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BRIEF CONT ENT S

PART ONE CHAPTER t CHAPTER z CHAPTER s cHAPTER + CHAPTER S cHAPTERe

Foundations Doing Social Research Theory and Social Research Ethics in Social Research Reviewingthe Scholarly Literature and Planninga Study Qualitative and Quantitative Measurement Qualitative and Quantitative Sampling

PARTTwoCHAPTER Z CHAPTER 8 CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER o 1

Conducting QuantitativeResearchSurvey Research ExperimentalResearch Nonreactive Researchand Secondary Analysis Analysisof Quantitative Data

PART THREr cHAPTER 1l cHAPTER2 I

Conductin g Qualita t iv e Re s e a rc h Field Rese a rch Historical-Comparative Research

CHAPTER Analysis Qualitative 13 of Data

PAR T FO U R Writing a Rese a rch p o rt Re cHAPTER4 1 Writing the Research Report

CONT ENT S

Preface

xl

Ethicsand the Scientific Community 59 Ethicsand the Sponsorsof Research 61 Politicsof Research Value-Freeand Objective Research 64 63

;;-;

;-;

-- -'"-'-

## FoundationsCHA P T E R I

Doing SocialResearchIntroduction

l3 9 O

Conclusion

6G

2 Alternatives SocialResearch to How ScienceWorks 7 Dimensionsof Research Conc lus ion 21 Steps in the Researchprocess .l

C H A P TE R 4

Reviewing ScholarlyLiteratureand the Planning Study a 68Introduction Literature Review 69 69 Usingthe Internet for Social Research 80

C HA P T E R 2

Theory and SocialResearchlntroduction What ls Theory? The Parts ofTheory 24 24 26

23

Qualitativeand euantitative Orientations toward Research g4 QualitativeDesignlssues QuantitativeDesignlssues C oncl usi on 106 gg 9l

The AspectsofTheory Zg The Three Major Approaches to Social Science 41 The DynamicDuo Conc lus ion 45 44

C H A P TE R 5

and Quantitative Qualitative Measurement 108Introduction 'l 09 I 09 Why Measure?

CHA P T E R 3

Ethicsin SocialResearchIntroduction Why Be Ethical? 48 48

47

and eual i tati ve Quanti tati ve Measurement II0 Partsof the Measurement Process 1 'l 't R el i abi l i ty and V al i di ty A Guideto Quantitative Measurement I 2lvil

Power Relations 49 Ethicallssues InvolvingResearch Participants S0

IIs

VIII

CONT ENT S

lndex Construction Sc a l e s Conclusion 128 138

126

Making Results Experimental of Research: 219 C ompari sons A Word on Ethics C oncl usi on 222 221

C H A PT E R 5

Qualitativeand Quantitative S amp lin g 140fntroduction 141 141 145 N o n p ro b a b i l i ty a m p l i ng S Pro b a b i l i ty a m p l i n g S Conclusion 164

C H A P TE R 9

and Secondary NonreactiveResearch Analysis 224fntroduction Content Analysis 225 225 227 NonreactiveMeasurement

Existing Statistics/Documents and Analysis 236 Secondary PA R T T W O

l:i::::: Conducting Quantitative ResearchC H AP T ER 7

lssuesof lnference and Theory Testing 244 Conclusion 245

C H A P TE R I O

SurveyResearchl n tro d u c ti o n 167

155 ' r5 8 169

Analysis Quantitative of 247 Datafntroduction Dealingwith Data 248 248 251 257 263

The Logicof SurveyResearch Constructingthe Questionnaire Typesof Surveys: Advantages and Disadvantages 1 86 lnterviewing Conclusion 190 196 197 The EthicalSurvey

R esul ts i th One V ari abl e w Results with Two Variables More Than Two Variables lnferentialStatistics C oncl usi on 272 268

C H A PT E R 8

PART THREE

Experimental ResearchIntroduction 201 2O2 Random Assignment

200

ii? Conducting Qualitative ResearchC H A P TE R I 1

Experimental DesignLogic fnternal and External Validity PracticalConsiderations

2O4 212 219

FieldResearchfntroduction

27527 5

C ON TEN TS

rx

The Logicof FieldResearch

Z7g

Access

c hoos inga s i te a n d Ga i n i n g ' ---.....D

C H A P TE R I 3

280

Analysis eualitative Data ofIntroduction 287 296 329 ComparingMethods of Data Analysis 328 Coding and Concept Formation AnalyticStrategies Qualitative for Data 335 Other Techniques 339 Softwarefor eualitative Data Conclusion 342

327

Relationsin the Field

2gS

Observingand CollectingData The Field ResearchInterview Leaving the Field FocusGroups 2gg 300

32g

EthicalDilemmasof Field Research 301 Conclusion 3OZ

34O

CHA P T E R I 2

Historical-comparative Research 3O4fntroduction 3O4 The Logicof Historical-Comparative Research iO5 steps in a Historical-comparative Research Project 31 0 Data and Evidence Historical in Context 312 comparative Research 317 Equivalence Historical-Comparative in Research 322 Ethics Conclusion 325 325

PART Fo u R iti\ Writinga Research ReportC H A P TE R 1 4 \{riting the Research Report 344 344 359 36'l 377 391 3g3 343

Introduction Conclusion Glossary Bibliography Name Index Subject Index

The ResearchReport

CHAPTER 1

DoingSocialResearch

Introduction Alternatives to Social Research Authority Tradition C o m m o n n se Se Me d i aMy th s P e rs o n a l x p eri ence E How ScienceWorks Sc i e n c e T h e S c i e n ti flCommuni ty c The Scientific Methodand Attitude Articles Science in Journal Steps in the ResearchProcess Dimensionsof Research Useof Research Pu rp o s e fa Study o T i m eD i me n s i on R esearcn in D a taC o l l e c ti o n Techni ques Conclusion

PART ONE

,/ F OUND A TION S

IN T R OD U C T ION is go\,Socialresearch all arounclus. Educators, ernment officials, businessmanagers,hutntrrt providers,and health care professionals service regularlyuse socialresearch methods anclfindings.Peopleusesocialresearch raisechildren, to reducecrime, irnprclve public health,sellprodof ucts,clrjust understand one'slil-e. Reports researchappearon brclaclcast ne$,sprograms,it.t popuiar magazines, nen,spapers, on the in and lnternet. Research findings can aftbct people'sdaily livesand public policies. For example,I recentll' heard a debateregrrrclirrg U.S.lederaigoverna ment program to off-erteenagers sexualabstin e n c e c o u n s e l i n g .A h i gh-l evel government official argued for sucl-r counselingancl stror"rgl,v opposed offering teensbirth control inforirati o n . A n i n d e p e n c l e n th eal th admi ni strator noted that there is no scientiflcevidence shou,ing that abstinence-only counselingrvorks.Iie saidthat 80 percentoftcens arc alreadysexually to activebythe ageof 18,thereforeit is essential provide birth control information. Hc prointed to ma n y re s e a rc hs tu c l i es shorvi ngthi rt bi rth prcsnJncv control instruction for tecnslecluce's ratesand the spreadof scrr.rallr t1i:tr'.rr.rsnrittcti e a s e sT h e g o v e rn mc n ta Lrsti ncr.tcc l r' ro. or.i .rrl catereiied on rnoral persurrsion hc Lrcc.rr.rscir.r11 no research eviclencc. lcieoloqr,iirith, .urcipoliti c s s h a p ema n \' g o v e rn n rent progranrsrather than solid research cvidcnce, br,rt good socialrcsearchcan help all of us make inlbrnred decisions. The evidence also expltrins wh,y m.ury programs fail to accornplishmr.rchor m;ry do more harm than gooc1. In This book is about socialresearch. simple tenxs, research a way of going about finding is answersto questions.Prof-essors, prof-essional researchers, practitioners, in and students many fields cor-rdr.rct research scekansr\rers questo to tions about the socialworld. You probably already have some notion clf whirt social reseal'ch entails.First,Iet me end sornepossible miscor.t-

When i askedstudentsin my classes ceptior.rs. entails,they gave ufiat they think socialreseirrch the lbllolr,ir-rg ans\\rers: r r r r r r It is basedon firctsalone; there is no theory juclgrlrent. or prersonal or Onlr.expertsu,ith a Ph.D. degree college professors read it or do it. It meansgoing to the library and finding a lot of magazine articles bookson a topic. or It is r,r,hen someonehangsaround a group and observes. It means conducting ir controlled experinlent. is Socialresearch clrawinga sampleof peoto ple and givingthem questionnaires cornplete. It is looking up lots of statistical tables from oftrcial government and intbrn-ratior-r reports. Llse To do it, onc r.r.rr-Lst computersto create charts, and graphs. stati sti cs,

r

r

are The flrst t\\'o .urs\vers wrong, and the of soothe-r's clcscribe or.rl.,.part what constitutes It to cia] r'escarch. is r-rr.rlvise confuseone part rr ith the n.hole . P eopl e conduct soci al resear cht o lear n nerv about the social world; or to sorr-rething hunches,or beliefs carefullydocunrentguesses, ofhow about it; or to refinetheir understanding combines the sociaiworld works. A researcher or tl-reories ideaslr,ith facts in a careful, systematic rvay and usescreativity. He or she learns to orgirnizeand plan carefully and to selectthe apkind of propriatetechniqr-re address specific to a A alsomust treatthe people question. rescarcher in a studi,in ethicaland moral ways.In addition, n-rust firlly ilnd clearlycommunicate a researcher the resultsofa study to others. is in Socialreseirrch ir process which people combine a set of principles,outlooks,and ideas (i.c.,methodology)rvith a collectionof specific practi ces,techni ques,and strateg ies( i. e. , a It rnethocl inquiry) to produceknorvledge. is of

