SECOND LANGUAGE SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION ACQUISITION

THEORIESTHEORIES

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION Second language acquisition (SLA) is a Second language acquisition (SLA) is a

complex process, involving many complex process, involving many interrelated factors. The term ‘second interrelated factors. The term ‘second language acquisition’ refers to the language acquisition’ refers to the conscious and subconscious processes conscious and subconscious processes by which a language other than mother by which a language other than mother tongue is learnt in a natural or tutored tongue is learnt in a natural or tutored setting.It covers the development of setting.It covers the development of phonology, lexis, grammar, and phonology, lexis, grammar, and pragmatic knowledge but has been pragmatic knowledge but has been largely confined to morphosyntax.largely confined to morphosyntax.

There has been no shortage of theorizing about There has been no shortage of theorizing about second language acquisition (SLA). The second language acquisition (SLA). The research literature abounds in approaches, research literature abounds in approaches, theories, models, laws, and principles.theories, models, laws, and principles.

There are a number of theories of SLA. They There are a number of theories of SLA. They are;are;

1. The Acculturation Model ( and closely 1. The Acculturation Model ( and closely associated with it, the Nativization Model)associated with it, the Nativization Model)

2. Accomodation Theory2. Accomodation Theory

3. Discourse Theory3. Discourse Theory

4. The Monitor Model4. The Monitor Model

5. The Variable Competence Model5. The Variable Competence Model

6. The Universal Hypothesis6. The Universal Hypothesis

7. A Neurofunctional Theory7. A Neurofunctional Theory

What is Second Language What is Second Language Acquisition?Acquisition?

1.1. SLA as a uniform phenomenonSLA as a uniform phenomenon2.2. Second language acquisition vs first Second language acquisition vs first

language acquisitionlanguage acquisition3.3. Second language acquisition vs Second language acquisition vs

foreign language acquisitionforeign language acquisition4.4. The centrality of syntax and The centrality of syntax and

morphologymorphology5.5. Competence vs performanceCompetence vs performance6.6. Acquisition vs learningAcquisition vs learning

SLA as a uniform phenomenonSLA as a uniform phenomenon SLA is not a uniform and predictable SLA is not a uniform and predictable

phenomenon.phenomenon. There is no single way in which learners There is no single way in which learners

acquire a knowledge of a second acquire a knowledge of a second language (L2)language (L2)

SLA is a product of many factors SLA is a product of many factors pertaining to the learner and the pertaining to the learner and the learning situation.learning situation.

Second language acquisition vs Second language acquisition vs first language acquisitionfirst language acquisition

Contrast to first language acquisitionContrast to first language acquisition It is a study of how learners learn as an It is a study of how learners learn as an

additional language after they have additional language after they have acquired their mother tongue.acquired their mother tongue.

The study of language-learner language The study of language-learner language began with the study of first language began with the study of first language (L1) acquisition.(L1) acquisition.

Second language acquisition vs Second language acquisition vs foreign language acquisitionforeign language acquisition

Second language acquisition is not Second language acquisition is not intended to contrast with foreign intended to contrast with foreign language acquisitionlanguage acquisition

SLA is used as general term that SLA is used as general term that embraces both untutored (or ‘naturalistic’ embraces both untutored (or ‘naturalistic’ acquisition and tutored (or ‘classroom’) acquisition and tutored (or ‘classroom’) acquisition.acquisition.

The centrality of syntax and The centrality of syntax and morphologymorphology

The focus has been on how L2 learners acquire The focus has been on how L2 learners acquire grammatical sub-systems, such as negatives or grammatical sub-systems, such as negatives or interrogatives, or grammatical morphemes interrogatives, or grammatical morphemes such as the plural (s) or the definite and such as the plural (s) or the definite and indefinite articles.indefinite articles.

A little is known about L2 phonology, but almost A little is known about L2 phonology, but almost nothing about the acquisition of lexis.nothing about the acquisition of lexis.

SLA researchers pay attention to how learners SLA researchers pay attention to how learners acquire the ability to communicate and acquire the ability to communicate and examine how learners use their knowledge to examine how learners use their knowledge to communicate their ideas and intention.communicate their ideas and intention.

