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983090983088983088983094983084 40 (17) 51819830855192487

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13 L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983148983148 D C983144983141983150983143 983123 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127500

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17 K983145983149 983129 H983137983156983162983141983148983148 M C H983157983156983139983144983145983150983155983151983150 A J L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983152983156983157983154983145983150983143 983152983151983159983141983154 983137983156 983144983145983143983144983141983154 983158983151983148983156983137983143983141983155 983142983154983151983149511

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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651

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663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

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30

Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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31

Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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reduced capacitor charging time in half and increased current generation by 35 when172

comparing with MFC stack with serial connections37

173

In the ACD mode an MFC charges capacitors first for energy collection and then the174

charged capacitors discharge the energy back to the system for MEC operation Liang et al 175

showed that the ACD mode could increase the current by 22-32 compared to the IC mode176

which was attributed to the shorter discharging time than the charging time as well as the higher177

anode potential caused by discharging the capacitor29

However power densities in the ACD178

mode were lower than those in the IC mode179

The voltage output can be increased when charging an array of capacitors connected in180

parallel and then discharging them in series By using two groups of capacitors with alternative181

charging and discharging sequence Kim et al found the output voltage was constantly enhanced182

from 07 V to as high as 25 V17

Moreover this approach does not require a minimum input183

voltage threshold so voltage can be increased without using initial boost It also effectively184

alleviated voltage reversal problem with negligible energy losses in the circuit However185

external energy supplied to control relay switches was not considered in the energy calculation186

Another study used the same array to harvest energy from multiple MFCs and power an MEC187

and it was found that energy recovery improved from 9 to 13 and H 2 production rate188

doubled from 031 to 072 m3m

3day

38 A similar study used three capacitors separately charged189

by three MFCs and then linked them in series to power an electrochemical deposition system190

(ECD) which obtained a sulfur recovery efficiency up to 465plusmn1539

191

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capacitor30

The MFC equipped with the capacitive bioanode produced a peak current density up195

to 17 Am2

which almost doubled the output of a control non-capacitive anode (09 Am2

)196

Future studies are needed to investigate the longevity of the capacitive electrodes197

198

22 Charge pump-based systems199

Charge pumps are low cost devices with simple circuit topologies In general a charge200

pump is an inductor-less DCDC converter that uses capacitors to store and transfer energy in201

order to generate either higher or lower voltages The capacitors in the charge pump circuit are202

first charged by the power source and then connected in different combinations to generate203

various voltages for different applications The S-882Z series charge pump from Seiko204

Instruments has been widely used in BES studies and it requires a minimum input voltage of 03205

V in order to generate a discharge voltage of 18-24 V (Figure 2A) The charge pump consumes206

a minimum 01-05 mA current during operation when the input voltage is 03-06 V which may207

limit its charging speed when the current is low and leads to long chargingdischarging cycles208

and low energy harvesting efficiency20 40

For example using a 316 mL air-cathode MFC as the209

power source it took 22 h for the charge pump-based circuit to output a voltage of 33 V during210

the start-up phase but a transformer-based circuit only took 25 h to output the same voltage21

211

suggesting that the energy extraction rate of the charge pump was much slower compared to the212

transformer Similar performance was observed by Wang et al who found that due to charge213

pumprsquos input current limitation its operating point was maintained at the low current region of214

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Forrestal et al found the Coulombic efficiency was only 094 indicating that the charge pump217

is not sufficient for energy harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2)

41

218

Therefore charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage MFC sources and be used for219

intermittent energy harvesting when low charging rate is acceptable such as for remote sensors220

The performance of the charge pump can be greatly improved when input current increases221

Furthermore charge pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to automatically222

control onoff and prevent reverse current flows42 43

S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the223

most commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES studies and because its224

maximum output voltage 24 V sometimes it is not sufficient to power common electronic225

devices To further increase the output voltage another layer of power converter may be placed226

after the charge pump for voltage boost227

228

23 Boost converter-based systems229

A DCDC converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC) power from one230

voltage level to another level so an unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output231

The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter) stepped up (boost converter) or232

inverted Boost converters are widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A) and the circuit of a233

boost converter includes both semiconductors such as diodes and transistors and energy storage234

components such as capacitors and inductors with a more complex structure than that in the235

charge pump While the commonly used charge pump can step up the voltage from 03 V to 18-236

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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239

voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V

21 43 45

240

Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241

voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242

STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243

MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244

very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245

TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246

output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247

MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248

decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249

system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250

MDCs (UMDCs)46

Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251

must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252

higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253

changes in environmental conditions254

To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255

capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256

converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257

components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258

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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262

consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263

biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264

the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265

source for a wireless sensor19

A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266

charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267

voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47

This method was used to268

develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269

of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270

in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271

continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272

and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273

boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49

274

The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275

voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276

is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277

Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278

worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20

279

Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280

boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50

As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281

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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284

(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)

21

285

To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286

boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287

been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47

BMFCs utilize naturally288

occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289

and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54

One challenge of BMFCs290

is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291

in the natural water body55 56

This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292

the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293

intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45

The intermittent294

energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295

such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296

efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297

BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298

possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42

A multi-anode299

decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300

interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43

301

302

24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303

ggy

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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307

such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308

magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309

diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310

effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311

a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312

such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313

harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58

314

During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315

energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316

second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317

the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318

transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60

Adami et al developed a flyback319

converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320

obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321

commercial boost converters61

322

An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323

constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324

concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325

to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326

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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330

exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency

63

Moreover the control of MPPT can be331

applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332

reversal64

However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333

the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334

time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335

energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336

peak level in real-time12

Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337

a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65

338

Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339

control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340

MFC operation40

This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341

maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342

resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343

receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344

any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345

this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346

charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347

improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348

60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349

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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353

play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354

cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355

the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356

combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66

357

358

3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359

The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360

development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361

energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362

have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363

clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364

reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365

frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366

activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367

368

1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369

that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370

voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371

process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372

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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377

consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378

harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379

collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380

performance ICs for MFCs16 67

or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68

381

382

2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383

which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384

circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385

when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386

alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387

can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388

harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389

generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390

or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391

carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392

for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393

operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394

and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395

systems which require either a small jump start57

or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70

for self-396

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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400

consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401

up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402

implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403

404

3

More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405

to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406

capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407

capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408

electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26

409

It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410

capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411

boost circuit design57

In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412

efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413

983101

983255 98308900 (2)414

983101

983255 98308900 (3)415

where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416

step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417

the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418

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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423

that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424

is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425

426

4

The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427

current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428

devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73

429

Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430

since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431

bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432

higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433

power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434

because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435

nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436

chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437

relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438

activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439

condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440

MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441

efficiency23

One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442

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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446

controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447

avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448

the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449

450

5

While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451

harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452

charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453

receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454

electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455

microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456

results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457

community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458

selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459

efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460

electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461

from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462

transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463

more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464

interesting topic to investigate465

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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468

under Award N000141310901469

470

REFERENCES471

1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472

983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983089983091983084 31 (8) 17969830851807473

2 H983137983154983150983145983155983139983144 F 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 F983154983151983149 MFC 983156983151 M983128C 983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983148983151983143983145983139983137983148 983139983137983156983144983151983140983141983155 983137983150983140 983156983144983141983145983154474 983152983151983156983141983150983156983145983137983148 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983107983144983141983149 983123983151983139 983122983141983158 983090983088983089983088983084 39 (11) 44339830854448475

3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476

983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16659830851671477

4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478

B983157983145983155983149983137983150 C J 983118 983118983141983159 983137983152983152983148983145983139983137983156983145983151983150983155 983137983150983140 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983151983142 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148 983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148479

983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16739830851685480

5 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 B983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983149983141983156983137983148 983154983141983139983151983158983141983154983161 983142983154983151983149 983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 A 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983127983137983156983141983154 983122983141983155481

983090983088983089983092 66 219983085232482 6 D983157 983130 L983145 H G983157 983124 A 983155983156983137983156983141 983151983142 983156983144983141 983137983154983156 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 A 983152983154983151983149983145983155983145983150983143 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983142983151983154483

983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 983156983154983141983137983156983149983141983150983156 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983141983150983141983154983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983088983095983084 25 (5) 464983085482484

7 L983151983143983137983150 B E H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 B 983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 K983141983148983148983141983154 J F983154983141983143983157983145983137 983123 A983141983148983156983141983154983149983137983150 983120485

983126983141983154983155983156983154983137983141983156983141 983127 983122983137983138983137983141983161 K M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983149983141983156983144983151983140983151983148983151983143983161 983137983150983140 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148486

983090983088983088983094983084 40 (17) 51819830855192487

8 983122983141983150 983130 983129983137983150 H 983127983137983150983143 983127 M983141983150983139983144 M M 983122983141983143983137983150 J M C983144983137983154983137983156983141983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983156488

983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148983148983161 983137983150983140 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148983148983161 983149983141983137983150983145983150983143983142983157983148 983156983145983149983141 983155983139983137983148983141983155 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983089983084 45 (6) 2435983085489

2441490 9 L983161983151983150 D 983129 B983157983154983141983156 F 983126983151983143983141983148 983124 M M983151983150983145983141983154 J983085M I983155 983154983141983155983145983155983156983137983150983139983141 983142983157983156983145983148983141 C983144983137983150983143983145983150983143 983141983160983156983141983154983150983137983148491

983154983141983155983145983155983156983137983150983139983141 983140983151983141983155 983150983151983156 983145983149983152983154983151983158983141 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983106983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983155983156983154983161 983090983088983089983088983084 78 (1) 29830857492