C H AP TE R 1 ,/ D OIN C SOC IA L R E S TdR C -

position of authority saysit is true or bec.ri:.c .. is in an authoritativepublication, )'ou are relvrn:on authority as a basisfor knowledge.Relr'inc on the wisdom of authoritiesis a quick, sirtrl.]3. and cheapway to learn something.Authoi-itie. often spend time and effort to learn son.rething. and_you can benefit from their experienceand worK. There are also limitations to relying on allthority. First, it is easyto overestimate experthe tise of other people.You may assumethat thev are right when they are not. History is full of past expertswhom we now seeasbeing misinformed. For example>some "experts" of the past n-reasured intelligenceby counting bumps on the AL T E RNA T I V E S T O S OC IA L skull; other "experts" usedbloodletting to try to R E S E A RCH cure diseases. Their errors seem obvious norl,, Unlessyou are unusual, most of r,vhat you know but can you be certain that today's expertswill about the socialworld is not basedon doins sonot becometomorrow's fools?Second, authorrcial research. You probably learnedmost of i,hat ties may not agree, and all authoritiesmay not be you know using an alternativeto socialresearcl-r. equally dependable. Whom should we believeif It is basedon what your parentsand other people authorities disagree?Third, authorities may (e.g.,friends, teachers)have told you. You also speakon fields they know little about or be plaru have knowledgebasedon your personalexperiwrong. An expert who is very informed about ences,the books and magazines you have read, one area may use his or her authority in an unand the movies and televisionyou havewatched. related area. Also, using the halo effect (disYou may also useplain old "common sense." cussed later), expertisein one areamay spill over More than a collection of technioues,social illegitimatelyto be authority in a totally different research a process producing knowledge.It is for area.Have you everseentelevisioncommercials is a more structured, organized,and systematic where a movie star useshis or her fame as auprocessthan the alternativesthat most of us use thority to convinceyou to buy a car?We r.reecl tcr in daily life. Knowledge from the alternativesis ask:Who is or is not an authority? often correct, but knowledge basedon research An additionalissueis the misuseof authoris more likely to be true and have fewer errors. ity. Sometimes organizations or indii'iduals Although research doesnot alwaysproduce pergive an appearance authority so thev ciut coltof fect knowledge,compared to the alternatives is it vince others to agree to something that thel' rnuch lesslikely to be flawed. Let us review the might not otherwise agree A relatecl to. situation alternatives before examining socialresearch. occurswhen a personwith little trairringi.rnd expertiseis named as a "seniorfbllon"'or."adiunct scholar" in a private "think trrnk" r,ith .in inrAuthority pressivename, such as the Center tbr the Study You have acquired knowledge from parents, of X or the Institute on Y Research. Somethink teachers, and expertsaswell as from books, teletanks are Iegitimateresearch centers, but rnany vision, and other media. When you accept are mere fronts createdby,.rveirlthv special-intersomething as being true becausesomeone in a estgroupsto engage advocao.politics. in Think

an exciting processof discovery,but it requires persistence, personalintegrity, tolerancefor ambiguity, interaction with others,and pride in doing qualiry work. Reading this book cannot transform you into an expert researcher, it can teachyou to but be a better consumerof research results,help you to understandhow the research enterprise works, and prepareyou to conduct small research projects.After studying this book, you will be aware of what researchcan and cannot do, and why properly conductedresearch important. is

o a RT O\E

\)rl

o\5

t.r1rk: a,ii t.r.,ri .it]\r)uai.t"scholar"to facilitare ti rc :r...' . r' i r..l .,r a a c p ti n q pcrsonas al t au.i the ti t!j t.i i ' .L rtt.:tt l :rL l c .l rt real i ty,the perS onmay ir(rtir.r,. .rir, l...rl!'\pertise.lAlso, too much reI :r.r:ta !)i t ,tu th ()fti c sc a n b e dangerous a de!' l tO i ]]r,.i .rti c .o c re t)' .E x p e rtsmay promote i deas il.l.rt:trr'nqthentheir own power and position. \\'ltcrt rrc'.lcCept authority of experts, the but do rr)t kuo\\' l.rolvthey arrived at their knowledge, rlc Ltrsc the ability to evaluatewhat the experts savancilosecontrol of our destiny. T ra d i ti o n Peoplesometimesrely on tradition fbr knowledge.Tradition is a specialcaseof authoritythe authority of the past. Tradition means you "it's the acceptsomethingasbeing true because \\ray things have always been." For example, my father-in-law saysthat drinking a shot of u'hiskeycures a cold. When I askedabout hrs statement,he said that he had learnedit from his father when he was a child, and it had come down from past generations.Tradition lvas the basisof the knowledge for the cure. Here is an examplefrom the socialworld: Many peoplebelieve that children who are raised at home by their mothers grow up to be better adjustedand have fewer personalproblems than those raised in other settings.People "know" this, but how did they learn it? Most acceptit because they believe (rightly or wrongly) that it rvastrue in the past or is the way things have alwaysbeen done. Sorne traditional social knowledge begins as simple prejudice.You might rely on tradition rvithor-rt being fully awareof it with a belief such as "Peoprle from that side of the trackswill never arnoLlntto anvthing" or "You never can trust that tvpe oi person"or "That's the way men (or u,omen) are." El,enif traditional knowledgewas oncetrue, it can becomedistortedas it is passed on, and soon it is no longer true. Peoplemay cling to traditional knowledgewithout real understanding;they assumethat becausesomething may haveworked or been true in the past, it rvill continueto be true.

C ommon S ense You knorv a lot about the socialworld from your everyday reasoning cornmon sense. or You rely on what everyoneknows and what "just makes sense." For example,it "just makessense"that murder rates are higher in nations that do not have a death penalty, becausepeople are less likely to kill if they face execution for doing so. This and other widely held commonsense beliefs, such as that poor youth are more likely to commit deviantactsthan thosefrom the middle classor that most Catholics do not use birth control,are false. Comrnon senseis valuable in daily living, but it irilolvslogicalfallacies slip into thinking. to For example, so-called the gambler's fallacysays: "If I hai'e a long string of losses playing a lottery, the nert tine I play, my chances winning lvill of be better."In terms of probabilityand the facts, this is Ialse.Also, cclmmon sense containscor.rtradictory ideastl-ratoften go unnoticed because people use the ideas irt different times, such as "opposites attract" and "birds of a feather flock together."Common sense can originate in tradition. It is useful and sometimescorrect,but it alsocontainserrors,misinformation,contradiction, and prejudice.

Media Myths Television shows, movies, and newspaper and magazinearticiesare important sourcesof information. For example, most people have no contactwith criminalsbut leam about crime by watching televisionshows and movies and by reading newspapers. However, the television portrayalsof crime, and of many other things, do not accuratelyreflect socialreality. The writers who create or "adapt" images from life for television sholvsand movie scripts distort reality either out of ignorance or becausethey rely on authority, tradition, and common sense. Their primary goal is to entertain,llot to repreAlthough many journalsentreality accurately. iststry to presenta realistic picture of the world,

C H AP TE R 1 /

D OIN C S OC IA L R E S E A R C T

they m us t wr it e s to ri e si n s h o rt ti m e p e ri o d s rvith limited information and within editorial eLridelines. Unfortunately, the media tend to perpetuate the mlths of a culture. For example,the media show that most people ivho receivewelfare are Black (actually, most are White), that most peoplewho are mentally ill are violent and dangerous (only a small percentage actually are), and that most peoplewho are elderlyare senile and in nur s ing ho m e s (a ti n y rn i n o ri ty a re ). AIso, massmedia "hype" can createa f-eeling that a major problem existswhen it may not (seeBox Li). People are n-risled i.isual imagesmore by easilythan other forms of "lying"; this means that storiesor stereotypes that appear on film and televisioncan havea porverful effecton people. For example,television repeatecllv shorvs low-income,inner-city, AfrictrnAntericanr.outl-r using illegal drugs. Eventuallr.,nlost peol)lg "know" that urban Blacksuse illegalclrLres a at higher rate than other groups in the Lrrritccl States, even though this notion is false. Competing interestsuse the rnedia to rvin public support.2Public relationscampaigns try to alter what the public thinks about scientific findings, making it difficult for the public to judge researchfindings. For exarnple,a large majority of scientific research supports the global rvnrrnir-rg thesis (i.e., pollutants from industrialization and massivedeforestationare raising the earth's temperatureand lvill cause drarnaticclimate changeand bring about environmental disasters). l'he scientificevidenceis growing and getsstrongereachyear.l'he media give equal attention to a few dissenterswho question global r,r,arming, creating the impressi o n in t he public n ti n c l th a t " n o o n e re a l l y knows" or that scientists are undecidedabout the issueof global warming. The rnedia sources fail to mention that the dissenters represent less th an 2 per c ento1' a l l c i c rrti s ts , th l t rn o s td i s s or sentingstudiesare paid for by heavilypolluting industries. The industries alsospendmillions of dol l ar st o public iz eth e fi n d i n g s b e c a u s e e i r th goalis to cleflect growing criticismand delayen-

ls Road Rage a Media Myth?Americanshear a lot about road rage.Newsweek magazine, Timemagazine, and newspapers most major in c i t i e s h a v e c a r r i e d h e a d l i n e sa b o u t i t . L e a d i n gn a tional politicalofficialshave held public hearingson it, and the federalgovernmentgives millionsof dotlars in grants to law enforcementand transportation departmentsto reduceit. Today, even psychologists specialize thisdisorder. in The term road rage first appearedin I 988, and by 1997, the print mediawere carryingover 4,000 articlesper year on it. Despitemediaattention about "aggressive driving" and "anger behind the wheel," there is no scientific evidence road rage.The term for i s n o t p r e c i s e l yd e f i n e d a n d c a n r e f e r t o a n y t h i n g from gunshots from cars,use of hand gestures,running bicyclists the road,tailgating, off and evenanger o v e r a u t o r e p a i rb i l l s !A l l t h e d a t a o n c r a s h e s n d a c a c i d e n t s s h o w d e c l i n e sd u r i n g t h e p e r i o d w h e n r o a d r a g e r e a c h e da n e p i d e m i c . Perhaps mediareportsfueled perceptions road of rage. After hearingor readingabout road rage and havinga labelfor the behavior,people began to notice rude drivingbehavior and engagedinselective observation. will not know for sure until it is properry We s t u d i e d ,b u t t h e a m o u n to f s u c h b e h a v i o r a y b e u n m changed.lt may turn out that the nationalepidemic of road rage is a widely held myth stimulatedby reports in the massmedia.(For more information,see Michael Fumento, "Road Rage versus Reality," AtlanticMonthly[August 1 998].)