Competence vs performanceCompetence vs performance According to Chomsky (1965), competence According to Chomsky (1965), competence

consists of mental representation of linguistic consists of mental representation of linguistic rules which constitute the speaker-hearer’s rules which constitute the speaker-hearer’s internalized grammar.internalized grammar.

Performance consists of the comprehension and Performance consists of the comprehension and production of language.production of language.

11stst and 2 and 2ndnd language acquisition studies are language acquisition studies are interested in how competence is developed.interested in how competence is developed.

In one sense, SLA research is about In one sense, SLA research is about performance as it looks at actual utterances.performance as it looks at actual utterances.

Acquisition vs learningAcquisition vs learning The term ‘acquisition’ is used to refer to The term ‘acquisition’ is used to refer to

picking up a second language through picking up a second language through exposureexposure

The term ‘learning’ is used to refer to the The term ‘learning’ is used to refer to the conscious study of a second language.conscious study of a second language.

Both ‘acquisition’ and ‘learning’ can be Both ‘acquisition’ and ‘learning’ can be used interchangeably, irrespective of used interchangeably, irrespective of whether conscious or subconscious.whether conscious or subconscious.

Description of Krashen's Theory of Description of Krashen's Theory of Second Language AcquisitionSecond Language Acquisition

Krashen's theory of second language Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main acquisition consists of five main hypotheses: hypotheses:

the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis, the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis, the Monitor hypothesis, the Monitor hypothesis, the Natural Order hypothesis, the Natural Order hypothesis, the Input hypothesis, the Input hypothesis, and the Affective Filter hypothesis and the Affective Filter hypothesis

INPUT HYPOTHESIS INPUT HYPOTHESIS • "What theory implies, quite simply, is that "What theory implies, quite simply, is that

language acquisition, first or second, occurs language acquisition, first or second, occurs when comprehension of real messages when comprehension of real messages occurs, and when the acquirer is not 'on the occurs, and when the acquirer is not 'on the defensive'... Language acquisition does not defensive'... Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill. tedious drill.

• It does not occur overnight, however. It does not occur overnight, however. • Real language acquisition develops slowly, Real language acquisition develops slowly,

and speaking skills emerge significantly later and speaking skills emerge significantly later than listening skills, even when conditions are than listening skills, even when conditions are perfect. perfect.

• The best methods are therefore those The best methods are therefore those that supply 'comprehensible input' in low that supply 'comprehensible input' in low

anxiety situations, containing messages anxiety situations, containing messages

that students really want to hear. that students really want to hear. • These methods do not force early These methods do not force early

production in the second language, but production in the second language, but allow students to produce when they are allow students to produce when they are 'ready', recognizing that improvement 'ready', recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative comes from supplying communicative and comprehensible input, and not from and comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting production." (6-7)forcing and correcting production." (6-7)

THE RELATIONSHIP OF THEORY THE RELATIONSHIP OF THEORY TO PRACTICETO PRACTICE

In deciding how to develop language In deciding how to develop language teaching methods and materials, one can teaching methods and materials, one can take three approaches: take three approaches: • make use of second language acquisition make use of second language acquisition

theory,theory,• make use of applied linguistics research, make use of applied linguistics research,

and and • make use of ideas and intuition from make use of ideas and intuition from

experience. experience. ..

These approaches should in fact These approaches should in fact

support each other and lead to support each other and lead to

common conclusions. common conclusions. While "most current theory may While "most current theory may

still not be the final word on second still not be the final word on second

language acquisition”, it is hoped that language acquisition”, it is hoped that

teachers will use the ideas and other teachers will use the ideas and other

sources alongside in their classroom sources alongside in their classroom

and language-learning experiencesand language-learning experiences

The The Input Input hypothesis is Krashen's hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second language. acquires a second language.

In other words, this hypothesis is In other words, this hypothesis is Krashen's explanation of how second Krashen's explanation of how second language acquisition takes place. language acquisition takes place.

So, the Input hypothesis is only So, the Input hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'. 'learning'.

According to this hypothesis, the learner According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along the improves and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she receives 'natural order' when he/she receives second language 'input' that is one step second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence.competence.