10 983127983137983156983155983151983150 983126 J L983151983143983137983150 B E A983150983137983148983161983155983145983155 983151983142 983152983151983148983137983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983149983141983156983144983151983140983155 983142983151983154 983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983152983151983159983141983154 983151983158983141983154983155983144983151983151983156493

983145983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983109983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149 983107983151983149983149983157983150 983090983088983089983089983084 13 (1) 5498308556494

11 D983141983143983154983141983150983150983141 983118 B983157983154983141983156 F A983148983148983137983154983140 B B983141983158983145983148983137983139983153983157983137 983120 E983148983141983139983156983154983145983139983137983148 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983143983141983150983141983154983137983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983137 983148983137983154983143983141495

983150983157983149983138983141983154 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983151983152983141983154983137983156983145983150983143 983137983156 983149983137983160983145983149983157983149 983152983151983159983141983154 983152983151983145983150983156 983141983148983141983139983156983154983145983139983137983148 983148983151983137983140 983114 983120983151983159983141983154 983123983151983157983154983139983141983155 983090983088983089983090983084 496

205 188983085193497

12 983120983137983154983147 J983085D 983122983141983150 983130 H983161983155983156983141983154983141983155983145983155 983139983151983150983156983154983151983148983148983141983154 983138983137983155983141983140 983149983137983160983145983149983157983149 983152983151983159983141983154 983152983151983145983150983156 983156983154983137983139983147983145983150983143 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983144983137983154983158983141983155983156983145983150983143498 983155983161983155983156983141983149 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983114 983120983151983159983141983154 983123983151983157983154983139983141983155 983090983088983089983090983084 205 (9) 151983085156499

13 L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983148983148 D C983144983141983150983143 983123 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127500

983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 A M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983148983161983155983145983155 983139983141983148983148983155 983142983151983154 983144983145983143983144 983161983145983141983148983140 983144983161983140983154983151983143983141983150 983143983137983155 983152983154983151983140983157983139983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983151983154983143983137983150983145983139 983149983137983156983156983141983154501

983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983088983096983084 42 (23) 86309830858640502

14 J983137983139983151983138983155983151983150 K 983123 D983154983141983159 D M H983141 983130 983125983155983141 983151983142 983137 983148983145983156983141983154983085983155983139983137983148983141 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983140983141983155983137983148983145983150983137983156983145983151983150 983139983141983148983148 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149503

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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651

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663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

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Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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capacitor30

The MFC equipped with the capacitive bioanode produced a peak current density up195

to 17 Am2

which almost doubled the output of a control non-capacitive anode (09 Am2

)196

Future studies are needed to investigate the longevity of the capacitive electrodes197

198

22 Charge pump-based systems199

Charge pumps are low cost devices with simple circuit topologies In general a charge200

pump is an inductor-less DCDC converter that uses capacitors to store and transfer energy in201

order to generate either higher or lower voltages The capacitors in the charge pump circuit are202

first charged by the power source and then connected in different combinations to generate203

various voltages for different applications The S-882Z series charge pump from Seiko204

Instruments has been widely used in BES studies and it requires a minimum input voltage of 03205

V in order to generate a discharge voltage of 18-24 V (Figure 2A) The charge pump consumes206

a minimum 01-05 mA current during operation when the input voltage is 03-06 V which may207

limit its charging speed when the current is low and leads to long chargingdischarging cycles208

and low energy harvesting efficiency20 40

For example using a 316 mL air-cathode MFC as the209

power source it took 22 h for the charge pump-based circuit to output a voltage of 33 V during210

the start-up phase but a transformer-based circuit only took 25 h to output the same voltage21

211

suggesting that the energy extraction rate of the charge pump was much slower compared to the212

transformer Similar performance was observed by Wang et al who found that due to charge213

pumprsquos input current limitation its operating point was maintained at the low current region of214

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Forrestal et al found the Coulombic efficiency was only 094 indicating that the charge pump217

is not sufficient for energy harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2)

41

218

Therefore charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage MFC sources and be used for219

intermittent energy harvesting when low charging rate is acceptable such as for remote sensors220

The performance of the charge pump can be greatly improved when input current increases221

Furthermore charge pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to automatically222

control onoff and prevent reverse current flows42 43

S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the223

most commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES studies and because its224

maximum output voltage 24 V sometimes it is not sufficient to power common electronic225

devices To further increase the output voltage another layer of power converter may be placed226

after the charge pump for voltage boost227

228

23 Boost converter-based systems229

A DCDC converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC) power from one230

voltage level to another level so an unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output231

The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter) stepped up (boost converter) or232

inverted Boost converters are widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A) and the circuit of a233

boost converter includes both semiconductors such as diodes and transistors and energy storage234

components such as capacitors and inductors with a more complex structure than that in the235

charge pump While the commonly used charge pump can step up the voltage from 03 V to 18-236

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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239

voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V

21 43 45

240

Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241

voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242

STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243

MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244

very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245

TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246

output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247

MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248

decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249

system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250

MDCs (UMDCs)46

Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251

must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252

higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253

changes in environmental conditions254

To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255

capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256

converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257

components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258

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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262

consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263

biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264

the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265

source for a wireless sensor19

A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266

charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267

voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47

This method was used to268

develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269

of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270

in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271

continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272

and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273

boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49

274

The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275

voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276

is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277

Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278

worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20

279

Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280

boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50

As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281

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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284

(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)

21

285

To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286

boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287

been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47

BMFCs utilize naturally288

occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289

and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54

One challenge of BMFCs290

is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291

in the natural water body55 56

This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292

the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293

intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45

The intermittent294

energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295

such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296

efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297

BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298

possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42

A multi-anode299

decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300

interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43

301

302

24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303

ggy

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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307

such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308

magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309

diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310

effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311

a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312

such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313

harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58

314

During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315

energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316

second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317

the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318

transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60

Adami et al developed a flyback319

converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320

obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321

commercial boost converters61

322

An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323

constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324

concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325

to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326

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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330

exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency

63

Moreover the control of MPPT can be331

applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332

reversal64

However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333

the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334

time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335

energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336

peak level in real-time12

Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337

a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65

338

Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339

control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340

MFC operation40

This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341

maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342

resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343

receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344

any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345

this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346

charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347

improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348

60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349

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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353

play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354

cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355

the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356

combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66

357

358

3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359

The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360

development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361

energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362

have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363

clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364

reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365

frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366

activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367

368

1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369

that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370

voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371

process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372

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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377

consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378

harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379

collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380

performance ICs for MFCs16 67

or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68

381

382

2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383

which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384

circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385

when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386

alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387

can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388

harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389

generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390

or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391

carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392

for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393

operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394

and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395

systems which require either a small jump start57

or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70

for self-396

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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400

consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401

up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402

implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403

404

3

More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405

to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406

capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407

capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408

electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26

409

It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410

capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411

boost circuit design57

In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412

efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413

983101

983255 98308900 (2)414

983101

983255 98308900 (3)415

where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416

step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417

the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418

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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423

that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424

is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425

426

4

The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427

current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428

devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73

429

Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430

since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431

bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432

higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433

power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434

because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435

nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436

chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437

relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438

activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439

condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440

MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441

efficiency23

One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442

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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446

controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447

avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448

the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449

450

5

While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451

harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452

charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453

receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454

electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455

microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456

results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457

community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458

selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459

efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460

electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461

from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462

transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463

more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464

interesting topic to investigate465

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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468

under Award N000141310901469

470

REFERENCES471

1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472

983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983089983091983084 31 (8) 17969830851807473

2 H983137983154983150983145983155983139983144 F 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 F983154983151983149 MFC 983156983151 M983128C 983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983148983151983143983145983139983137983148 983139983137983156983144983151983140983141983155 983137983150983140 983156983144983141983145983154474 983152983151983156983141983150983156983145983137983148 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983107983144983141983149 983123983151983139 983122983141983158 983090983088983089983088983084 39 (11) 44339830854448475

3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476

983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16659830851671477

4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478

B983157983145983155983149983137983150 C J 983118 983118983141983159 983137983152983152983148983145983139983137983156983145983151983150983155 983137983150983140 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983151983142 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148 983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148479

983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16739830851685480

5 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 B983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983149983141983156983137983148 983154983141983139983151983158983141983154983161 983142983154983151983149 983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 A 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983127983137983156983141983154 983122983141983155481

983090983088983089983092 66 219983085232482 6 D983157 983130 L983145 H G983157 983124 A 983155983156983137983156983141 983151983142 983156983144983141 983137983154983156 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 A 983152983154983151983149983145983155983145983150983143 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983142983151983154483

983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 983156983154983141983137983156983149983141983150983156 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983141983150983141983154983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983088983095983084 25 (5) 464983085482484

7 L983151983143983137983150 B E H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 B 983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 K983141983148983148983141983154 J F983154983141983143983157983145983137 983123 A983141983148983156983141983154983149983137983150 983120485

983126983141983154983155983156983154983137983141983156983141 983127 983122983137983138983137983141983161 K M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983149983141983156983144983151983140983151983148983151983143983161 983137983150983140 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983109983150983158983145983154983151983150 983123983139983145 983124983141983139983144983150983151983148486

983090983088983088983094983084 40 (17) 51819830855192487

8 983122983141983150 983130 983129983137983150 H 983127983137983150983143 983127 M983141983150983139983144 M M 983122983141983143983137983150 J M C983144983137983154983137983156983141983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983156488

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663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

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30

Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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31

Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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Forrestal et al found the Coulombic efficiency was only 094 indicating that the charge pump217

is not sufficient for energy harvesting during desalination regeneration (Table 2)