vironrnentalregulations, to advance not knowredge. Newspapersoffer l.roroscopes, ar.rd television programsor nrovies report on supertratural (extrasensory powers, E,SP perception), LIFC)s (uni denti fi ed fl ,vi ng obj ects), ancl angel s or ghosts. Althor-rgh scientifice".icience r.ro existsfor such,betrveen and -50 2-5 percer-rt the U.S.pubof Iic accepts thern astrue, anclthe percentage with

6

pA RToNE ,/ F o u N D A T to N s

tive to features that confirm what we think, but ignorefeatures that contradictit. For example, I believe peopleareexcellent tall singers. This may be because stereotypes, of what mi mother told me, or whatever. observe peopleand,with_ Personal Experience I tall out awareness, particular attention to their pay If somethinghappensto you, if you personally singing. look at a chorusor top vocalistandno_ I seeit or experience you accept astrue. per_ it, it ticethosewho aretall. Withoui realizingit, I no_ sonalexperience, ..seeing te[eving,,, hasa or is tice and rememberpeople and situat[ns that strong impact and is a powerful sJurce of reinforcemy preconceived ideas.psychologists knowledge. Unfortunately,personalexperience found that people ..seek tend to out" and dirtort c.an.l9.1d astray. Something you similarto an op_ their memoriesto make them more consistent tical illusion or miragecunoci.rr. What appears with what they alreadythink.a ! true.may actuallybe due to a slight oi dir_ A third error is prematureclosure. often It tortion in judgment. The powei of"r.o, immediacy operates with and reinforces first two errors. the and direct personalcontaciis very strong.Even Premature closure occurs when you feel you knowing that, people fall for illusions."Many havethe answerand do not needio listen,seek peoplebelieve what they seeor personally expe_ information, or raisequestions longer. any Un_ riencerather than what very carefullydesiened fortunately, most of us arealittJelazvor"set lit_ a research discovered. has tle sloppy.We take a few pieces of'evid"ence or The four errorsofpersonalexperience rein_ look at eventsfor a short while and then think forceeachother and canoccurin other areas, as we haveit figured oul We look for eyidence to well. They are a basis for misleading people confirm or rejectan ideaand stop when a small through propaganda, cons or fraudl magic, amount of evidence present. a word, we is In stereotyping,and some advertising.The mtst jump to conclusions. For example, want to I frequentproblemis overgeneratization;it occurs learnwhetherpeoplein my town support Mary when someevidencesupportsyour belief, but Smith or |on Van Horn for mayor.t uit ZO p.o_ you falselyassume that it appliesto many other ple; t 6 saytheyfavor Mary,2 areundecided, and situations,too. Limited generalization be only2 favorlon, soI stopthereandbelieve Mary appropriate; under certainconditions,a small will win. -uv amount of evidence can explain a larger situa_ Anothercommonerror is thehalo tion. The problem is that many peoplJgeneral_ ffict; itis yhen r1eovergeneralize from what we accept as ize far beyond limited evidence. For eiample, being highly positive or prestigiousand let its over the years,I haveknown five blind p"opl.. strong reputation or prestige..rub off' onto All of them werevery friendly. Can t conclude other areas. Thus,I pick up a report by a person that all blind people are friendly? Do the five from a prestigious univeisity,sayHan ard or peoplewith whom I happened tohave personal Cambridge University.I assume that the author experience with represent blind peopie? all is smartand talentedand that the report will be The seconderror, selective obirvition, oc_ excellent. do not makethis assumption I abouta curswhenyou takespecial noticeof somepeople reportby someone from UnknownUniversity.I or events tendto seek eviderr.e and out thut con_ form an opinion and prejudgethe report #d fir1s whal you alreadybelieveu"a ig"o." .orr_ may-not approach by considering own mer_ it its tradlctorFlnformation.peopleoften focuson or rts alone.How the variousalternatives social to observe particularcases situations, or especially research might address issueof laundry is the when they fit preconceived ideas. W. uri ,*i_ shownin Table1.1.

such beliefshas beengrowing over time as the entertainment media give the phenomenon more prominence.3

CHA P TE R 1 ,/ D OIN G S OC IA L R ES E A R C H

TABL E I . 1

A lt er n a ti v e s to S o c i a l Research

processes. This suggests that we examinethe and meaningof science how its works. Science suggests The term science animageof testtubes, rocketships,and peoplein white lab computers, These outwardtrappingsarea part ofscicoats. (i.e.,astronomy, natural science ence,especially biology, chemistry,geology, and physics,), that deals with the physicaland materialworld (e.g., plants, chemicals, rocks, stars,and electricity). psyThe socialsciences, such as anthropology, chology,politicalscience, sociology, and involve the study of people-their beliefs, behavior,interaction,institutions,and so forth. Fewerpeople associate thesedisciplineswith the word is Science a socialinstitution and a way science. Not everyone well into produceknowledge. is formed about science. example, 2001surFor a vey found that about only one-third of U.S. adults could correctly explain the basicsof sclence." gatherdatausingspecialized Scientists techniquesand usethe datato supportor rejecttheories. Data are the empirical evidence or information that one gatherscarefullyaccording to rules or procedures. The data can be quantitative(i.e., expressed numbers) or as qualitative(i.e., expressed words, visual imas ages,sounds,or objects).Empiricaleyidence refersto observations that peopleexperience throughthe senses-touch,sight,hearing, smell, people,because reand taste.This confuses cannotusetheir senses directly obsearchers to of servemany aspects the social world about (e.g.,intelligence, which they seekanswers attiemotions,power, autudes,opinions, feelings, have thority, etc.).Researchers manyspecialized to and indirectly measure techniques observe of suchaspects the socialworld. The Scientific Community comesto life through the operation of Science the scientificcommunity,which sustains asthe

Authority

Experts that as children, say females taught to make, are clothing select, mend, andclean focuson as part of a female physical and appearance on caringfor children othersin a or family. Women the laundry do based theirchildhood on preparation. Women havedonethe laundrv for centuries, it is a so continuation whathas of happened a longtime. for

Tradition

Common Sense Menjust arenot as concerned aboutclothing muchas as women, it only makes sense so do that women the laundrv moreoften. MediaMyth Television commercials show womenoften doing laundryand enjoyingit, so they do laundry because they think it's fun. My motherand the mothersof all my friends the laundry. did My female friendsdid it for their boyfriends, neverthe other but wayaround. just feelsnatural lt for the womanto do it.

Personal Experience

HOW SCIENCEWORKS Although it builds on someaspects the alterof knowledge, science is nativewaysof developing what separates socialresearch. Socialresearch involvesthinking scientificallyabout questions about the socialworld and following scientific

PART ONE , / FO UNDATI O NS

sumptions,attitudes, and technioues science. of Thescientific communityisa collectionof people who practicescience a setof norms,6ehavand iors,and attitudes that bind them together. is a It professional community-a groupof interacting peoplewho shareethicalprinciples,beliefsand values, techniques training,and career and paths. For the most part, the scientificcommunity includes both thenaturalandsocial sciences.6 Many people outside the core scientific community usescientificresearch techniques. A rangeof practitionersand technicians apply research techniques that scientists developed and refined.Many usethe research (e.g., techniques a survey)without possessing deepknowledge a of scientificresearch. Yet, anyonewho usesthe techniques results or ofscience do sobetter can if they also understand the principles and processes the scientificcommunity. of Theboundaries the scientificcommunity of and its membership definedloosely. are Thereis no membershipcard or masterroster.Many peopletreata Ph.D.degree a scientificfield as in an informal "entryticket" to membership the in scientificcommunity. The ph.D., which stands for doctorate of philosophy, is an advanced graduatedegreebeyond the master'sthat prepares one to conduct independentresearch. Someresearchers not haveph.D.sand not all do thosewho receivePh.D.senter occupations in which they conduct research. They enter many occupations may haveother responsibilities and (e.g.,teaching, administration,consulting,clinical practice,advising,etc.).In fact, about onehalf of the peoplewho receivescientificph.D.s do not follow careers activeresearchers. as At the coreof the scientificcommunity are researchers who conduct studieson a firll-time or part-time basis, usuallywith the help of assistants.Many research assistants graduate are students,and someare undergraduates. Working asa research assistant the waythat most scienis tistsgain a real graspon the detailsof doing research.Colleges and universitiesemploy most membersof the scientificcommunity's core. Somescientists work for the government prior