For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then

acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed

to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level

'i + 1'. 'i + 1'. Since not all of the learners can be at Since not all of the learners can be at

the same level of linguistic competence at the the same level of linguistic competence at the

same time, Krashen suggests that same time, Krashen suggests that natural natural

communicative inputcommunicative input is the key to designing a is the key to designing a

syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner

will receive some 'i + 1' input that is will receive some 'i + 1' input that is

appropriate for his/her current stage of appropriate for his/her current stage of

linguistic competence linguistic competence

The input hypothesis answers the The input hypothesis answers the question of how a language acquirer question of how a language acquirer develops competency over time. develops competency over time.

It states that a language acquirer who is It states that a language acquirer who is at "level i" must receive comprehensible at "level i" must receive comprehensible input that is at "level i+1." "We acquire, input that is at "level i+1." "We acquire, in other words, only when we understand in other words, only when we understand language that contains structure that is 'a language that contains structure that is 'a little beyond' where we are now." little beyond' where we are now."

This understanding is possible due to This understanding is possible due to using the context of the language we are using the context of the language we are hearing or reading and our knowledge of hearing or reading and our knowledge of the world.the world.

However, instead of aiming to receive However, instead of aiming to receive input that is exactly at our i+1 level, or input that is exactly at our i+1 level, or instead of having a teacher aim to teach instead of having a teacher aim to teach us grammatical structure that is at our us grammatical structure that is at our i+1 level, we should instead just focus on i+1 level, we should instead just focus on

communication that is understandable. communication that is understandable. If we do this, and if we get enough of that If we do this, and if we get enough of that

kind of input, then we will in effect be kind of input, then we will in effect be receiving and thus acquiring out i+1. receiving and thus acquiring out i+1.

"Production ability emerges. It is not "Production ability emerges. It is not

taught directly."taught directly."

Evidences for the input hypothesis can Evidences for the input hypothesis can be found in the effectiveness of caretaker be found in the effectiveness of caretaker speech from an adult to a child, of speech from an adult to a child, of teacher-talk from a teacher to a language teacher-talk from a teacher to a language student, and of foreigner-talk from a student, and of foreigner-talk from a sympathetic conversation partner to a sympathetic conversation partner to a language learner/acquirer. language learner/acquirer.

One result of this hypothesis is that One result of this hypothesis is that language students should be given a language students should be given a initial "silent period" where they are initial "silent period" where they are building up acquired competence in a building up acquired competence in a language before they begin to produce it.language before they begin to produce it.

Whenever language acquirers try to Whenever language acquirers try to produce language beyond what they produce language beyond what they have acquired, they tend to use the rules have acquired, they tend to use the rules they have already acquired from their they have already acquired from their first language, thus allowing them to first language, thus allowing them to communicate but not really progress in communicate but not really progress in the second language.the second language.

Cognitive ModelsCognitive ModelsMcLaughlin’s Attention –Processing ModelMcLaughlin’s Attention –Processing Model

This model juxtaposes processing mechanisms This model juxtaposes processing mechanisms (controlled and automatic) and categories of (controlled and automatic) and categories of attention to form four cells.attention to form four cells.

Controlled processes are “capacity limited and Controlled processes are “capacity limited and temporary”and automatic processes are temporary”and automatic processes are relatively permanent” (Mc Laughlin).relatively permanent” (Mc Laughlin).

Controlled processing as typical of anyone Controlled processing as typical of anyone learning a new skill in which very few learning a new skill in which very few elements of the skill can be retained.elements of the skill can be retained.

Automatic processes – refer to processing Automatic processes – refer to processing in a more accomplished skill – brain can in a more accomplished skill – brain can manage information simultaneously.manage information simultaneously.

The automatizing of data is accomplished The automatizing of data is accomplished by a process of restructuring in which the by a process of restructuring in which the components of a task are coordinated, components of a task are coordinated, integrated or reorganized into new units, integrated or reorganized into new units, thereby allowing the old components to thereby allowing the old components to be replaced by a more efficient procedurebe replaced by a more efficient procedure

Possible second language performance as a function of information processing Possible second language performance as a function of information processing procedures and attention to formal properties of language (McLaughlin)procedures and attention to formal properties of language (McLaughlin)

(Table 1)(Table 1)

ATTENTION TO FORMALATTENTION TO FORMAL

PROPERTIES OF LANGUAGEPROPERTIES OF LANGUAGE

INFORMATION PROCESSINGINFORMATION PROCESSING

FocalFocal

PeripheralPeripheral

(Cell A)(Cell A)

