Volume III

Culture Journal [VOLUME I ISSUE III]

Culture Journal – June 2012 1

ISSN: 2241-1720

Registered in the International Catalogue -Publications Series in Paris

VOLUME III JUNE 2012

Contact: [email protected]

EDITORIAL BOARD

Editor: Alexandros Argyriadis

Members:

Alexandros Argyriadis

Agathi Argyriadis Christin Coumadorakis Alex babalis

Alex Tsallos

Kostas Efthimiopoulos

Symeon Nikolidakis

Steve Stand

The scientific journal for

culture and education



Inclusive Education and the tyranny of Developmental Psychology…………3

New technologies in teaching Latin……………………………………………..10

Lucian from Samosata and his neglected libel titled as “To an uneducated

book-collector”……………………………………………………………………...19

Cooperative actions within the learning framework on the basis of projects in

the subject of Biology in the 1st Lyceum grade …………………………………34

Investigating autobiographical memory: gender differences in valence and

emotional intensity in childhood memories of adults………………………….48

Call for papers……………………………………………………………………...77

Instructions for authors…………………………………………………………....79



Inclusive Education and the tyranny of Developmental Psychology

Agathi Argyriadi1, [email protected]

Alexandros Argyriadis2, [email protected]

1. Lecturer, Technological Institution of kalamata

2. Lecturer, Phd (c)

Introduction

In the present work we describe two dominant models of disability approach,

the individual / medical model and the social model. Then, points out

reflection on the field of developmental psychology and critical approaches

that have been obtained, concerning the effects on children with disabilities,

are unable to achieve the specified developmental milestones.

The atomic model approach to disability

Until the 1980's the dominant model in the disability field was the individual /

medical. According to the medical model, the problems of disabled people are

considered to be the result of an injury, more than the failure of society to

meet their needs in terms of adequate assistance and accessibility.

Consequently, a compassionate society must invest in health services in an

effort to address medical disability, restore or improve function caused by

damage to the disabled people to live a more "normal" life. Health

professionals have a key role in the medical model of disability. Leading

cause of disability, according to this model, is the view of the biological body.

(Sideri-Zoniou, 2004).

mailto:[email protected]




Oliver, in the criticism of individual approaches, emphasizes that the first

atomic model of disability locates the 'problem' within the individual and the

other, moreover he believes that the causes of this problem occur due to

functional limitations or psychological losses allegedly resulting from disability.

These two points are reinforced by the "theory of personal tragedy" in which

disability is understood as a terrible unfortunate incident which affects the

unfortunate people (Oliver, 1990).

Oliver, also emphasizes to the power of people who make diagnoses and

classify disabled people according to social standards of the majority.The

medical model limits the concept of man as a whole, either directly or

indirectly, for a set of causes, based on factors such as the following:

• The focus on academic medical diagnosis through knowledge.

• People are treated as medical emergencies.

• The motor or cognitive impairment is the cause of disability.

• The labeling, stereotyping and the consequent stigmatization.

The prevalence of medical self-centered concepts means the approach to

disability as a derogation from the dominant regularity and the focus on the

restoration effort, which, for the life of the disabled implies non-acceptance,

oppression and marginalization. Individual models of disability emphasize to

the difference against the collective, focusing on the defect. What is

understood as 'deviant' disparity has historically been used as an ideological

tool of legitimation of the social hierarchy generated and maintained in

capitalist societies. These approaches assume, that disability is a biological

constant, evident in 'nature', located outside the historic contexts of normality.

The concept of normal is the defining feature of capitalist society. the

experience of disability influenced and shaped from the same disabled

person, but also the attitudes of people towards other people. Physical or

mental impairment is a consequence of the failure of individuals to meet the

norms in the “normal” healthy body. The concept of normality, according to

the social model, the normal man is a social construction (Oliver, 1996).



The approach of the social model of disability

Compared to the medical model, which is based on the ideology of normality

and is designed to restore the disabled as close as possible to normality, the

social model is confirmed by experiences of people with disabilities,

challenging the dominant atomic model adopted by people without disabilities

. (French & Swain, 1997). The concept of disability is emerging as a socially

constructed concept. The basic principles of this model, were formulated in

1976 by UPIAS. (Oliver, 1996, Finkelstein, 1993b).

The main characteristic of the proclamation of union UPIAS was the full

disclosure of the limitations and emotions caused by injury, so that the roots

of the problem were to identify the social structures and not the person. The

social model does not deny the problem of disability but locates directly into

society. There are many kinds of atomic constraints that cause the problem

but it is mainly the failure of society to provide adequate services to meet the

needs of the disabled. The society that fails to take account of the social

organization of people which is damaged, thus making them disabled (Oliver,

1996).Under the social model, disability is in all those factors that impose

restrictions on disabled people, in social life and results in the deprivation of

their rights. (Oliver, 1996, Finkelstein, 1993).

The tyranny of developmental psychology

The hegemony of the medical model of disability is obvious that has its roots

in the field of developmental psychology. Developmental psychology has led

the developing child in an investigation. Its aim is to find global age

parameters and to create regulatory models for child development. The

developmental model is so prevalent and dominant in cultural beliefs,

research, policy and professional practice. However, the dominance of the

growth model has been questioned both inside and outside psychology. One

criticism of the practices of developmental psychology is the study of children,

omitting the context in which they live. Seeking ecumenical laws governing



the development, and research findings are considered universally applicable.