vate industry in organizations such as the National Opinion Research Center and the Rand Corporation.Most, however,work at the approximately200 research universities and instituteslocatedin a dozenadvanced industrialized countries. Thus, the scientific community is scattered geographically, its memberstend but to work togetherin smallclusters. Howbigis the scientificcommunity? This is not an easy question answer. to Usingthe broadestdefinition (including all scientists and those in science-related professions, such as engineers), includes it about 15percent the labor'+, of force in advancedindustrialized countries. A betterway to look at the scientificcommunity is to examinethe basicunit of the largercommunity: the discipline(e.g.,sociology, biology,psychology,etc.).Scientists most familiar with a ." are particular disciplinebecause knowledgeis specialized.Compared to other fields with advanced training,the numbersarevery small.For example, eachyear,about 500 peoplereceive Ph.D.s sociology, in 16,000 receive medicaldegrees, 38,000 and receive degrees. law A disciplinesuch as sociologymay have about 8,000activeresearchers worldwide.Most researchers completeonly two or three studies in their careers, whereasa small number of highly activeresearchers conductmany dozens ofstudies.In a specialty topic area(e.g., or study of the death penalty, social movements,divorce), only about 100 researchers very acare tive and conduct most research studies. Aithough research resultsrepresent what humanity knows and it hasa major impact on the lives of many millions of people,only a small number of peopleare actuallyproducing most new scientificknowledge. The Scientific Method and Attitude You have probably heard of the scientific method,and you may be wonderinghow it fits into all this. The scientific method not one sinis glething; it refersto the ideas, rules,techniques, and approaches the scientificcommunity that

:'

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.I C H A P T E R , / D O I N C S O C I A LR E S E A R C H

regularly reject half of the submissions. Thus, several experienced researchers screen journal a articlebased its meritsalone,and publication on represents study's the tentative acceptance the by scientificcommunity as a valid contribution to knowledge. Unlike the authorsof articles the for popular magazines found at newsstands, scientistsarenot paid for publishingin scholarly journals.In fact, they may haveto pay a small feeto just help defraycosts to havetheir papers considered. Researchers huppy to make their reare search available to their peers (i.e., other scientistsand researchers) through scholarly fournal Articles in Science journals.The articlecommunicates results the of Considerwhat happensonce a researcher . fina study that a researcher might have devoted ishes study.First,he or shewritesa detailed a yearsof his or her life to, and it is the way redescription of the study and the results as a searchers respect visibility amongtheir gain and research report or a paperusinga special professionalpeers.Likewise,the reviewersare format. Often,he or shealsogives oralpresentation an not paid for reviewing of papers, consider an but it the paper beforeother researchers a conferat honor to be asked conductthe reviews to and to enceor a meetingof a professional association carryr one of the responsibilities being in out of and seeks commentsand suggestions. Next, the the scientific community.Thescientific commuresearcher sends several copies the editor ofa to nity imparts great respectto researchers who journal. Eacheditor, a respected scholarly publish many articlesin the foremostscholarly researcher chosen otherscientists oversee journals because by to the theseresearchers directly are journal, removes title page, the which is the only advancingthe scientific community's primary and sends goal-the accumulationof carefullydeveloped the . placethe author'sname appears, articleto several reviewers. reviewers reThe knowledge. A researchergains prestige and are spected scientists who haveconducted studies in honor and a reputationas an accomplished rethe samespecialty areaor topic. The reviewers searcher through suchpublications. do not know who did the studn and the author You may neverpublishan articlein a scholof the paper doesnot know who the reviewers arly journal, but you will probably read many the scientificprinciple of sucharticles. is important to see It ' are. This reinforces how they are judging a study on its merits alone.Reviewers a vital componentin the systemof scientificreevaluate research the basedon its clarity, origisearch. Researchers actively readwhat appears in nality, standards good research of methods,and thejoumalsto learnaboutnewresearch findings advancing knowledge. Theyreturn their evalua- and the methodsusedto conducta study.Eventions to the editor,who decides rejectthe pato tually, the new knowledgeis disseminatedin per, askthe author to reviseand resubmitit, or textbooks, new reports,or public talks. accept for publication.It is a very careful,cauit tious methodto ensure quality control. The scholarlyjournals that are highly reSTEPSIN THE RESEARCH spected regularly and readby mostresearchers in PROCESS a field receive more papersthan they canpubfar lish.Theyaccept only 10to 15percent submitof Social research proceeds a sequence in ofsteps, ted manuscripts.Even lower-ranked iournals althoughvariousapproaches research to suggest

uses. The method arises from a looseconsensus within the community of scientists. includesa It way of looking at the world that placesa high valueon professionalism, craftsmanship, ethical integrity,creativity, rigorousstandards, diliand gence. alsoincludes It strongprofessional norms such as honestyand uprightness doing rein search,great candor and openness about how one conducteda study,and a focuson the merits ofthe research itselfandnot on any characteristics individualswho conducted study. of the

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slightly different steps.Most studiesfollow the seven steps discussed here.To beginthe process, you select topic-a general a areaof study or issue,suchas domesticabuse, homelessness, or powerful corporateelites.A topic is too broad for conductinga study.This makes next step the crucial.You must then narrow down the topic, or focusthe topic into a specificresearch question for a study (e.g.,"Are peoplewho marry youngermore likely to engage physicalabuse in of a spouse under conditionsof high stress than thosewho marry older?").As you learn about a topic and narrow the focus,you should review past research, the literature,on a topic or or question. You alsowant to developa possible answer, hlpothesis,andtheorycanbe imporor tant at this stage. After specifringa research question,you have to developa highly detailedplan on how you will carry out the study.This third steprequiresthat you decideon the manypracticaldetails of doing the research (e.g., whetherto usea surveyor qualitativeobserving the field, how in many subjects use,etc.).It is only after comto pleting the design stagethat you are ready to gatherthe data or evidence (e.g.,askpeoplethe questions, recordanswers, etc.).Onceyou have very carefirllycollectedthe data,your next stepis to manipulateor analyze data.This will help the you seeany patternsin it and help you to give meaningto or interprefthe data (e.g.,"People who marry young and grew up in families with abusehave higher rates of physical domestic abusethan those with different family histories").Finally,you must inform othersbywriting a report that describes study'sbackground, the how you conducted andwhatyou discovered. it, The seven-step process shownin Figure1.1 is oversimplified. in practice, you will rarely completeone steptotally then leaveit behindto move to the next step.Rather,the process inis teractive in which the steps blend into each other.What you do in a laterstepmay stimulate you to reconsider slightlyadjustyour thinkand ing in a previousone.The process not strictly is linearandmay flow backand forth beforereach-

FIcURE t . I Steps the Research in Process

ing an end.The seven steps for one research are project;it is one cycleofgoing through the steps in a singlestudyon a specific topic. Science an ongoingenterprise is that builds on prior research buildsa larger,collectively and created body of knowledge. Any one study is a smallpart of the much largerwholeof science. A singleresearcher may be working on multiple research projectsat once,or several researcher may collaborateon one project. Likewise,one projectmay resultin onescholarly articleor several,and sometimes several smallerprojectsare reportedin a singlearticle.

DIMENSIONS OF RESEARCH

Three yearsafter they graduatedfrom college. Tim and Sharon met for lunch. Tim asked "So,how is your newjob asa researche Sharon, for SocialData, Inc.? What are you doing?" "Right now I'm working on Sharonanswered, an appliedresearch projecton daycarequalityin which we'redoinga cross-sectional surveytoget descriptive datafor an evaluation study."sharon

Bnsic Research. Basicsocialresearch advances fundamentalknowledge about the socialworld. Basicresearchers focuson refuting or support_ ing theoriesthat explain how the socialworld operates, what makesthingshappen,why social relations are a certain way, and why society changes. Basic research the source is ofmost new scientificideasand waysof thinking about the world. Many nonscientists criticize basic re_ search and ash "What good is it?" and consider it to be a waste time and money.Althoughba_ of sicresearch often lacksa practicalapplicationin the short term, it provides a foundation for knowledge that advancesunderstanding in many policy areas, problems,or areas study. of Basicresearch the sourceof most of the tools, is methods,theories,and ideasabout underlying clus-es how peopleact or think usedby ap_ of plied researchers. providesthe major bieak_ It throughsthat significant advances knowledge; in it is the painstaking study of broad questions that has the potential of shifting how we think abouta wide rangeof issues. mayhavean imIt pact for the next 50 yearsor century.Often, tne applications basicresearch of appear manyyears or decades later. Practicalapplicationsmay be apparent only aftermanyaccumulated advances in basicknowledgebuild over a long time pe_ riod. For example,in 1984,Alec Jeffreys, ge_ a neticistat the Universityof Leicester England, in Use of Research wasengaged basicresearch in studyingthe evo_ For over a century science had two wings. lution ofgenes. an indirect has As , accidential efside rsom-eresearchers adopt a detached, purely scifect of a new technique he developed,he entific, and academicorientation;others are discovered wayto producewhat is now callhua more activist, pragmatic, and interventionist man DNA "fingerprints"or uniquemarkingsof oriented. This is not a rigid separation. Rethe DNA of individuals.This wasnot his inient. searchers the two wingscooperate mainin and He evensaidhe would haveneverthoughtof the tain friendly relations.Someindividuals move teghlique if DNA fingerprintshadbeenhis goal. from one wing to anotherat different stages in Within 10 yearsapplied usesof the technique their careers. simpleterms,someresearchers weredeveloped. In Today,DNA analysis a widiiv is concentrateon advancinggeneralknowledge used technique criminalinvestigations. in over the long term, whereasothers conduct studiesto solvespecific,immediateproblems. Applieil Research, Applied socialresearchis deThosewho concentrate examiningthe funon signedto address specificconcernor to ofi[er a damentalnature of socialreality are engaged in solutionsto a problem identified by an embasicresearch. ployer,club,agenry, socialmovement, orgaor

touchedon four dimensions socialresearch of as shedescribed research daycare. her on Socialresearch comesin several shapes and sizes. Beforeyou begina study,you will needto makeseyeral decisions aboutthe specific typeof research you are going to conduct.Researihers need to understandthe advantages disadand vantagesof each type, although most end up specializing doing one tFpe.We can think of in the typesasfitting into one of the categories in eachof four dimensions research. of The first dimensionis a distinction in how research used, between is or appliedandbasic research. nextis the purpose The ofdoing research, or its goal,to explore,describe, explain.The or nexttwo dimensions morespecifiqhow time are is incorporated into the study design,and the specific datacollectiontechnique used. The dimensions overlap,in that certaindimensions often found together(e.g., goal are the of a studyanda datacollectiontechnique). Once you learn the dimensions, you will beginto see how the particularresearch questions might you want to investigate tend to be more compatible with certainwaysof designing study and cola lectingdata.In addition, being awareof the dimensions of researchwill make it easier to understand research the reportsby others.