Performance based Performance based on formal rule on formal rule learninglearning

(Cell C)(Cell C)

Performance based Performance based on implicit learning on implicit learning or analogic learningor analogic learning

(Cell B)(Cell B)

Performance in a Performance in a test situationtest situation

(Cell D)(Cell D)

Performance in Performance in communication communication

situationssituations

Processing can occur with either focal or Processing can occur with either focal or peripheral attention to the task at hand- peripheral attention to the task at hand- focusing attention centrally or on the focusing attention centrally or on the periphery.periphery.

While many controlled processes are While many controlled processes are focal, it can also be peripheral in instance focal, it can also be peripheral in instance when a child learns first language or when a child learns first language or learning skills without any instruction.learning skills without any instruction.

Similarly, automatic processes are Similarly, automatic processes are peripheral but some can be focal.peripheral but some can be focal.

Virtually every act of performing Virtually every act of performing something, focal and peripheral attention something, focal and peripheral attention actually occur simultaneously.actually occur simultaneously.

In Table 2, it is important to note that In Table 2, it is important to note that these cells are described in terms of these cells are described in terms of one’s processing of and attention to one’s processing of and attention to language forms (grammatical, language forms (grammatical, phonological, discourse rules and phonological, discourse rules and categories, lexical choices, etc)categories, lexical choices, etc)

If peripheral attention is given to If peripheral attention is given to language forms in language classroom, language forms in language classroom, focal attention is being given to meaning, focal attention is being given to meaning, function, purpose or person.function, purpose or person.

Based on Table 2, child 2Based on Table 2, child 2ndnd language may language may consist almost exclusively of peripheral consist almost exclusively of peripheral (cells C and D) attention to language (cells C and D) attention to language forms.forms.

Most adult 2Most adult 2ndnd language learning of language learning of language forms in the classroom involves language forms in the classroom involves a movement frommcell A through a a movement frommcell A through a combination of C and B, to D.combination of C and B, to D.

Peripheral, automatic attention-Peripheral, automatic attention-processing of language is an ultimate processing of language is an ultimate communicative goal for language communicative goal for language learners.learners.

Table 2:Table 2: Practical applications of McLaughlin’s attention-Practical applications of McLaughlin’s attention-

processing modelprocessing model

CONTROLLED: AUTOMATIC:CONTROLLED: AUTOMATIC:

new skill, capacity well trained, practiced skill new skill, capacity well trained, practiced skill

limited capacity is relatively unlimitedlimited capacity is relatively unlimited

FOCALFOCAL

IntentionalIntentional

attentionattention

• Grammatical explanation of Grammatical explanation of a specific pointa specific point

• Word definitionWord definition• Copy a written modelCopy a written model• The first stages of The first stages of

“memorizing” a dialog“memorizing” a dialog• Prefabricated patternsPrefabricated patterns• Various discrete-point Various discrete-point

exercisesexercises

•““keeping an eye out” for keeping an eye out” for somethingsomething•Advanced L2 learner focuses on Advanced L2 learner focuses on

modals, clause information, etc.modals, clause information, etc.•Monitoring oneself while talking or Monitoring oneself while talking or writing writing•ScanningScanning•Editing, peer-editingEditing, peer-editing

PERIPHERALPERIPHERAL •Simple greetings Simple greetings •The later stages of ‘memorizing’ The later stages of ‘memorizing’ a dialoga dialog•TPR/ Natural ApproachTPR/ Natural Approach•New L2 learner successfully New L2 learner successfully completes a brief conversationcompletes a brief conversation

•Open-ended group workOpen-ended group work•Rapid reading, skimmingRapid reading, skimming•Free writesFree writes•Normal conversational exchanges Normal conversational exchanges of some lengthof some length

Cognitive ModelsCognitive ModelsImplicit and Explicit ModelsImplicit and Explicit Models

Made a distinction between explicit and implicit Made a distinction between explicit and implicit linguistic knowledgelinguistic knowledge