41

218

Therefore charge pumps can accommodate low-voltage MFC sources and be used for219

intermittent energy harvesting when low charging rate is acceptable such as for remote sensors220

The performance of the charge pump can be greatly improved when input current increases221

Furthermore charge pumps can also be used as dynamic switches in the circuit to automatically222

control onoff and prevent reverse current flows42 43

S-882Z (Seiko Instruments) has been the223

most commonly used commercially available charge pump in BES studies and because its224

maximum output voltage 24 V sometimes it is not sufficient to power common electronic225

devices To further increase the output voltage another layer of power converter may be placed226

after the charge pump for voltage boost227

228

23 Boost converter-based systems229

A DCDC converter is an electric circuit to convert direct current (DC) power from one230

voltage level to another level so an unregulated DC input can be converted to a controlled output231

The input voltage can be stepped down (buck converter) stepped up (boost converter) or232

inverted Boost converters are widely used in MFC research (Figure 2A) and the circuit of a233

boost converter includes both semiconductors such as diodes and transistors and energy storage234

components such as capacitors and inductors with a more complex structure than that in the235

charge pump While the commonly used charge pump can step up the voltage from 03 V to 18-236

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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239

voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V

21 43 45

240

Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241

voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242

STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243

MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244

very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245

TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246

output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247

MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248

decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249

system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250

MDCs (UMDCs)46

Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251

must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252

higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253

changes in environmental conditions254

To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255

capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256

converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257

components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258

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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262

consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263

biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264

the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265

source for a wireless sensor19

A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266

charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267

voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47

This method was used to268

develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269

of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270

in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271

continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272

and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273

boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49

274

The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275

voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276

is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277

Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278

worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20

279

Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280

boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50

As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281

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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284

(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)

21

285

To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286

boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287

been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47

BMFCs utilize naturally288

occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289

and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54

One challenge of BMFCs290

is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291

in the natural water body55 56

This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292

the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293

intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45

The intermittent294

energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295

such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296

efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297

BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298

possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42

A multi-anode299

decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300

interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43

301

302

24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303

ggy

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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307

such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308

magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309

diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310

effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311

a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312

such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313

harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58

314

During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315

energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316

second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317

the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318

transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60

Adami et al developed a flyback319

converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320

obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321

commercial boost converters61

322

An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323

constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324

concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325

to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326

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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330

exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency

63

Moreover the control of MPPT can be331

applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332

reversal64

However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333

the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334

time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335

energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336

peak level in real-time12

Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337

a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65

338

Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339

control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340

MFC operation40

This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341

maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342

resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343

receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344

any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345

this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346

charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347

improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348

60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349

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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353

play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354

cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355

the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356

combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66

357

358

3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359

The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360

development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361

energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362

have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363

clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364

reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365

frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366

activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367

368

1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369

that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370

voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371

process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372

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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377

consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378

harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379

collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380

performance ICs for MFCs16 67

or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68

381

382

2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383

which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384

circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385

when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386

alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387

can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388

harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389

generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390

or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391

carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392

for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393

operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394

and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395

systems which require either a small jump start57

or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70

for self-396

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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400

consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401

up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402

implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403

404

3

More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405

to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406

capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407

capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408

electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26

409

It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410

capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411

boost circuit design57

In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412

efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413

983101

983255 98308900 (2)414

983101

983255 98308900 (3)415

where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416

step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417

the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418

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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423

that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424

is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425

426

4

The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427

current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428

devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73

429

Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430

since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431

bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432

higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433

power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434

because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435

nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436

chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437

relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438

activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439

condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440

MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441

efficiency23

One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442

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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446

controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447

avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448

the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449

450

5

While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451

harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452

charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453

receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454

electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455

microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456

results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457

community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458

selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459

efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460

electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461

from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462

transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463

more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464

interesting topic to investigate465

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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468

under Award N000141310901469

470

REFERENCES471

1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472

983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983089983091983084 31 (8) 17969830851807473

2 H983137983154983150983145983155983139983144 F 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 F983154983151983149 MFC 983156983151 M983128C 983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983148983151983143983145983139983137983148 983139983137983156983144983151983140983141983155 983137983150983140 983156983144983141983145983154474 983152983151983156983141983150983156983145983137983148 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983107983144983141983149 983123983151983139 983122983141983158 983090983088983089983088983084 39 (11) 44339830854448475

3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476

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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651

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663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

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30

Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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31

Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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several studies used a boost converter (L6920DB STMicroelectronics) to obtain an output239

voltage of 33 V with a minimum start up input voltage of 08 V

21 43 45

240

Most commercially available low input voltage boost converters require a minimum input241

voltage of 07 V (max1797evkit Maxim Semiconductor) or 08 V (L6920DB242

STMicroelectronics) which are practically beyond the voltage capability of a single air-cathode243

MFC or a parallel-linked MFC stack There are two off-the-shelf boost converters that require244

very low operating input voltages eg LTC3108 (002 V Linear Technologies) and245

TPS61200TPS61201 (03V Texas Instruments) but their low input voltages can also limit the246

output voltages making it hard to be used for real world applications Although the OCP of247

MFCs could be around 07-08V the output voltage of a single MFC or parallel-connected MFCs248

decrease rapidly during current extraction by the boost converter which is likely the reason of249

system failure when connecting a boost converter directly with three parallel-connected upflow250

MDCs (UMDCs)46

Hence the coordination between MFC outputs and electronic components251

must be carefully controlled to avoid system collapse Series-connected MFCs could provide a252

higher input voltage but it is at the risk of voltage reversal and performance is not stable due to253

changes in environmental conditions254

To bridge the gap between the MFCs and the boost converter electronic components like255

capacitorsrechargeable batteries transformers charge pumps etc are placed before boost256

converters to cumulate energy and jumpstart the converter Table 2 summarizes different adopted257

components in related studies Capacitorsrechargeable batteries are the most commonly used for258

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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262

consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263

biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264

the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265

source for a wireless sensor19

A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266

charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267

voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47

This method was used to268

develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269

of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270

in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271

continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272

and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273

boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49

274

The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275

voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276

is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277

Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278

worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20

279

Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280

boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50

As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281

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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284

(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)

21

285

To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286

boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287

been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47

BMFCs utilize naturally288

occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289

and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54

One challenge of BMFCs290

is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291

in the natural water body55 56

This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292

the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293

intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45

The intermittent294

energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295

such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296

efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297

BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298

possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42

A multi-anode299

decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300

interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43

301

302

24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303

ggy

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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307

such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308

magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309

diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310

effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311

a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312

such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313

harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58

314

During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315

energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316

second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317

the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318

transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60

Adami et al developed a flyback319

converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320

obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321

commercial boost converters61

322

An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323

constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324

concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325

to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326

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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330

exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency

63

Moreover the control of MPPT can be331

applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332

reversal64

However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333

the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334

time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335

energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336

peak level in real-time12

Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337

a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65

338

Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339

control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340

MFC operation40

This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341

maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342

resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343

receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344

any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345

this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346

charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347

improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348

60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349

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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353

play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354

cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355

the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356

combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66

357

358

3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359

The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360

development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361

energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362

have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363

clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364

reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365

frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366

activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367

368

1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369

that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370

voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371

process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372

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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377

consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378

harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379

collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380

performance ICs for MFCs16 67

or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68

381

382

2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383

which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384

circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385

when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386

alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387

can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388

harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389

generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390

or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391

carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392

for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393

operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394

and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395

systems which require either a small jump start57

or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70

for self-396

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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400

consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401

up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402

implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403

404

3

More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405

to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406

capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407

capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408

electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26

409

It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410

capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411

boost circuit design57

In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412

efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413

983101

983255 98308900 (2)414

983101

983255 98308900 (3)415

where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416

step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417

the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418

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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423

that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424

is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425

426

4

The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427

current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428

devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73

429

Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430

since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431

bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432

higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433

power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434

because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435

nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436

chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437

relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438

activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439

condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440

MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441

efficiency23

One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442

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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446

controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447

avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448

the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449

450

5

While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451

harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452

charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453

receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454

electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455

microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456

results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457

community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458

selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459

efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460

electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461

from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462

transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463

more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464

interesting topic to investigate465

Page 22 of 33Environmental Science amp Technology

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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468

under Award N000141310901469

470

REFERENCES471

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71 E983159983145983150983143 983124 H983137 983120 983124 B983137983138983137983157983156983137 J 983124 983124983137983150983143 983118 983124 H983141983151 D B983141983161983141983150983137983148 H 983123983139983137983148983141983085983157983152 983151983142 983155983141983140983145983149983141983150983156641

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72 983127983151983156983137983159983137983085B983141983154983143983141983150 A 983121 C983144983137983140983159983145983139983147 D B 983122983145983139983144983156983141983154 K E 983124983141983150983140983141983154 L M 983122983141983145983149983141983154983155 C E G983151983150983143 983129 I983150643

983148 983142 983140 983138 983148 983142 983148 983148983148 983148 983144

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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651

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983129 E983140 983123983137983150 D983145983141983143983151 C983137983148983145983142983151983154983150983145983137 983125983123A 2010 983152983152 764219831299830851662

663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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30

Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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31

Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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Compared with ED this two-step desalination process can effectively reduce both energy262

consumption and desalination time A similar approach was used by a benthic MFC with a263

biocathode and a sacrificial anode which firstly charged a capacitor to 12 V and then boosted264

the voltage by a boost converter to 33 V the minimum requirement as an intermittent power265

source for a wireless sensor19

A higher efficiency was reported when two capacitors were266

charged by two MFCs individually and then linked them in series and further boosted the267

voltage by the boost converter for higher voltagecurrent output47

This method was used to268

develop a bulk energy storage for more efficient power conversion By implementing two groups269

of supercapacitors with one group (12 supercapacitors) charged in parallel and the other switched270

in series the harvesting approach was able to boost output voltage to 9V48 To provide a271

continuous power supply to sensors such as a submersible ultrasonic receiver (SUR) that listens272

and records time and signals Donovan et al developed a novel SMFC PMS composed of two273

boost converters to continuously power a real-time clock (RTC) in a sensor system49

274

The second option is using transformers coupled with boost converter to amplify the275

voltage by transferring energy through electromagnetic induction The advantage of transformers276

is that they extract energy much faster and can take lower input voltage than charge pumps277

Yang et al reported that by connecting an MFC with a capacitor and a transformer the PMS278

worked well under a low input voltage of 018 V and successfully boosted output to 33 V20

279

Without using capacitors Thomas et al connected an MFC directly with a transformer and280

boosted output voltage to 17-33 V50

As discussed in section 22 charge pumps can also be281

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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284

(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)

21

285

To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286

boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287

been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47

BMFCs utilize naturally288

occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289

and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54

One challenge of BMFCs290

is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291

in the natural water body55 56

This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292

the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293

intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45

The intermittent294

energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295

such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296

efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297

BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298

possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42

A multi-anode299

decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300

interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43

301

302

24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303

ggy

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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307

such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308

magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309

diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310

effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311

a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312

such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313

harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58

314

During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315

energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316

second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317

the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318

transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60

Adami et al developed a flyback319

converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320

obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321

commercial boost converters61

322

An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323

constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324

concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325

to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326

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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330

exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency

63

Moreover the control of MPPT can be331

applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332

reversal64

However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333

the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334

time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335

energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336

peak level in real-time12

Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337

a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65

338

Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339

control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340

MFC operation40

This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341

maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342

resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343

receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344

any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345

this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346

charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347

improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348

60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349

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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353

play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354

cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355

the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356

combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66

357

358

3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359

The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360

development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361

energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362

have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363

clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364

reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365

frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366

activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367

368

1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369

that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370

voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371

process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372

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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377

consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378

harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379

collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380

performance ICs for MFCs16 67

or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68

381

382

2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383

which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384

circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385

when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386

alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387

can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388

harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389

generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390

or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391

carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392

for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393

operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394

and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395

systems which require either a small jump start57

or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70

for self-396

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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400

consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401

up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402

implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403

404

3

More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405

to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406

capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407

capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408

electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26

409

It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410

capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411

boost circuit design57

In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412

efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413

983101

983255 98308900 (2)414

983101

983255 98308900 (3)415

where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416

step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417

the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418

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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423

that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424

is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425

426

4

The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427

current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428

devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73

429

Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430

since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431

bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432

higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433

power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434

because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435

nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436

chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437

relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438

activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439

condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440

MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441

efficiency23

One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442

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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446

controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447

avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448

the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449

450

5

While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451

harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452

charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453

receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454

electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455

microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456

results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457

community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458

selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459

efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460

electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461

from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462

transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463

more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464

interesting topic to investigate465

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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468

under Award N000141310901469

470

REFERENCES471

1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472

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3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476

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4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478

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7 L983151983143983137983150 B E H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 B 983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 K983141983148983148983141983154 J F983154983141983143983157983145983137 983123 A983141983148983156983141983154983149983137983150 983120485

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983090983088983088983094983084 40 (17) 51819830855192487

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205 188983085193497

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13 L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983148983148 D C983144983141983150983143 983123 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127500

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17 K983145983149 983129 H983137983156983162983141983148983148 M C H983157983156983139983144983145983150983155983151983150 A J L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983152983156983157983154983145983150983143 983152983151983159983141983154 983137983156 983144983145983143983144983141983154 983158983151983148983156983137983143983141983155 983142983154983151983149511

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71 E983159983145983150983143 983124 H983137 983120 983124 B983137983138983137983157983156983137 J 983124 983124983137983150983143 983118 983124 H983141983151 D B983141983161983141983150983137983148 H 983123983139983137983148983141983085983157983152 983151983142 983155983141983140983145983149983141983150983156641

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983148 983142 983140 983138 983148 983142 983148 983148983148 983148 983144

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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651

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983129 E983140 983123983137983150 D983145983141983143983151 C983137983148983145983142983151983154983150983145983137 983125983123A 2010 983152983152 764219831299830851662

663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

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30

Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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31

Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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capacitor-transformer-converter PMS (429) but it also requires a much longer charging time284

(113 h vs 106 h) and a higher minimum input voltage (03 V vs 018 V)

21

285

To obtain high energy efficiencies a classic PMS circuit composed of a charge pump a286

boost converter and the load with accessary components such as capacitors and switches has287

been widely adopted by benthic MFCs (BMFCs) (Figure 2B)22 42-45 47

BMFCs utilize naturally288

occurring potential difference between the anoxic sediment and oxic water to generate electricity289

and therefore provide long-term power source for remote sensors51-54

One challenge of BMFCs290

is the low power output due to poor ion transfer between the sediment anode and the air cathode291

in the natural water body55 56

This classic PMS firstly uses charge pumps to harvest energy from292

the low voltagecurrent BMFCs and then boosts the voltage via a boost converter to provide293

intermittent power for wireless sensors telemetry systems or hydrophones 44 45

The intermittent294

energy harvesting is a practical approach for BMFC operation as it allows a small power source295

such as BMFC to power larger electronic devices with higher energy demand and the energy296

efficiency is higher than continuous operation When coupling the PMS with a two-cathode297

BMFC (one floating and one settling) Zhang et al found that continuous sensor charging was298

possible but the charging rate was faster when only using the floating cathode42

A multi-anode299

decoupling circuit could be used to separately connect charge pumps with different anodes so300

interactions among anodes with different performances could be avoided43

301

302

24 Maximum power point tracking and active energy harvesting303

ggy

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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307

such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308

magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309

diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310

effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311

a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312

such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313

harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58

314

During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315

energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316

second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317

the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318

transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60

Adami et al developed a flyback319

converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320

obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321

commercial boost converters61

322

An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323

constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324

concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325

to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326

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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330

exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency

63

Moreover the control of MPPT can be331

applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332

reversal64

However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333

the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334

time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335

energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336

peak level in real-time12

Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337

a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65

338

Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339

control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340

MFC operation40

This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341

maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342

resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343

receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344

any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345

this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346

charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347

improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348

60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349

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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353

play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354

cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355

the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356

combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66

357

358

3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359

The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360

development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361

energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362

have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363

clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364

reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365

frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366

activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367

368

1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369

that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370

voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371

process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372

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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377

consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378

harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379

collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380

performance ICs for MFCs16 67

or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68

381

382

2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383

which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384

circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385

when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386

alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387

can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388

harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389

generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390

or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391

carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392

for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393

operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394

and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395

systems which require either a small jump start57

or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70

for self-396

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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400

consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401

up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402

implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403

404

3

More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405

to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406

capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407

capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408

electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26

409

It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410

capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411

boost circuit design57

In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412

efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413

983101

983255 98308900 (2)414

983101

983255 98308900 (3)415

where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416

step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417

the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418

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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423

that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424

is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425

426

4

The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427

current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428

devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73

429

Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430

since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431

bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432

higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433

power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434

because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435

nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436

chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437

relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438

activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439

condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440

MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441

efficiency23

One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442

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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446

controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447

avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448

the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449

450

5

While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451

harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452

charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453

receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454

electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455

microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456

results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457

community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458

selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459

efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460

electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461

from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462

transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463

more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464

interesting topic to investigate465

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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468

under Award N000141310901469

470

REFERENCES471

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2 H983137983154983150983145983155983139983144 F 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 F983154983151983149 MFC 983156983151 M983128C 983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983148983151983143983145983139983137983148 983139983137983156983144983151983140983141983155 983137983150983140 983156983144983141983145983154474 983152983151983156983141983150983156983145983137983148 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983107983144983141983149 983123983151983139 983122983141983158 983090983088983089983088983084 39 (11) 44339830854448475

3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476

983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16659830851671477

4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478

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5 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 B983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983149983141983156983137983148 983154983141983139983151983158983141983154983161 983142983154983151983149 983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 A 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983127983137983156983141983154 983122983141983155481

983090983088983089983092 66 219983085232482 6 D983157 983130 L983145 H G983157 983124 A 983155983156983137983156983141 983151983142 983156983144983141 983137983154983156 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 A 983152983154983151983149983145983155983145983150983143 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983142983151983154483

983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 983156983154983141983137983156983149983141983150983156 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983141983150983141983154983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983088983095983084 25 (5) 464983085482484

7 L983151983143983137983150 B E H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 B 983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 K983141983148983148983141983154 J F983154983141983143983157983145983137 983123 A983141983148983156983141983154983149983137983150 983120485

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983090983088983088983094983084 40 (17) 51819830855192487

8 983122983141983150 983130 983129983137983150 H 983127983137983150983143 983127 M983141983150983139983144 M M 983122983141983143983137983150 J M C983144983137983154983137983156983141983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983156488

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2441490 9 L983161983151983150 D 983129 B983157983154983141983156 F 983126983151983143983141983148 983124 M M983151983150983145983141983154 J983085M I983155 983154983141983155983145983155983156983137983150983139983141 983142983157983156983145983148983141 C983144983137983150983143983145983150983143 983141983160983156983141983154983150983137983148491