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nization.Applied socialresearchers rarely are concerned with building, testing,or connecting to a largertheory, developing long-term gena eralunderstanding, carryingout a large-scale or investigation might spanyears. that Instead, they usuallyconduct a quick, small-scale study that providespracticalresultsfor use in the short term (i.e.,next month or next year).For example, the student government of University X wantsto know whetherthe number of UniversityX students who arearrested drivingwhile for intoxicated involvedin autoaccidents deor will clineifit sponsors alcohol-free partiesnextyear. Applied research would be most applicable for this situation. People employed businesses, in government offices,healthcarefacilities,socialservice agencies,political organizations, educational inand stitutionsoften conduct appliedresearch and usethe resultsin decisionmaking.Applied researchaffectsdecisionssuch as the following: Shouldan agency starta newprogramto reduce the wait time before a client receives benefits? Shoulda policeforce adopt a new tlpe of response reducespousal to abuse? Shoulda political candidate emphasize or her standon the his environmentinsteadof the economy? Shoulda companymarket a skin careproduct to mature adultsinsteadof teenagers? The scientific community is the primary consumerof basicresearch. The consumers of appliedresearch findings are practitionerssuch as teachers, counselors, and socialworkers, or decisionmakerssuch as managers, agencyadministrators,and public officials.Often, someone other than the researcher who conducted the studyuses results. the Applied research results less likely to enare ter the public domain in publicationsand may be available only to few decision makersor practitioners.This meansthat appliedresearch findings often are not widely disseminated that and well-qualifiedresearchers rarelygetto judgethe quality of appliedstudies. The decisionmakerswho usethe resultsof an applied study may or may not use them

problems wisely. Sometimes despite serious with methodology cautions and from the rea study's politiciansuseresults justiSrcutting searchers, to programsthey dislike or to advance programs they favor. Because applied research often has immediateimplications or involyescontroversial issues, it often generatesconflict. One famousresearcher, William Whyte (1984),encounteredconflict over findings in his applied researchon a factory in Oklahoma and on restaurants Chicago.In the first case,the in management more interested defeating was in a union than in learningabout employmentrelations; in the other, restaurantowners really soughtto makethe industry look good and did not want findingson the nitty-gritty of its operationsmadepublic. Applied and basicresearchers adopt different orientationstoward research methodology (see Table1.2).Basic researchers high emphasize methodological standards and try to conduct near-perfect research. Applied researchers must make more tradeoffs.They may compromise scientificrigor to get quick, usableresults,but compromiseis never an excusefor sloppy research. Applied researchers to squeeze try reinto the constraints search ofan appliedsetting and balancerigor againstpracticalneeds.Such balancing requires in-depth knowledge rean of search and an awareness ofthe consequences of compromisingstandards.

Typesof Applied Research. There are many specific typesof appliedresearch. Here,you will learn about three major types:evaluation,action, and socialimpact assessment.

Evaluation Research Study. Evaluation researc study is applied researchdesignedto find out whethera program, a new way of doing something, a marketing campaign,a policy, and so forth, is effective-in other words, "Does it work?"The most widelyusedtlpe of appliedresearchis evaluationresearch.T This type of researchis widely used in large bureaucratic (e.9.,businesses, organizations schools, hospi-

q HAPT ER I

,/ D OIN C SOC IA L R E S E A R C H

r3

Basicand Applied SocialResearch Compared

l. Research intrinsically is satisfying and judgments by other sociologists. are 2. Research problems and subjects selected are with a great dealof freedom. 3. Research judgedby absolute is norms of scientific rigor,and the higheststandards of scholarship sought. are 4. The primaryconcernis with the internallogic and rigor of research design. 5. The drivinggoal is to contributeto basic, theoretical knowledge. 5. Success comes whenresults appear a in journal scholarly and havean impact others on in the scientific community.

.l

. Research part of a job and isjudgedby is sponsors who areoutside discipline the of sociology.

2. Research problems "narrowly are constrained" to the demands employerc ,ponro.r. of or. 3. The rigorand standards ofscholarship depend on the usesof results. Research be ,,quick can and dirty" or may matchhighscientific standards. 4. The primaryconcernis with the abilityto generalize findings areasof interestto to sponsors. 5. The drivinggoal is to havepractical payoffsor usesfor results. 5. Success comeswhenresultsare usedbv sponsors decision in making.

Source: Adapted Freeman Rossi from (1984:572-573\. and

tals, government, large nonprofit agencies) to demonstrate the effectivenessof what they are doing. An evaluation researcherdoes noi use techniques different from those of other social researchers.The difFerencelies in the fact that decision makers, who may not be researchers themselves,define the scope and purpose of the research.Also, their objective is to use results in a practical situation.S Evaluation research questions might include: Does a Socratic teaching technique improve learning over lecturing? Does a law-enforcement program of mandatory arrest reduce spouseabuse?Does a flextime program increase employee productivity? Evaluation researchers measure the effectivenessof a program, policy, or way of doing something and often use several researchtechniques (e.g.,survey and field). Ifit can be used, the experimental technique is usually preferred. Practitioners involved with a pol-

lcy or program may conduct evaluation research for their own information or at the recuest of outside decision makers. The decision Luk.., may place limits on the research by fixing boundaries on what can be studied and by determining the outcome of interest. This often createsethical dilemmas for a researcher. Ethical and political conflicts often arise in evaluation researchbecausepeople can have opposing interests in the findings. The findings of researchcan affect who getsor keepsa job, it can build political popularity, or it may help promote an alternative program. people who are personally displeasedwith the findings may attack the researcheror his or her methods. Evaluation research has severallimitations: The reports ofresearch rarely go through a peer review process,raw data are rarely publicly available, and the focus is narrowed to select inputs and outputs more than the full processbvwhich

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a programaffects people's lives.In addition,decisionmakers may selectively or ignoreevaluse uation findings. Action Research Study. Action research apis plied research treatsknowledge a form of that as power and abolishes divisionbetween the creating knowledge usingknowledge engage and to in political action.Thereareseveral typesofaction research, most sharefive characteristics: but ( 1) the peoplebeing studiedactivelyparticipatein the research process; the research (2) incorporatesordinaryor popularknowledge; the re(3) searchfocuseson issuesof power; ( ) the research seeks raiseconsciousness increase to or awareness ofissues;and (5) the research tied is directlyto a plan or programof political action. Action research tendsto be associated a sowith cial movement,political cause, advocacy or for an issue. canbe conducted advance range It to a of political positions.Someaction research has an insurgentorientationwith goals empowerof ing the powerless, fighting oppression injusand tice, and reducing inequality. Wealthy and powerfrrlgroups or organizations also sponsor and conductactionresearch defendtheir stato tus,position,and privileges society. in Most actionresearchers explicitlypolitiare cal,not valueneutral.Because primary goal the is to affectsociopolitical conditions,publishing results formal reports,articles, booksis secin or ondary.Most actionresearchers believe also that knowledge develops from directexperience, particularly the experience engaging sociopoof in litical action. For example,most feminist research acis tion research. hasa dual mission:to create It socialchange bytransforminggender relations and to contributeto the advancement ofknowledge. A feministresearcher studies who sexual harassment might recommendpolicy changes reto duceit aswell asto inform potentiaivictims so they can protect themselveiand defendtheir rights. At times, researchers explain study will resultsin a public hearingto try to modi$, new policiesor laws.The authorsof a study on do-

mesticviolencethat will be discussed shortly as an explanatory study example(Cherlin et al., 2004)testifiedin the United States Senate. The studyfindingsand the testimonyhelpedto alter marriagepromotion provisionsin a 2005welfarereform law.e

Social ImpactAssessment Research Study. A researcher who conductssocialimpactassessme (S1A) estimatesthe likely consequences a of planned intervention or intentional changeto occurin the future.It may be part of a largerenvironmentalimpact statement requiredby gov-I ernment agencies and usedfor planning and making choicesamong alternativepolicies.He or sheforecasts how aspects the socialenviof ronment may change suggests and waysto mitigatechanges likely to be adverse from the point ofview of an affected population.Impactsarethe difference between forecastof the future with a the project or policy and without the project or policy. For example, SIA might estimate the the ability of a localhospitalto respondto an earthquake,determinehow housing availabilityfor the elderlywiil change a major new highwayis if built, or assess impact on college the admissions if students receive interest-freeloans. Researchers who conduct SIAs often examine a rangeof socialoutcomesand work in an interdisciplinaryresearch team to estimate social the outcomes.The outcomesinclude measuring "quality oflife" issues, such as access health to care,illegal drug and alcohol use,employment opportunities, schooling quality,teenpregnancy rates,commuting time and traffic congestion, availability of parks and recreationfacilities, shoppingchoices, viablecultural institutions, crime rates,interracialtensions, socialisolaor tion. Thereis an internationalprofessional association for SIA researchthat advances SIA techniques and promotesSIA by governments, corporations, and other organizations. Social impact assessments rarely reare quired, but a few governments mandatethem. For example, New South Wales,Australia,a in registeredclub or hotel cannot increasethe