Explicit Linguistic knowledgeExplicit Linguistic knowledge - the facts that a person knows about language and - the facts that a person knows about language and

the ability to articulate those facts in some waythe ability to articulate those facts in some way - differs from McLaughlin’s focal attention in explicit - differs from McLaughlin’s focal attention in explicit

signalssignals• Implicit Linguistic knowledgeImplicit Linguistic knowledge -knowledge is information that is automatically and -knowledge is information that is automatically and

spontaneously used in language tasksspontaneously used in language tasks - enable a learner to perform language but not - enable a learner to perform language but not

necessarily to cite rules governing the performancenecessarily to cite rules governing the performance (Refer to Figure 10.2, pg 285)-Principles of Language Learning and Teaching(Refer to Figure 10.2, pg 285)-Principles of Language Learning and Teaching))

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST MODELSOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST MODEL Interaction hypothesis that Interaction hypothesis that

comprehensible input is the result of comprehensible input is the result of modified interactionmodified interaction

Associated with current approaches to 1Associated with current approaches to 1stst & 2& 2ndnd language acquisition emphasizes on language acquisition emphasizes on the dynamic nature of interplay between the dynamic nature of interplay between learners and their peers, teachers.learners and their peers, teachers.

Interaction and input as two major items Interaction and input as two major items in the process of acquisition.in the process of acquisition.

Emphasis on the language classroom as a Emphasis on the language classroom as a place where contexts for interaction are place where contexts for interaction are carefully designed.carefully designed.

AN OVERVIEW OF TEACHING APPROACHES, AN OVERVIEW OF TEACHING APPROACHES, METHODS AND TECHNIQUESMETHODS AND TECHNIQUES

Popular language teaching methods today include Popular language teaching methods today include grammar-translation, audio-lingualism, cognitive-code, grammar-translation, audio-lingualism, cognitive-code, the direct method, the natural approach, total physical the direct method, the natural approach, total physical response, and Suggestopedia. How do these methods response, and Suggestopedia. How do these methods fare when they are evaluated by Second Language fare when they are evaluated by Second Language Acquisition theory? Each method will be evaluated Acquisition theory? Each method will be evaluated using the following criteria:using the following criteria:

Requirements for optimal input -- comprehensible -- Requirements for optimal input -- comprehensible -- interesting/relevant -- not grammatically sequenced -- interesting/relevant -- not grammatically sequenced -- quantity -- low filter level -- provides tools for quantity -- low filter level -- provides tools for conversational managementconversational management

Learning restricted to: -- Rules that are easily learned Learning restricted to: -- Rules that are easily learned and applied, and not acquired yet -- Monitor users -- and applied, and not acquired yet -- Monitor users -- Situations when the learner has adequate time and a Situations when the learner has adequate time and a focus on formfocus on form

GRAMMAR TRANSLATION GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHODMETHOD

Grammar-translation usually consists of an Grammar-translation usually consists of an explanation of a grammatical rule, with some explanation of a grammatical rule, with some example sentences, a bilingual vocabulary list, example sentences, a bilingual vocabulary list, a reading section exemplifying the grammatical a reading section exemplifying the grammatical rule and incorporating the vocabulary, and rule and incorporating the vocabulary, and exercises to practice using the grammar and exercises to practice using the grammar and vocabulary. Most of these classes are taught in vocabulary. Most of these classes are taught in the student's first language. The grammar-the student's first language. The grammar-translation method provides little opportunity translation method provides little opportunity for acquisition and relies too heavily on for acquisition and relies too heavily on learning.learning.

DIRECT METHODDIRECT METHOD

Several approaches have been called Several approaches have been called the "direct method"; the approach the "direct method"; the approach evaluated here involves all evaluated here involves all discussion in the target language. discussion in the target language.

The teacher uses examples of The teacher uses examples of language in order to inductively language in order to inductively teach grammar; students are to try teach grammar; students are to try to guess the rules of the language by to guess the rules of the language by the examples provided. the examples provided.

Teachers interact with the students a Teachers interact with the students a lot, asking them questions about lot, asking them questions about relevant topics and trying to use the relevant topics and trying to use the grammatical structure of the day in grammatical structure of the day in the conversation. the conversation.

Accuracy is sought and errors are Accuracy is sought and errors are corrected. This method provides corrected. This method provides more comprehensible input than the more comprehensible input than the methods discussed so far, but it still methods discussed so far, but it still focuses too much on grammar focuses too much on grammar