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10 983127983137983156983155983151983150 983126 J L983151983143983137983150 B E A983150983137983148983161983155983145983155 983151983142 983152983151983148983137983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983149983141983156983144983151983140983155 983142983151983154 983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983152983151983159983141983154 983151983158983141983154983155983144983151983151983156493

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11 D983141983143983154983141983150983150983141 983118 B983157983154983141983156 F A983148983148983137983154983140 B B983141983158983145983148983137983139983153983157983137 983120 E983148983141983139983156983154983145983139983137983148 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983143983141983150983141983154983137983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983137 983148983137983154983143983141495

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205 188983085193497

12 983120983137983154983147 J983085D 983122983141983150 983130 H983161983155983156983141983154983141983155983145983155 983139983151983150983156983154983151983148983148983141983154 983138983137983155983141983140 983149983137983160983145983149983157983149 983152983151983159983141983154 983152983151983145983150983156 983156983154983137983139983147983145983150983143 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983144983137983154983158983141983155983156983145983150983143498 983155983161983155983156983141983149 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983114 983120983151983159983141983154 983123983151983157983154983139983141983155 983090983088983089983090983084 205 (9) 151983085156499

13 L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983148983148 D C983144983141983150983143 983123 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127500

983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 A M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983148983161983155983145983155 983139983141983148983148983155 983142983151983154 983144983145983143983144 983161983145983141983148983140 983144983161983140983154983151983143983141983150 983143983137983155 983152983154983151983140983157983139983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983151983154983143983137983150983145983139 983149983137983156983156983141983154501

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17 K983145983149 983129 H983137983156983162983141983148983148 M C H983157983156983139983144983145983150983155983151983150 A J L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983152983156983157983154983145983150983143 983152983151983159983141983154 983137983156 983144983145983143983144983141983154 983158983151983148983156983137983143983141983155 983142983154983151983149511

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18 D983145983137983149983151983150983140 D C983151983161983148983141 983123 983123983139983137983154983149983137983143983150983137983150983145 983123 H983137983161983141983155 J 983127983145983154983141983148983141983155983155 983155983141983150983155983151983154 983150983141983156983159983151983154983147983155 983137983150983140 983139983144983141983149983151983085513

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983148 983142 983140 983138 983148 983142 983148 983148983148 983148 983144

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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651

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663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

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30

Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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31

Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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have been reported with various performances Table 1 shows the common components used in307

such systems and each unit has a specific function For example inductor stores energy in the308

magnetic field transformer transfers and amplifies energy through electromagnetic induction309

diode metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and junction gate field-310

effect transistor (JFET) are utilized as switches to prevent current reverse flow Figure 2C shows311

a two-layer energy-harvesting scheme which can be used in conjunction with various converters312

such as a boost converter or flyback converter to further increase the output voltage The energy-313

harvesting scheme was operated in alternative CHARGE and DISCHARGE phases40 57 58

314

During the CHARGE phase (the first half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller extracts315

energy from MFCs and temporarily stores it in the inductor during the DISCHARGE phase (the316

second half of the circuit in Figure 2C) the controller discharges the energy from the inductor to317

the capacitor for storage To increase the harvesting efficiency the inductor was replaced with a318

transformer and the diode was replaced by a MOSFET59 60

Adami et al developed a flyback319

converter by using a step-up transformer and a normally-on N-channel JFET transistor and they320

obtained an output voltage up to 75 V which was much higher than the 33-50 V obtained from321

commercial boost converters61

322

An MFC is a dynamic system that its internal resistance and power density curve vary323

constantly with changes of microbial activities and operational parameters such as substrate324

concentration pH and temperature This means that static energy harvesting without adaptation325

to MFC real time condition cannot capture the peak energy all the time and therefore the326

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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330

exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency

63

Moreover the control of MPPT can be331

applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332

reversal64

However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333

the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334

time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335

energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336

peak level in real-time12

Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337

a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65

338

Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339

control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340

MFC operation40

This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341

maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342

resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343

receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344

any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345

this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346

charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347

improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348

60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349

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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353

play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354

cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355

the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356

combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66

357

358

3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359

The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360

development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361

energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362

have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363

clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364

reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365

frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366

activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367

368

1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369

that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370

voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371

process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372

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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377

consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378

harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379

collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380

performance ICs for MFCs16 67

or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68

381

382

2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383

which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384

circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385

when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386

alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387

can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388

harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389

generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390

or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391

carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392

for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393

operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394

and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395

systems which require either a small jump start57

or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70

for self-396

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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400

consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401

up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402

implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403

404

3

More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405

to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406

capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407

capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408

electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26

409

It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410

capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411

boost circuit design57

In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412

efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413

983101

983255 98308900 (2)414

983101

983255 98308900 (3)415

where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416

step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417

the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418

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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423

that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424

is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425

426

4

The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427

current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428

devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73

429

Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430

since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431

bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432

higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433

power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434

because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435

nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436

chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437

relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438

activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439

condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440

MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441

efficiency23

One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442

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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446

controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447

avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448

the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449

450

5

While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451

harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452

charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453

receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454

electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455

microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456

results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457

community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458

selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459

efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460

electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461

from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462

transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463

more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464

interesting topic to investigate465

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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468

under Award N000141310901469

470

REFERENCES471

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2 H983137983154983150983145983155983139983144 F 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 F983154983151983149 MFC 983156983151 M983128C 983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983148983151983143983145983139983137983148 983139983137983156983144983151983140983141983155 983137983150983140 983156983144983141983145983154474 983152983151983156983141983150983156983145983137983148 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983107983144983141983149 983123983151983139 983122983141983158 983090983088983089983088983084 39 (11) 44339830854448475

3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476

983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16659830851671477

4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478

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5 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 B983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983149983141983156983137983148 983154983141983139983151983158983141983154983161 983142983154983151983149 983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 A 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983127983137983156983141983154 983122983141983155481

983090983088983089983092 66 219983085232482 6 D983157 983130 L983145 H G983157 983124 A 983155983156983137983156983141 983151983142 983156983144983141 983137983154983156 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983150 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 A 983152983154983151983149983145983155983145983150983143 983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983142983151983154483

983159983137983155983156983141983159983137983156983141983154 983156983154983141983137983156983149983141983150983156 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983141983150983141983154983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983088983095983084 25 (5) 464983085482484

7 L983151983143983137983150 B E H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 B 983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 K983141983148983148983141983154 J F983154983141983143983157983145983137 983123 A983141983148983156983141983154983149983137983150 983120485

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983090983088983088983094983084 40 (17) 51819830855192487

8 983122983141983150 983130 983129983137983150 H 983127983137983150983143 983127 M983141983150983139983144 M M 983122983141983143983137983150 J M C983144983137983154983137983156983141983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983156488

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2441490 9 L983161983151983150 D 983129 B983157983154983141983156 F 983126983151983143983141983148 983124 M M983151983150983145983141983154 J983085M I983155 983154983141983155983145983155983156983137983150983139983141 983142983157983156983145983148983141 C983144983137983150983143983145983150983143 983141983160983156983141983154983150983137983148491

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10 983127983137983156983155983151983150 983126 J L983151983143983137983150 B E A983150983137983148983161983155983145983155 983151983142 983152983151983148983137983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983149983141983156983144983151983140983155 983142983151983154 983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983152983151983159983141983154 983151983158983141983154983155983144983151983151983156493

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11 D983141983143983154983141983150983150983141 983118 B983157983154983141983156 F A983148983148983137983154983140 B B983141983158983145983148983137983139983153983157983137 983120 E983148983141983139983156983154983145983139983137983148 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983143983141983150983141983154983137983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983137 983148983137983154983143983141495

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205 188983085193497

12 983120983137983154983147 J983085D 983122983141983150 983130 H983161983155983156983141983154983141983155983145983155 983139983151983150983156983154983151983148983148983141983154 983138983137983155983141983140 983149983137983160983145983149983157983149 983152983151983159983141983154 983152983151983145983150983156 983156983154983137983139983147983145983150983143 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983144983137983154983158983141983155983156983145983150983143498 983155983161983155983156983141983149 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983114 983120983151983159983141983154 983123983151983157983154983139983141983155 983090983088983089983090983084 205 (9) 151983085156499

13 L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983148983148 D C983144983141983150983143 983123 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127500

983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 A M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983148983161983155983145983155 983139983141983148983148983155 983142983151983154 983144983145983143983144 983161983145983141983148983140 983144983161983140983154983151983143983141983150 983143983137983155 983152983154983151983140983157983139983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983151983154983143983137983150983145983139 983149983137983156983156983141983154501

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14 J983137983139983151983138983155983151983150 K 983123 D983154983141983159 D M H983141 983130 983125983155983141 983151983142 983137 983148983145983156983141983154983085983155983139983137983148983141 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983140983141983155983137983148983145983150983137983156983145983151983150 983139983141983148983148 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149503

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17 K983145983149 983129 H983137983156983162983141983148983148 M C H983157983156983139983144983145983150983155983151983150 A J L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983152983156983157983154983145983150983143 983152983151983159983141983154 983137983156 983144983145983143983144983141983154 983158983151983148983156983137983143983141983155 983142983154983151983149511

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18 D983145983137983149983151983150983140 D C983151983161983148983141 983123 983123983139983137983154983149983137983143983150983137983150983145 983123 H983137983161983141983155 J 983127983145983154983141983148983141983155983155 983155983141983150983155983151983154 983150983141983156983159983151983154983147983155 983137983150983140 983139983144983141983149983151983085513

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983148 983142 983140 983138 983148 983142 983148 983148983148 983148 983144

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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651

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983129 E983140 983123983137983150 D983145983141983143983151 C983137983148983145983142983151983154983150983145983137 983125983123A 2010 983152983152 764219831299830851662