CHAPTER1 , / D o I N c s o c I A L R E S E A R c H

I5

number of poker machines unlessthe Liquor AdministrationBoardin the DepartmentGaming and Racingapproves SIA for the club or an hotel. The SIA enables board to assess the the likely local community impact from increasing the number of poker machines. The format includesa matrix that allowsthe board to identify the socialand economicimpacts,positive and negative, financialor nonfinancial, quantifiedor qualitative. In New Zealand,the Gambling Act of 2003requiresan SIA beforeexpandinggambling. In one2004studyin New Zealandfor the AucklandCity Council,it noted that 90 percent of New Zealand's adultsgamble, percent 10 gamble regularly(oncea week or more often), and about 1 percentareproblemgamblers, although this variesby age,income, and ethnicity. The SIA recommended limiting the locationsof new gamblingvenues, monitoring their usage, and tracing the amount of gambling revenues that are returnedto the community in variousways (e.g.,clubs,trusts,etc.).It contained matrix a with social (e.g,arrests, divorce,domesticvio-

lence), economic (e.g., unemployment, banliruptcy, tourism expansion), and cultural impacts (e.g.,time awayfrom other leisure activin') listed by their effect on all gamblers, problem gamblers, the local community, and the region.lo

Purpose ofa Study

If you asksomeone why he or sheis conducting a study,you might geta rangeof responses: "My bosstold me to"; "It wasa class "I assignment"; wascurious"; "My roommatethought it would be a good idea." Thereare almostasmany reasonsto do research thereareresearchers. as Yet, the purposes socialresearch of maybe organize into threegroupsbased whatthe researcher on is trying to accomplish-explore a new topic, describea socialphenomenon,or explain why somethingoccurs.Studies may havemultiple (e.g., purposes both to explore andto describe but oneof threemajor purposes usuallydomis inant (see Box 1.2).

Exploratory r Become familiar with the basic facts,setting, and concerns, Createa general mental pictureof conditions. Formulate focus and questions futureresearch. for Cenerate newideas, conjectures, hypotheses. or Determine feasibilitv the of conducting research. Develop techniques for measuring locating and future data.

Descriptive I r r r I r Provide detailed, a highly picture. accurate Locate newdatathat past data. contradict Createa set ofcategories or classify types. Clarifya sequence stepsor of stages. Document causal process a or mechanism. Reporton the background or contextofa situation.

Explanatory r r r r r I Test a theory'spredictions or principle.

r r t r r

Elaborate enricha and theory'sexplanation. Extend theoryto newissues a or topics. Supportor refutean explanation prediction. or Linkissues tooicswitha or general principle. Determine whichof several explanations best. is

16

PART oNE , / FO UNDATI O NS

a you Exploration. Perhaps haveexplored new to learnaboutit. If the isin topic or issue order had suewasnew or no researchers written about rebeginning.In exploratory it, you beganat the a examines new areato fora search. researcher mulate precisequestionsthat he or she can Exploratoryresearch in address future research. A of in stage a sequence studies' maybe the first needto conductan exploratory may researcher and exstudyin orderto know enoughto design and extensive more systematic ecutea second, the study.It addresses "what?"question:"What is this socialactivityreallyabout?" Many higher-educationofficials are concerned about college students' low retention studentsfrom minority-disadrates,especially vantagedsocialbackgrounds.For example,of Latinoswho enroll in college,80 percentleave to Officialsseekways a without receiving degree. that increase chances the reducedropouts and studentswho begin collegewill stay until they earn a degree.Garzaand Landeck(2004)conductedan exploratorystudy of over 500 Latino studentsat a collegealong the Texas-Mexico border who had dropped out. They wanted to learn the influencing factors and rationalesin making.Theauthorsdiscovered studentdecision wereunthat the primary factorsand rationales quallty or universityservices. relatedto teaching who droppedout hadbeen the Instead, students problemsor had seripersonal by overwhelmed with familyor job responsibilities. ousdifficulties Suchfactorswere a major reasongivenby over who droppedout. 80 percentofthe students tend Exploratoryresearchers to usequalitatheory tive dataand not be weddedto a specific rarely research question. Exploratory or research you conduct an exIf yieldsdefinitive answers. ploratory study, you may get frustrated and feel to therearefew guidelines it is rlifficult because potentially important, the fdlow. Everything is step6are mt wdl defined, and the direction of fteqrn$y. You needto be creirffi.h'.GF -:&d, rd f-r'k; edoPt an inon-;c srra's of rcffrure"dqbcJ

you havea more highly Description, Perhaps ideaabout a socialphenomenonand developed presents research it. want to describe Descriptive detailsof a situation,soa picture of the specific on it cial setting,or relationship; focuses "how?" "How did it happen?" and "who?" questions: "Who is involved?"A greatdeal of socialreuse researchers Descriptive is search descriptive. field techniques-surveys, most data-gathering and historical-comcontent analysis, research, is research Only experimental parativeresearch. research iess often used.Much of the social found in scholarlyjournals or usedfor makin$ is policy decisions descriPtive' often Descriptiveand exploratoryresearch research, blur togetherin practice'In descriptive beginswith a well-definedsubject a researcher and conductsa study to describeit accurately pictureof the subandthe outcomeis a detailed of ject. The resultsmay indicatethe percentage in peoplewho hold a particularview or engage percent that 8 specificbehaviors-for example, their chilabuse or physically sexually of parents dren. A descriptivestudy presentsa picture of typesofpeople or ofsocial activities. and Kern (2004)conWasserman, Stack, study on pornographyuse ducteda descriptive on the Internet by peoplein the United States. They found that the greatestuserswere those the with weak socialbonds' More specifically, ofpornogtypesofpeoplewho wereadult users raphy tended to be maleswith unhappy marriages and weak ties to organizedreligion. werealsomore likely to have users Pornography sexualbehavior in engaged nonconventional in (i.e.,had an extramaritalaffair or engaged such paid sex)but not other forms of deviance, asillegaldrug use.

drMm"

Explanation When you encounter an issue and that is well recognized havea descriptionof it, you might beginto wonderwhy thingsarethe identifiesthe research way they are.Explanatory beliefs,conditions, of sources socialbehaviors, teststheories it and events: documentscauses' It and providesreasons. builds on exploratory

CHAPTER1 , / D O I N G S O C I A L R E S E A R C H

17

and descriptive research. example, exFor an ploratory studydiscovers new typeofabuseby a parents; descriptive a researcher documents that 10percentofparentsabuse their childrenin this new way and describes kinds of parentsand the conditionsfor which it is most frequent;the explanatoryresearcher focuses why certainparon ents are abusingtheir children in this manner. Cherlin, Burton, Hurt, and Purvin (2004) explained instability in marriageor cohabitation using a woman'spast experience with sexualor physicalabuse.They testedthe hypothesis that women with a history of abuse would be less likely marry than thosewithout such histories. The authors reasonedthat those who were abused havefewersocialsupportsand resources to resistor avoid abusive partners,and they are more likely to harbor feelingsof self-blame, guilt, and low self-esteem inhibit the formathat tion of healthyromantic relationships. abuAn sive experience also createsgreateremotional distanceand a hesitancyto make long-term commitments.Using quantitativeand qualitative datagathered low-incomeneighborhoods in in threecities-Boston, Chicago, and SanAntonio-they found that adult womenwho had experiencedpast abusewere less likely to be married,and thosewith multiple forms of abuse weremost likely to remainsingle. appears It that women without a past history of abusewho found themselves an abusiverelationshipas in adult were likely to withdraw from it, but ,an 'womenwho had beenabusedaschildren were lesslikely to leaveand tendedto enterinto a seriesof unstable, transitoryrelations.

over several time points (longitudinal).euantitative studiesgenerally look at many cases, people, or units, and measure limited features about them in the form of numbers.By contrast,a qualitative study usually involves qualitative data and examinesmany diversefeaturesof a small number of cases acrosseither a short or long time period(see Figure1.2). Cross-Sectional Research. Most social research studiesarecross-sectional; examine they a singlepoint in time or takea one-timesnapshot approach. Cross-sectional research usuallythe is simplestand leastcostly alternative.Its disadvantage that it cannotcapturesocialprocesses is or change. Cross-sectional research be excan ploratory, descriptive, explanatory but it is or most consistent with a descriptiveapproachto research.The descriptive study by Stack, Wasserman, and Kern (2004) on pornography usewascross-sectional, on a nationalU.S. based surveyconductedin 2000. Longitudinal Reseqrch. Researchersusing longitudinalresearch examinefeatures people of or otherunits at morethan onetime. It is usually more complexand costlythan cross-sectional research, it is alsomore powerful and inforbut mative.Descriptive and explanatory researchers uselongitudinalapproaches. us now look at Let the three main types of longitudinal research: panel,and cohort. time series,

Time-Series Study. A time-series studyislongitudinal research which a researcher in gathers the same typeof information across or more two time periods.Researchers observestability can Time Dimensionin Research or change the features in ofthe units or cantrack An awareness how a study usesthe time diof conditions over time. The specificindividuals mensionwill helpyou reador conductresearch. may change the overallpattern is clear.For but This is because differentresearch questions isor example, therehasbeena nationwidesuweyof a suesincorporatetime difFerently. Somestudies large sampleof incoming freshmanstudents givea snapshot a single,fixed time point and of since1966. Sinceit began, over 11 million stuallowyou to analyzeit detail(cross-sectional). dentsat more than 1,800colleges in participated. Other studies provide a moving picturethat lets The fall 2003surveyof276,449 studentsfound you follow events, people,or socialrelations manyfactsandtrends,suchasonly 34percentof

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enteringfreshmen studiedsix or more hoursper week.This was the lowestlevel sincethe question wasasked 1987(when itwas47 percint). in Yet, alcohol consumptionwas down. In 2003, 44.8percentreporteddrinking beer,which rep_ resenteda steadydecline from73.7 percentin 7982.In2003, freshmen weremore inierested in keepingup with politics. The 33.9percentwho saidit wasvery important to staypolitically in_ formed was up from a low of 2g.l percentin 2O00, 22.5 percentsaidthey discussed and poli_ tics regularl/, up from 19.4 percent in )OOZ (whighhad beenthe highestsincea low point in 1993).Thesefiguresare still far lower than the 60.3percentwho expressed interest politics an in in 1966, the one-third who discussed or politics regularlyin 1968.The importanceof familyhas steadilyincreased over the years, with 74.gper_ cent of studentscalling it essential ,,"ry1-_ o, portant.This is up from the low point oi SS.g percentin 1977when the questionwas first asked. However, religiousinvolvement declined. The percentage studentswho attendedreli_ of giousserrices regularlywasat its lowestlevelin 35 years. In addition, the percent claiming "none" asa religious preference reached record a high of 17.6 percent, compared a recordlow of to 6.6percentin 1966. Another trend overthe past two decades beena steady has growthin opposition to the deathpenalty. Nearlyonein thiee incoming students advocated ending capital punishment.This is the highestscoresincei9g0 , I (w!g" itwas 33.2percent), althoughthe percent withholding an opinion wasfar higherejrher in time; it exceeded percentin the tgZO.ll 60

term panel studiescan clearlyshowthe impact of a particularlife event.For example, Oesterle, fohnson,and Mortimer (2004)examined panel data from a longitudinal study that began in 1988with 1,000ninth-gradestudentsenrolled in the St.Paul,Minnesota, public schooldistria and lookedat volunteeringactivities during late adolescence and young adulthood, covering nine yearsfrom age l}-t9 (1992)to age26_27 (2000).They found that volunteeringat an ear_ lier stagestrongly affectedwhether one volun_ teeredat a later stage. Also, peoplewho devoted full time to working or parenting at an earlier (18-19yearsold) werelesslikelv to volun_ stage teerat a later stage (26-27 yearsold) than those whosemajor activitywasattendingschool.

CohortStudy. A cohortstudy is similar to a panelstudy,but ratherthan observing exact the samepeople,the study focuses a category on of peoplewho sharea similar life experieniein a specified time period. Researchers examinethe category a whole for important features as and focuson the cohort,or categorynot on specific individuals.Commonlyusedcohortsincludeall peopleborn in the sameyear (called birth co_ horts),all peoplehired at the sametime, and all people who graduatein a given year. Unlike panelstudies, researchers not haveto find the do exactsamepeoplefor cohort studies;rather, theyneedonly to identifythosewho experienced a commonlife event.In a studyof Generation X in the United States, AndolinaandMaye e003) r focusedon the cohort ofpeople born between 1967and 197 They compared birth cohorts 4. t0 at different time periods over severaldecades, PanelStudy. Thepanelstudyis apowerfirltyp. tracing questionsacross24 years.The authors of longitudinalresearch which the researciier found that White Xers in are distinct in their observes exactlythe samepeople,group, or orsupport for school racial integration and for ganization acrossmultiple time points. It is government actionto enforcesuchefforts,com_ more difficult to conductthan time-series re_ paredto other birth cohorts,but not in their at_ search. Panelresearch formidableto conduct is titudes toward employment opportunities or and very costly.Trackingpeopleovertime is ofaffirmativeaction. Despitegreatergeneralsup_ ten difficult because somepeopledie or cannot port than other cohortsfor equalitythrough in_ be located. Nevertheless, results a well-dethe of tegration, doesnot extendto issues it beyondthe signed panelstudyareveryvaluable. Evenshort_ schoolyard.

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CsseStudies. In cross-sectionaland longitudinal research. a researcher examines features on many people or units, either at one time period or across time periods, and measures several common features on them, often using numbers. In case-studyresearch,a researcher examines, in depth, many features of a few casesover a duration of time with very detailed, varied, and extensive data, often in a qualitative form. The researchercarefirlly selectsa few key casesto iilustrate an issue and study it (or them) in detail and considers the specific context of each case. This contrasts with other longitudinal studies in which the researchergathersdata on many units or cases,then looks for general patterns in the massof numbers. For example, Snow and Anderson (1992) conducted a case study on homeless people in Austin, Texas. It provided a wealth of details about the lives and conditions of homeless people, identified severaltypes of homeless people, outlined the paths by which they became homeless, and discussedseveralprocesses that kept them homeless.This casestudy used many Qpes of detailed qualitative and quantitative data, with exploratory descriptive, and explanatory phasesto reveal a great amount of unexpected and new information.12 Data Collection Techniques Social researchers collect data using one or more specific techniques. This section givesyou a brief overview of the major techniques. In later chapters, you will read about these techniques in detail and learn how to use them. Some techniques are more effective when addressing specific kinds of questions or topics. It takes skill, practice, and creativity to match a researchquestion to an appropriate data collection technique. The techniques fall into two categories based on whether the data being gathered are quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative Data Collection Techniques, Techniques for quantitative data collection in-

clude experiments, surveys, content analyses, and existing statistics. Experiments. Experimental research closely follows the logic and principles found in natural science research;researcherscreate situations and examine their efFects participants. A reon searcherconducts experiments in laboratories or in real life with a relatively small number of people and a well-focused researchquestion. Experiments are most effective for explanatory research. In the tlpical experiment, the researcher divides the people being studied intol two or more groups. He or she then treats both groups identicallS except that one group but not the other is given a condition he or she is interested in: the "treatment." The researcher measures the reactions ofboth groups precisely. By controlling the setting for both groups and giving only one group the treatment, the researcher can conclude that any differenees in the reactions of the groups are due to the treatment alone. Surveys. A survey researcher asks people questions in a written questionnaire (mailed or handed to people) or during an interview and then records answers. The researcher maniprrlates no situation or condition; he or she simply asksmanypeople numerous questions in a short time period. Typically, he or she then summarizes answersto questions in percentages,tables, or graphs. Researchers use survey techniques in descriptive or explanatory research.Surveysgive the researchera picture of what many people think or report doing. Survey researchersoften use a sample or a smaller group of selectedpeople (e.g., 150 students),but generalize resultsto a larger group (e.g., 5,000 students) from which the smaller group was selected.Survey research is very widely used in many fields. analysis is a techContent Analyses. A contenLt nique for examining information, or content, in written or symbolic material (e.g., pictures, movies, song lyrics, etc.). In content analysis, a

c HAPTER 1 , / D O I N C S O C T A L E S E A R C H R

21

an overview ofsocial re_ search.You saw how social researchdiffers from Qualitative Data Collection Techniques. the ordinary ways of learning-knowing about Techniques qualitativedata collectioi in_ for the social world, how doing researchis basedon clude fi eld research and historical-comparative scienceand the scientific community, and about research. several tlpes of social research based on its dimensions (e.g.,its purpose, the technique used FieldResearch.Most field researchers conduct to gather data, etc.).The dimensions of research casestudieslooking at a small group of people loosely overlap with each other. The dimensions oyer a length of time (e.g.,weeki, mbnt^hs, of social research are a kind of ..road map', to years). Afield researcher beginswith a looseiy help you make your way through the terrain of formulatedidea or topic, selects socialgroup a social research. In the next chapter, we turn to or natural setting for study, gains accesiand social theory. You read about it a little in this adoptsa socialrole in the setting,and observes chapter. In the next chapter, you will learn how

Historical-Comparative Research. Historical_ comparative researchers examjne aspects social of life in a pasthistoricaletuo. u.ros differentcul_ tures.Researchers usethis techniquemay who focus on one historicalperiod o. r.rr.ril, .o-_ ExistingStatistics. In existingstatistics research, pareone or more cultures,or mix historicalpe_ a researcher locatespreviouslycollectedinfor_ riods and cultures. Like field research.^ u mation,often in the form of government reports researcher combines theory building/testing or previouslyconductedsuryeys, then reorga_ with data collection and beginswith a loose$ nizesor combinesthe information in new ways formulated question that is iefined during the to address research a question.Locatingsources research process. Researchers often gatlier a canbe time consuming,so the researcher needs wide arrayof evidence, including existiig statis_ to considercarefullythe meaningof what he or tics and documents(e.g., novels, officialieports. she finds. Frequently,a rer"arih", does not books,newspapers, diaries,photographs, and know whether the information of interest is maps)for study.In addition,theymav makedi_ available when he or shebeginsa study.Some_ rect observations and conduct interviews.His_ times,the existingquantitative informaiion con_ torical-comparative research be exploratory can sists of stored surveys or other data that a descriptive, explanatoryandcanblend types. or researcher reexamines using various statistical procedures. Existingstatistics research be can usedfor exploratory descriptive, explanatory or purposes, it is most frequentlyusedfor de_ C ON C L U S ION but scriptiveresearch. This chapter gave you

researcher first identifiesa body of material to (e.g., a-nalyze books,.t.*rpup"rr, films, etc.)and then creates systemfor-reiording specificas_ a pectsof it. The systemmight include counting how often certain words or themesoccur. Fi_ nalln the researcher recordswhat wasfound in the material.He or sheoften measures informa_ tion in the contentasnumbersandpresents as it tables graphs. or This technique a researcher lets discover features the contentoflargeamounts in of materialthat might otherwisego unnoticed. Researchers use content analysis can for ex_ ploratoryand explanatory research, primar_ tut ily it is usedfor descriptive research.

in detail.The researcher to know personally gets the_people being studied,may condlct open_ ended and informal interviews,and takesde_ tailed notes on a daily basis.After leaving the field site, the researcher carefully rereadi the notes and prepares written reports.Field re_ search usedmost oftenfor expioratory de_ is and scriptivestudies; is rarelyusedfor explanatory it research.