663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

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30

Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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31

Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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maximizes the power production of MFCs but also reduces the start-up time and increases330

exoelectrogenic activity and Coulombic efficiency

63

Moreover the control of MPPT can be331

applied on each MFC separately to achieve a high stack voltage without the issue of voltage332

reversal64

However traditional MPPT techniques still adjust external resistances to demonstrate333

the power production potential with no actual energy harvested To actually use the MPPT real334

time tracking and produce usable energy Park and Ren built a hysteresis controller based MPPT335

energy harvesting system which can track the MPP and maintain the energy harvesting at the336

peak level in real-time12

Degrenne et al developed an original converter system which contains337

a voltage controller for maintaining the input voltage at the maximum power production stage65

338

Based on the real-time MPPT a maximum power point circuit (MPPC) was developed to339

control a BES at any operation point along the power density curve especially at the MPP for340

MFC operation40

This is a new energy harvesting approach that not only can capture the341

maximum power from an MFC but also harvest energy actively without using any external342

resistance Compared with traditional circuits using capacitors or charge pumps which passively343

receiving electrons from the reactor this controller can actively extract energy from the MFC at344

any operating point especially at the peak power point to maximize energy production Using345

this active approach the MPPC extracted 76 times more energy than the commonly used Seiko346

charge pump and the Coulombic efficiency increased by 21 times40 Despite this dramatic347

improvement the efficiency of this diode-based boost converter was only about 36 with nearly348

60 of energy lost which means much more potential can be tapped Follow-up studies showed349

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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353

play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354

cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355

the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356

combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66

357

358

3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359

The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360

development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361

energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362

have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363

clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364

reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365

frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366

activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367

368

1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369

that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370

voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371

process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372

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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377

consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378

harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379

collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380

performance ICs for MFCs16 67

or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68

381

382

2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383

which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384

circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385

when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386

alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387

can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388

harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389

generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390

or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391

carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392

for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393

operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394

and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395

systems which require either a small jump start57

or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70

for self-396

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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400

consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401

up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402

implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403

404

3

More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405

to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406

capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407

capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408

electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26

409

It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410

capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411

boost circuit design57

In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412

efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413

983101

983255 98308900 (2)414

983101

983255 98308900 (3)415

where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416

step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417

the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418

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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423

that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424

is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425

426

4

The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427

current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428

devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73

429

Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430

since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431

bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432

higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433

power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434

because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435

nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436

chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437

relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438

activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439

condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440

MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441

efficiency23

One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442

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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446

controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447

avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448

the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449

450

5

While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451

harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452

charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453

receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454

electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455

microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456

results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457

community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458

selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459

efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460

electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461

from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462

transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463

more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464

interesting topic to investigate465

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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468

under Award N000141310901469

470

REFERENCES471

1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472

983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983089983091983084 31 (8) 17969830851807473

2 H983137983154983150983145983155983139983144 F 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 F983154983151983149 MFC 983156983151 M983128C 983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983148983151983143983145983139983137983148 983139983137983156983144983151983140983141983155 983137983150983140 983156983144983141983145983154474 983152983151983156983141983150983156983145983137983148 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983107983144983141983149 983123983151983139 983122983141983158 983090983088983089983088983084 39 (11) 44339830854448475

3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476

983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983090983088983089983088983084 85 (6) 16659830851671477

4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478

B983157983145983155983149983137983150 C J 983118 983118983141983159 983137983152983152983148983145983139983137983156983145983151983150983155 983137983150983140 983152983141983154983142983151983154983149983137983150983139983141 983151983142 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148 983117983145983139983154983151983138983145983151983148479

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7 L983151983143983137983150 B E H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 B 983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 K983141983148983148983141983154 J F983154983141983143983157983145983137 983123 A983141983148983156983141983154983149983137983150 983120485

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983090983088983088983094983084 40 (17) 51819830855192487

8 983122983141983150 983130 983129983137983150 H 983127983137983150983143 983127 M983141983150983139983144 M M 983122983141983143983137983150 J M C983144983137983154983137983156983141983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983156488

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2441490 9 L983161983151983150 D 983129 B983157983154983141983156 F 983126983151983143983141983148 983124 M M983151983150983145983141983154 J983085M I983155 983154983141983155983145983155983156983137983150983139983141 983142983157983156983145983148983141 C983144983137983150983143983145983150983143 983141983160983156983141983154983150983137983148491

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205 188983085193497

12 983120983137983154983147 J983085D 983122983141983150 983130 H983161983155983156983141983154983141983155983145983155 983139983151983150983156983154983151983148983148983141983154 983138983137983155983141983140 983149983137983160983145983149983157983149 983152983151983159983141983154 983152983151983145983150983156 983156983154983137983139983147983145983150983143 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983144983137983154983158983141983155983156983145983150983143498 983155983161983155983156983141983149 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983114 983120983151983159983141983154 983123983151983157983154983139983141983155 983090983088983089983090983084 205 (9) 151983085156499

13 L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983148983148 D C983144983141983150983143 983123 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127500

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17 K983145983149 983129 H983137983156983162983141983148983148 M C H983157983156983139983144983145983150983155983151983150 A J L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983152983156983157983154983145983150983143 983152983151983159983141983154 983137983156 983144983145983143983144983141983154 983158983151983148983156983137983143983141983155 983142983154983151983149511

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983105983152983152983148983145983139983137983156983145983151983150983155 (983109983120983109 2011) IEEE B983145983154983149983145983150983143983144983137983149 2011 983152983152 198308510637

70 D983141983143983154983141983150983150983141 983118 B983157983154983141983156 F M983151983154983141983148 F A983140983137983149983145 983123983085E L983137983138983154983151983157983155983155983141 D A983148983148983137983154983140 B 983130983137983151983157983145 A 983123983141983148983142983085983155983156983137983154983156983145983150983143638

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983148 983142 983140 983138 983148 983142 983148 983148983148 983148 983144

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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651

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983120983154983151983139983141983141983140983145983150983143983155 983151983142 983156983144983141 A983148983145983142983141 983128II C983151983150983142983141983154983141983150983139983141 983119983140983141983150983155983141 D983141983150983149983137983154983147 2010 983119983140983141983150983155983141 D983141983150983149983137983154983147 2010659

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983141983148983137983155983156983151983149983141983154 983143983141983150983141983154983137983156983151983154 983142983151983154 983137983157983156983151983150983151983149983151983157983155 983154983151983138983151983156983155 983120983154983151983139 983151983142 983123983120IE 983123983137983150 D983145983141983143983151 C983137983148983145983142983151983154983150983145983137 983125983123A 2010 B983137983154983085C983151983144983141983150661

983129 E983140 983123983137983150 D983145983141983143983151 C983137983148983145983142983151983154983150983145983137 983125983123A 2010 983152983152 764219831299830851662

663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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30

Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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31

Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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for MFC energy extraction have also been investigated and results indicated that these factors353

play important roles for the performance of MFC and energy harvesting and their effects can be354

cross-linked While current and voltage are generally proportional and inversely proportional to355

the inductance respectively the total harvested energy and efficiency vary significantly by356

combinations of duty ratio and switching frequency66

357

358

3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES359

The generation of practically usable power is a critical milestone for further MFC360

development and application and how to effectively and efficiently harvest and utilize MFCrsquos361

energy remains a key challenge This review discusses the different methods and systems that362

have been developed for MFC energy extraction and conditions for practical use but it is very363

clear that more work needs to be done to optimize the design improve harvesting efficiency and364

reduce the cost We consider this is a main bottleneck for MFC application and should be a new365

frontier of MFC research To put it into perspective and stimulate more interests and research366

activities we think the following areas will require more investigations367

368

1 The main challenge for MFC harvesting circuit or PMS design is to build an efficient system369

that can operate at the low-level voltageenergy supplied by MFCs yet support high-level370

voltageenergy electronic devices Energy loss inevitably happens during each conversion371

process so it is imperative to develop a circuit with an acceptable complexity but with high372

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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377

consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378

harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379

collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380

performance ICs for MFCs16 67

or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68

381

382

2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383

which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384

circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385

when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386

alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387

can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388

harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389

generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390

or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391

carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392

for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393

operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394

and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395

systems which require either a small jump start57

or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70

for self-396

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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400

consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401

up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402

implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403

404

3

More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405

to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406

capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407

capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408

electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26

409

It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410

capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411

boost circuit design57

In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412

efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413

983101

983255 98308900 (2)414

983101

983255 98308900 (3)415

where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416

step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417

the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418

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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423

that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424

is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425

426

4

The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427

current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428

devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73

429

Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430

since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431

bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432

higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433

power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434

because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435

nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436

chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437

relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438

activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439

condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440

MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441

efficiency23

One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442

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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446

controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447

avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448

the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449

450

5

While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451

harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452

charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453

receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454

electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455

microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456

results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457

community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458

selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459

efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460

electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461

from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462

transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463

more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464

interesting topic to investigate465

Page 22 of 33Environmental Science amp Technology

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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468

under Award N000141310901469

470

REFERENCES471

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983148 983142 983140 983138 983148 983142 983148 983148983148 983148 983144

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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651

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663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

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30

Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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31

Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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all common electronic devices nowadays due to their small volume low cost low energy377

consumption and quick switch among components so developing ICs for MFC energy378

harvesting should be a primary task This would inevitably need interdisciplinary379

collaboration and some groups have already started creating the high efficiency and high380

performance ICs for MFCs16 67

or adopting commercially available IC energy harvesters68

381

382

2 Another main challenge for many developed PMS circuits is that they are not autonomous383

which means that they require an external power source to either jumpstart or operate the384

circuit for energy extraction from MFCs Although the circuit has a better controllability385

when supplied by an external power this is not considered sustainable especially for stand-386

alone sensor-type systems SMFC-powered PMSs for monitoring environmental parameters387

can become autonomous when intermittent operation is possible which allows long energy388

harvesting time Reactor type MFCs used in wastewater treatment and other applications are389

generally capable of maintaining the PMS operation due to their scale but the direct voltage390

or current from the MFC may not always meet the minimum requirements of the circuits to391

carry out tasks continuously and inverters requiring grid frequency or voltage maybe needed392

for practical applications To solve this problem the MFC energy output and the PMS393

operational requirement should be carefully evaluated and more importantly self-starting394

and self-powering systems need to be developed Several recent studies have reported such395

systems which require either a small jump start57

or no extra power 16 61 65 67 69 70

for self-396

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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400

consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401

up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402

implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403

404

3

More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405

to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406

capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407

capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408

electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26

409

It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410

capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411

boost circuit design57

In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412

efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413

983101

983255 98308900 (2)414

983101

983255 98308900 (3)415

where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416

step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417

the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418

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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423

that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424

is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425

426

4

The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427

current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428

devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73

429

Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430

since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431

bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432

higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433

power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434

because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435

nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436

chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437

relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438

activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439

condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440

MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441

efficiency23

One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442

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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446

controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447

avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448

the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449

450

5

While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451

harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452

charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453

receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454

electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455

microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456

results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457

community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458

selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459

efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460

electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461

from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462

transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463

more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464

interesting topic to investigate465

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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468

under Award N000141310901469

470

REFERENCES471

1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472

983156983141983139983144983150983151983148983151983143983161 983106983145983151983156983141983139983144983150983151983148 983105983140983158 983090983088983089983091983084 31 (8) 17969830851807473

2 H983137983154983150983145983155983139983144 F 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 F983154983151983149 MFC 983156983151 M983128C 983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983137983150983140 983138983145983151983148983151983143983145983139983137983148 983139983137983156983144983151983140983141983155 983137983150983140 983156983144983141983145983154474 983152983151983156983141983150983156983145983137983148 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983107983144983141983149 983123983151983139 983122983141983158 983090983088983089983088983084 39 (11) 44339830854448475

3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476

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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651

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663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

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30

Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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31

Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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real time on the other hand the PMSs should be managed effectively with minimum power400

consumed Further studies are still required to improve the system efficiency lower the start-401

up voltage shorten the start-up time investigate long-time performance and robustness402

implement pilot-scale and full-scale studies on field etc403

404

3

More on the evaluation of energy harvesting efficiency we think quantitative methods need405

to be developed similar as general MFC parameters like Coulombic efficiency To optimize406

capacitor charging an MFC tester (MFCT) was developed to determine the optimum407

capacitor sizes chargingdischarging potentials the frequency of charging the limiting408

electrode and even the optimum size of the electrodes required to power a particular sensor26

409

It is also necessary to optimize each component in the circuit to accommodate different MFC410

capabilities Wu et al explained how to determine the value of each component for a voltage411

boost circuit design57

In literature there are two ways to calculate energy harvesting412

efficiency (η) (Equations 2 and 3)413

983101

983255 98308900 (2)414

983101

983255 98308900 (3)415

where is the energy applied on the electronic devices or the energy output at the final416

step of PMS is the energy produced by MFC only is the total energy input into417

the system including energy produced by BES and the extra energy added on the circuit418

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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423

that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424

is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425

426

4

The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427

current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428

devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73

429

Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430

since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431

bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432

higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433

power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434

because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435

nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436

chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437

relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438

activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439

condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440

MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441

efficiency23

One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442

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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446

controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447

avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448

the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449

450

5

While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451

harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452

charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453

receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454

electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455

microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456

results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457

community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458

selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459

efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460

electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461

from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462

transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463

more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464

interesting topic to investigate465

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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468

under Award N000141310901469

470

REFERENCES471

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983129 E983140 983123983137983150 D983145983141983143983151 C983137983148983145983142983151983154983150983145983137 983125983123A 2010 983152983152 764219831299830851662

663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

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30

Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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31

Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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system If no extra energy is supplied on the circuit the two calculations can be the same423

that is = Therefore focuses on the efficiency of the energy harvesting circuit while424

is to emphasize the importance of net energy harvesting425

426

4

The scale up of MFCBES technology has been largely focused on the reactor itself while427

current PMS has primarily focused on benthic MFCs and sediment MFCs because such428

devices could meet the lower demand of remote sensors in practical operations22 48 49 71-73

429

Though the efficiency can be low and a long charging time is required it is still acceptable430

since most sensors donrsquot need to work continuously However for wastewater treatment and431

bioremediation multiple MFC units have to be connected as stacks in order to obtain a432

higher treatment efficiency and applicable power output which requires high efficiency433

power harvesting systems The development of MFC stacks has been very challenging434

because the efficiency of MFC stacks was low and the performance was not stable due to the435

nonlinear nature of MFCs Unlike traditional fuel cell stacks which depend on stable436

chemical reactions in each unit to provide a higher system voltage output MFCs rely on437

relatively unstable microbial activity to provide potential and current outputs The microbial438

activity and resulted voltage output are very sensitive to environmental and operation439

condition changes and can fluctuate significantly Moreover the overall performance of an440

MFC-stack is generally limited by the worst performing unit(s) resulting in a reduced441

efficiency23

One solution for obtaining and maintaining power output from MFC stacks is to442

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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446

controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447

avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448

the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449

450

5

While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451

harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452

charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453

receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454

electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455

microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456

results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457

community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458

selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459

efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460

electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461

from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462

transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463

more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464

interesting topic to investigate465

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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468

under Award N000141310901469

470

REFERENCES471

1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472

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3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476

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4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478

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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651

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663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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converter can readily generate an appropriate voltage for the load Connecting MFCs through446

controllers allows real-time tracking and harvesting capability and the power output can447

avoid the issue of voltage reversal If necessary individual units can be simply removed from448

the stack without affecting other units and the overall system performance 449

450

5

While most research focuses on system development little is known that how energy451

harvesting will change microbial activity and community While passive harvesting using452

charge pumps or capacitors may not affect such parameters much because these devices just453

receive whatever amount of power provided by the MFC without controllability power454

electronics converters use pulse-shaped power extraction in high frequency may lead to455

microbial community shifts and electron transfer mechanism changes Our preliminary456

results support the hypothesis that microbial activity biofilm viability and mix culture457

community may shift and evolve during active power extraction Such process creates a458

selective pressure on the microbial community to regulate respiratory pathways for more459

efficient electron transfer and ATP synthesis Specifically cells with multiple extracellular460

electron transfer mechanisms may shift their mechanisms to more efficient pathways such as461

from mediated indirect transfer to direct transfer while bacteria with more efficient electron462

transfer mechanisms in a mixed culture may outcompete less efficient species as they are463

more likely able to meet the requirements of high rate electron delivery This will be a very464

interesting topic to investigate465

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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468

under Award N000141310901469

470

REFERENCES471

1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472

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3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476

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4 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M H983141983145983146983150983141 A 983124 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127 983123983156983154983145983147 D 983120 B 983124 B478

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7 L983151983143983137983150 B E H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 B 983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 983123983139983144983154983286983140983141983154 983125 K983141983148983148983141983154 J F983154983141983143983157983145983137 983123 A983141983148983156983141983154983149983137983150 983120485

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983090983088983088983094983084 40 (17) 51819830855192487

8 983122983141983150 983130 983129983137983150 H 983127983137983150983143 983127 M983141983150983139983144 M M 983122983141983143983137983150 J M C983144983137983154983137983156983141983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983156488

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2441490 9 L983161983151983150 D 983129 B983157983154983141983156 F 983126983151983143983141983148 983124 M M983151983150983145983141983154 J983085M I983155 983154983141983155983145983155983156983137983150983139983141 983142983157983156983145983148983141 C983144983137983150983143983145983150983143 983141983160983156983141983154983150983137983148491

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10 983127983137983156983155983151983150 983126 J L983151983143983137983150 B E A983150983137983148983161983155983145983155 983151983142 983152983151983148983137983154983145983162983137983156983145983151983150 983149983141983156983144983151983140983155 983142983151983154 983141983148983145983149983145983150983137983156983145983151983150 983151983142 983152983151983159983141983154 983151983158983141983154983155983144983151983151983156493

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205 188983085193497

12 983120983137983154983147 J983085D 983122983141983150 983130 H983161983155983156983141983154983141983155983145983155 983139983151983150983156983154983151983148983148983141983154 983138983137983155983141983140 983149983137983160983145983149983157983149 983152983151983159983141983154 983152983151983145983150983156 983156983154983137983139983147983145983150983143 983141983150983141983154983143983161 983144983137983154983158983141983155983156983145983150983143498 983155983161983155983156983141983149 983142983151983154 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983114 983120983151983159983141983154 983123983151983157983154983139983141983155 983090983088983089983090983084 205 (9) 151983085156499

13 L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983148983148 D C983144983141983150983143 983123 H983137983149983141983148983141983154983155 H 983126 M 983123983148983141983157983156983141983148983155 983124 H J A J983141983154983141983149983145983137983155983155983141 A 983127500

983122983151983162983141983150983140983137983148 983122 A M983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983148983161983155983145983155 983139983141983148983148983155 983142983151983154 983144983145983143983144 983161983145983141983148983140 983144983161983140983154983151983143983141983150 983143983137983155 983152983154983151983140983157983139983156983145983151983150 983142983154983151983149 983151983154983143983137983150983145983139 983149983137983156983156983141983154501

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17 K983145983149 983129 H983137983156983162983141983148983148 M C H983157983156983139983144983145983150983155983151983150 A J L983151983143983137983150 B E C983137983152983156983157983154983145983150983143 983152983151983159983141983154 983137983156 983144983145983143983144983141983154 983158983151983148983156983137983143983141983155 983142983154983151983149511

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18 D983145983137983149983151983150983140 D C983151983161983148983141 983123 983123983139983137983154983149983137983143983150983137983150983145 983123 H983137983161983141983155 J 983127983145983154983141983148983141983155983155 983155983141983150983155983151983154 983150983141983156983159983151983154983147983155 983137983150983140 983139983144983141983149983151983085513

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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651

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663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

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30

Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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31

Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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We thank the financial support from Dr Linda Chrisey at the Office of Naval Research (ONR)468

under Award N000141310901469

470

REFERENCES471

1 983127983137983150983143 H 983122983141983150 983130 J A 983139983151983149983152983154983141983144983141983150983155983145983158983141 983154983141983158983145983141983159 983151983142 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983137983155 983137 983152983148983137983156983142983151983154983149472

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3 L983151983143983137983150 B E 983123983139983137983148983145983150983143 983157983152 983149983145983139983154983151983138983145983137983148 983142983157983141983148 983139983141983148983148983155 983137983150983140 983151983156983144983141983154 983138983145983151983141983148983141983139983156983154983151983139983144983141983149983145983139983137983148 983155983161983155983156983141983149983155 983105983152983152983148476

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663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

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Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651

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663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

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Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651

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663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

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Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651

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663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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31

Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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75 I983141983154983151983152983151983157983148983151983155 I M983141983148983144983157983145983155983144 C G983154983141983141983150983149983137983150 J I983150 983105983154983156983145983142983145983139983145983137983148 983149983141983156983137983138983151983148983145983155983149 983156983151983159983137983154983140983155 983156983154983157983141 983141983150983141983154983143983141983156983145983139651

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983141983148983137983155983156983151983149983141983154 983143983141983150983141983154983137983156983151983154 983142983151983154 983137983157983156983151983150983151983149983151983157983155 983154983151983138983151983156983155 983120983154983151983139 983151983142 983123983120IE 983123983137983150 D983145983141983143983151 C983137983148983145983142983151983154983150983145983137 983125983123A 2010 B983137983154983085C983151983144983141983150661

983129 E983140 983123983137983150 D983145983141983143983151 C983137983148983145983142983151983154983150983145983137 983125983123A 2010 983152983152 764219831299830851662

663

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

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30

Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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31

Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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664665

Figure 1 Ideal operation conditions for different BESs including microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and666

microbial desalination cells (MDCs) The typical polarization (red) and power density curves (blue) were667

generated using a lab scale recirculation-flow MFC Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are not shown in668

the figure because their operation points are beyond this range669

670

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P o w e r d e n s i t y ( m W m 2

)

V o l t a g e ( m V )

Current density (Am2)

MFC

High voltagelow current

LowvoltagehighcurrentMDC

MDC

Maximum power points

Page 28 of 33Environmental Science amp Technology

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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30

Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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31

Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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671672

673

674

675676

677

678

679680

Figure 2 Schematics of energy harvesting processes (A) a concise process from MFCs (energy681

generator) to electronic devices (energy consumer) (B) a classic and widely adopted PMS682

A

B

C

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

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30

Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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31

Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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29

Table 1 Key electronic components used in energy harvesting systems686

Electronic components Manufacturer amp model number Functions Ref

Capacitor Energy storage in an electric field

Rechargeable batteryDuracell (DC2400 NiMH rechargeable

AAA battery)Energy storage through electrochemical reactions

46

Charge pump Seiko Instruments (S-882Z) A DCDC converter to step the voltage up or down

43 45 47

Boost converter

STMicroelectronics (L6920DB)

A DCDC converter to step up the voltage

Linear Technologies (LTC3108)

Linear Technologies (LTC3429)Texas Instruments (TPS61200)

Texas Instruments (TPS61201)

Maxim Semiconductor (max1797evkit)AMI Electronics (T3005P)

Inductor

Triad Magnetics (RC-7)

Energy storage in a magnetic field66

Triad Magnetics (CST206-1A)Triad Magnetics (CST206-3A)

TransformerCoilcraft (LPR6235-253PML)

Energy transfer through electromagnetic inductionCoilcraft (LPR6235-752SML)

Wuumlrth Elektronik (WE749197301)

Diode

Micro Commercial Components

(1N5711)

A switch that blocks reverse current flow

40 66

Fairchild Semiconductor (1N755A)Fairchild Semiconductor (BAT54)

Avago Technologies (HSMS-286x)

Metaleoxideesemicondu

ctor feld-effect transistor

(MOSFET)

Vishay (Si3460BDV)

A transistor that switches electronic signals

Vishay (Si3499DV)

Advanced Linear Device (ALD110800)

ON Semiconductor (4906NG)Diodes Incorporated (DMG6968)

Junction gate field-effect

transistor (JFET)Vishay (2N4338) A transistor that amplifies electronic signals

61

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30

Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

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31

Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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Comparator

Compare a voltagecurrent against a reference and

output a digital signal indicating whether the

voltagecurrent reaches the set level

OscillatorsLinear Technologies (LTC6906) Produces a periodic and oscillating signal such as

square waves57

Advanced Linear Devices (ALD1502)

Energy harvesting board Advanced Linear Devices (EH4295) An integrated circuit ready for energy harvesting

687

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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31

Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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31

Table 2 Summary of Studies Reported Energy Harvesting Systems for BESs688

689

NO BES

Main electronic

components

Input

voltage (V)

Input power

(mW)

Output

voltage (V)

Output power

(mW)

Efficiency

()

Need external

power (YN)

Maximum power

point (YN) Ref

Capacitor-based systems Direct charging

140 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Capacitor

42-455 952 b N N 35

28 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 75

38 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 76 77

48 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 78

524 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 32

624 single-chamber

MFC-stack N N 33

724 single-chamber

MFC-stack

Rechargeable

battery N N 34

Intermittent energy harvesting (IEH aka intermittent charging (IC))

8 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

0152 Y N 27 9 Single-chamber MFC Y N 36

10 Single-chamber MFC gt90 Y N 37

Alternate charging and discharging (ACD)

11Two-chamber

MFCMECCapacitor Y N 29

Charging capacitors in parallel and discharging in series

12 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

07 073-078 25 073-078 100a Y N

13 Single-chamber MFC 03 048 90a Y N

14 Single-chamber MFC Y NCharging capacitive electrodes

15 Two-chamber MFC

Quasi-capacitor

(capacitive

electrode)

N N 30

Charge pump-based systems 16 Two-chamber MFC

Charge pump

Capacitor

0633 10 43 N N 40

17Three-chamber

MCDC094 b N N 41

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

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32

Boost converter-based systems Capacitor -boost converter systems

18

Upflow MDC

(UMDC)

Rechargeable

battery DCDC boost converter 325 72 33 866

a

Y N

46

19 Benthic MFC

Capacitor

DCDC boost

converter

21 33 N N 19

20Upflow MDC

(UMDC)325 72 33 418a Y N 46

21 Benthic MFC 07 33 79 N N 47

22 Sediment MFC 07 3-104285 352

753 b N N 49 36 3697

23 Sediment MFC 05 9 N N 48

2412 two-chamber MFC-

stack 3 1800 Y N74

2512 two-chamber MFC-

stack3-5 1800 Y N 79

26 Sediment-MFC 04 4 55 N N

Capacitor-transformer-boost converter systems

27 Single-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer0475 2-75 58 b N N 61

28 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

DCDC boostconverter

079 037 33 95 N N

29 Single-chamber MFC 018 33 95 429 N N 21

30 Sediment MFC 06 17-33 N N 50

Capacitor-charge pump-boost converter systems

31 Single-chamber MFC

Capacitor

charge pump

DCDC boost

converter

03 33 95 533 N N

32 Sediment MFC 2500 N N

33 Sediment MFC 0052-032 33 lt70 N N 44

34 Benthic MFC 06 0174 33 95 N N 45

35 Sediment MFC 05 33 N N 42

36 Benthic MFC 112-144 332254-

3780 b

N N 43

37 Benthic MFC 04 7 N N 73

38 Sediment-MFC 60 N N 71

Custom-designed systems

39 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor diode

02-04 gt3 3-13a Y N 57

40 Two-chamber MFC lt677a Y N 66

Maximum power point-based systems

41 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

inductor diode

0316-

037225 360a Y Y 40

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7212019 Wang 2015

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33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Page 34: Wang 2015

7212019 Wang 2015

httpslidepdfcomreaderfullwang-2015 3434

33

42 Two-chamber MFCCapacitor

transformer03 22 461a Y Y 59

43 Two-chamber MFC Capacitor

inductor

028-033 759a Y Y

44 Two-chamber MFC Y Y

12

45 Single-chamber MFC Capacitor

transformer

diode

03 06-2 73 N Y 65

46 Single-chamber MFC 03 665-806 N Y 69

47 Single-chamber MFC 03 74 N Y 70

48 Benthic MFC unknown 035 5 6 18 85 N Y 51

Integrated circuit-based systems

49 Single-chamber MFCCommercial IC

capacitors006-017 gt3 N N 68

50 Two-chamber MFCCustom-

designed IC

036 032825 85

17 N Y 16

04 0512 30

51Two-chamber

miniaturized MFC06-07 09-12 lt85 b N N 67

a The efficiency presents the circuit efficiency ( η ) only External power was provided but not included in the calculation690

b The efficiency presents both the circuit efficiency ( η ) and the overall system efficiency ( η ) No external power was provided or691

external power is included in the calculation692

ACS Paragon Plus Environment