22

P A RT oNE / F o u N D A T ro N s study social impact assessment social research suwey research time-series study

methodswork togetherand theoryand research typesof theory. aboutseveral

Key Termsaction research study applied social research basic social research casestudy cohort study cross-sectional research data descriptive research empirical evidence evaluation research study existing statistics research experimental research explanatory research exploratory research field research halo effect historical comparative research longitudinal research overgeneralization panel study premature closure qualitative data quantitative data scientific community scientific method selective observation

E n dn o t e s1. See Rampton and Stauber (200I:247-277 and

30s-306).

and on Best(2001:15) advocates media. 2. See Board(2002:735-739). National Science 3. See (2001)providesa summaryof memoryl 4. Schacter issues. Board(2002:739). 5. NationalScience of 6, Discussions the scientificcommunity can be found in Coleand Gordon (1995),Crane(1972), (1965), Mulkay(1991), Merton(1973), Hagstrom andZiman(1999). Patton(2001)and Weiss(1997)for a more 7. See in of detaileddiscussion recentadvances evaluation research. provides usefuloverview' a 8. Beck( 1995) Herringand Ebner(2005)on the useofdo9. See studyfindings. mesticviolence Adams Q004) for more information on the 10. See Auckland City study. ll. Seethe websiteat www.gseis.ucla.edu/heriihe html. 12. AIsoseeSnowandAnderson(1991)for a discusmethod in their study of sion of the case-study . homeless people.Also seeGeorgeand Bennett (2005)on the case-study methodgenerally.

Theory andSocialResearc

Introduction What ls Theory? Blame Analysis The Parts of Theory Conceots Assumptions Relationshios The Aspects ofTheory Direction Theorizing of Range ofTheory Levels Theory of Forms Explanation of The Three Major Approaches to Social Science Positivist Approach Interpretive Approach CriticalApproach The Dynamic Duo Conclusion

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PART ONE , / FO UNDATI O NS

in mind threethings about how socialscientific theorieswork. First, socialtheoriesexplain renot curringpatterns, uniqueor one-timeevents. you of Suppose want to makesense the hostility For example,they are not good for explaining peopleof differentraces. Trying to unbetween why terrorists decided to attack New York's it, who responds: derstand you aska teacher, 11, but on World TradeCenter September 2001, suchasthe conditions they canexplainpatterns, prejudiced people learnnegaMost racially levelsoffear and leadto increased that generally racialgroup aboutanother tive stereotlpes social of feelings patriotism in a people.Second, in from their families, friends. others and not for are theories explanations aggregates, parIf surroundings. theylack their immediate of are ticular individuals.Aggregates collections intimatesocial with memsufficient contact or many individuals,cases, other units (e.g., bersof the groupor intense informationthat families,clubs,cities,na't schools, businesses, they contradicts thosestereotypes, remain tions, etc.).A socialtheory rarely can explain prejudiced. why fosephinedecidedto major in nursing but it This makes to sense you because is consis- rather than engineering, it can explainwhy nurschoose more than malesin general tent with what you know about how the social females of world works.This is an example a small-scale ing over engineeringas a major. Third, social or theoriesstatea probabiliry chance, tendency use socialtheory, a tpe that researchers when for eventsto occur, rather than statethat one conductinga study. follow another.For exameventmust absolutely What do you think of when you hear the ple, insteadof stating that when someoneis Theory is one of the leastwell unword theory? abusedas a child, that personwill alwayslater derstoodterms for students learningsocialsciMy ence. students' eyelids droop if I begina class abusehis or her own children, a theory might abuse durexperiences statethat whensomeone by saying,"Today we are going to examinethe theoryof . . ." The mentalpicturemanystudents ing his or her childhood,that personwill tendto parent or is morelikely to becomean abusive have of theory is something that floats high it when an adult.Likewise, might statethat peohavecalledit "a amongthe clouds.My students ple who did not experiencechildhood abuse that tangled mazeof jargon" and "abstractions parents, they areless but might becomeabusive areirrelevantto the realworld." likely to than someonewho has experience Contrary to theseviews,theory has an imabuse a child. as ally portant role in research and is an essential for the researcher. Researchers theorydifferuse but ently in varioustypesof research, sometl?e It of theory is presentin most socialresearch. is than in balessevidentin appliedor descriptive WHAT IS THEORY? research. simpleterms,reIn sic or explanatory interweave storyaboutthe operation In Chapter L, socialtheorywasdefinedasa sysa searchers or tem ofinterconnectedabstractions ideasthat of the socialworld (the theory) with what they knowledgeabout the (the and condenses organizes when they examineit systematically observe socialworld. It is a compactway to think of the data). socialworld. Peopleare constantlydeveloping for who seek absolute, fixed answers People a specificindividual or a particular one-time newtheoriesabouthow the world works. the Somepeopleconfuse history of socia and social eventmay be frustratedwith science theories. avoid frustration,it is wiseto keep thought, or what greatthinkerssaid,with social To INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER2 , / TH E O R YA N D S O C I A L R E S E A R C H

25

theory. The classicalsocial theorists (e.g., Durkheim, Weber,Marx, and Tonnies) played an important role in generating innovative ideas. They developedoriginal theoriesthat laid the foundationfor subsequent generations social of thinkers.Peoplestudythe classical theoristsbecause they providedmany creativeand interrelated ideasat once.They radicallychanged the waypeople understood and sawthe social world. We study them because geniuses who generate many original, insightfirl ideasand fundamentally shift how pdoplesaw the socialworld are rare. At timespeopleconfuse theorywith a hunch or speculative guessing. Theymay say,"It's only a theory" or ask,"What'syour theoryabout it?" This lax useof the term theorycauses confusion. Suchguessing difi[ers from a serioussocialtheory that has been carefullybuilt and debated over many yearsby dozensof researchers who found support for the theory'skey parts in repeatedempiricaltests.A relatedconfusionis when what peopleconsiderto be a "fact" (i.e., light a matchin a gasoline-filled room and it will explode)is what scientists a theory (i.e.,a call theory of how combining certain quantitiesof particular chemicals with oxygenand a level of heat is likely to producethe outcomeof explosiveforce). Peopleuse simple theorieswithout making them explicit or labelingthem as such. For example, newspaper articles television or reports on socialissues usuallyhaveunstatedsocial theoriesembedded within them. A news reporton the difficultyof implementing school a desegregation will contain an implicit theplan ory aboutracerelations. Likewise, politicalleadersfrequentlyexpress socialtheorieswhen they public issues. discuss Politicianswho claim that inadequateeducationcauses poverty or that a declinein traditional moral values causes higher crime ratesare expressing theories.Compared to the theoriesof socialscientists, such laypersons'theoriesare lesssystematic, well forless mulated, and harder to test with empirical evidence.

Almost all research involvessometheon',so the questionislesswhether you shouldusetheory than how you should use it. Being explicit aboutthe theorymakes easier readsomeone it to else'sresearchor to conduct your own. An awareness how theory fits into the research of process producesbetter designed, easier unto derstand, betterconducted and studies. Most researchersdisparageatheoretical or "crude empiricist"research. BlameAnalysis Blameanalysis a type of counterfeitargument is presented if it werea theoreticalexplanation. as It substitutes attributing blame for a causalexplanationthat is backed supportingempirical by evidence. Blamebelongs the realmof making to moral, legal,or ideological claims.It implies an intention, negligence, responsibility an or for eventor situation (usuallyan unfavorable one). It shifts the focus from Why did it occur?to Who is responsible? Blame analysis assumes there is a party or source to which a fixed amount of responsibilitycan be attached.The goalof inquiry is to identifi a responsible party. Often, somesources exemptedor shielded. are This may be the injured party, membersof a sympatheticaudience,or a sacredvalue or principle. Blameanalysis cloudsdiscussion because it confuses blame with cause; givesan account it (or story) insteadof a logical explanationwith intervening causalmechanisms; and it fails to exploreempirical evidence and againstsevfor eral alternativecauses. Blameanalysis first presents unfavorable an eventor situation.It could be a bank is robbed, a group is systematically paid lessin the labor force,or traffic congestion is terriblein an urban area.It next identifiesone or more responsible parties,then it providesselectiveevidence that shieldscertainpartiesor sources (e.g., employrnent conditions, the choices available the underpaidgroup,transto portation poliry, and land cost).l

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THE PARTS OF THEORY

heightor compareit. A heightof zerois measure or possible, and height can increase decreas overtime. As with manywords,we usethe word Concepts Height is usedin the expression ways. in several the heightof the battle,the heightof thesummer are and concepts All theoriescontain concepts, andtheheightoffashion. is the building blocks of theory.2A concept an The word heightrefersto an abstractidea. as ideaexpressed a symbolor in words.Natural its in con