The child is supposed to operate primarily in personal / individual level, skills

and behaviors that are detached from the social world in which they live.

These ontological positions, critics argue, are reflected in the scientific

discourse and methodological approaches. A fundamental assumption is that

context, culture, society, the research environment, the timein history, or

relationships, can be "controlled." Those who espouse this view does not

consider it necessary to investigate what happens between children and the

world around them.Secondly, criticism has accepted the assumption that

development is typical and can be set, considering that children behave within

specific parameters. Based on the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky, is widely

argued that child development is constructed as a progressive sequence of a

universal, regular and predictable pattern (Burman 2008). In other words, the

development of the child develops / progresses in a linear fashion. The

standardization process of development, led to connected use of 'normal' and

'non-normal "while the presence of non-typically developing children, built the"

normal "child.Allegations of developmental psychology, are often operated by

parents and professionals. The popularity of magazines and books for

children, shows that parents are fully aware of developmental milestones set

for their children. Parents tend to talk among themselves about the

achievements of their children in their transition from one landmark to another.

Although psychology focuses on the child as an individual, the key point is the

study of the system: mother-child dad. Mothers are the organs through which

the development of children can be supported and accelerated. Mother, more

than the father and the other family members, is required to be tested and

held accountable for the emergence typically developing children. This

dominant focus ignores the broader socio-cultural and economic factors. The

ability of children to achieve these milestones constructs the image of the

mother for her child, but also the image of herself as a successful mother or

not. The dominant policy of separation is reinforced by the assumptions of

developmental psychology and causes anxiety and guilt feelings in the

mother, who is considered the key to child development. Many times parents

of a disabled child blame themselves, or they blame their disabled children,

experiencing personal tragedy on a daily basis.



These perceptions are imposed.While the concepts of 'normal', 'milestone',

'development', appear as non-problematic in much of the literature in

psychology, the dominance of the growth model has been questioned both

inside and outside psychology. Burman (2008) challenged the truth of

evolutionary psychology after exploring the historical and cultural roots of his

claims. For Vurman, the claims of developmental psychology of childhood,

must be understood as cultural perceptions, embedded in political and social

meanings. Indeed, for Vurman, "the normal child, the ideal type, results from

the comparative results of age-weighted population, therefore it is “a fiction or

a fable” (Burman, 2008, p 22).

Moreover, according to Billington (2008), developmental psychology can not

represent the general diversity and diversity of function for children. It aims at

criticized uniformity and diversity. Those children do not spend their

developmental stages, the period specified by the developmental psychology

become problematic and are unable to participate in society and school so

they therefore be excluded. The field of developmental psychology, is the

basis for policy implementation in regular kids. A typical example is that of

«Early Years Foundation Stage (DfES 2007)» which is commanded by

teachers to assess children under 69 specific educational objectives or

milestones, up to 5 years.The Hegemony of developmental psychology, has

the role of increasing the scope and influence. The impact of the hegemonic

status of developmental psychology is clear and is gaining ground in the

children's policy. Children who can not touch the stages and goals, are

becoming the "other", different, and as supported by the heterogeneity in this

model which can be understood only as inferior as something that is in a

lower developmental level. (Walkerdine 1993, p 456). Therefore some

disabled children fail to match the child who has developed political reasons

and placed in the room more frequently and for longer. He is often excluded

from education and care and is committed to poverty. In their article, the

Goodley and Runswick-Cole (2011), examining the ways in which the policies

of England, based on perceptions of disabled problematic, reproducing the

tyranny of developmental psychology and context of the mother who wants



the key to social and developmental change. These allegations, bring

disabled children and their families in a blocked political context.

In developmental psychology, claims and unfair play tactics are in regard to

disability. The daily life and practices, contribute to the construction of an

alternative form of politics.The developmental psychology, is focused on the

deficit of the child, not the removal of barriers imposed by society. The focus

of developmental psychology can be found to the achievement that inevitably

puts disabled children on the sidelines. (Goodley, Runswick-Cole, 2011).

The developmental psychology in its original form in the public education

system, can be regarded as a more complex form of oppression than that

defined as directphysical violence. It provided a structure of discourse that

acted to discipline the "wild"and "defective" children not to touch them (Baker,

1998b).

Conclusions

Zoniou-Sideris (2004, p 49) reports that treatment of disability and disability in

its general term is constructed and places the disabled in a marginal position

of dependence, poverty, unemployment and frustration equal rights as a

citizen is entitled. Also, Bardeau argues that disabilities in today's society are

institutional productions of wage-class society and the medical knowledge

developed over the repressive function is disabled. It is a knowing party to the

institutional production of disability (Zoniou-Sideris, 1998). The developmental

psychology, therefore, an extension of exclusion systems. Like the medical

model, has an impact on people with disabilities, as converts to "broken

bodies" and "defective minds." When the definition or description refers to the

"defective" body at the same time refers to the inability to appropriate and

adequate social participation. Therefore, the embodiment of disability means

the separation of those who have the label. (Hughes, 2002).



Bibliography

Billington, T. 2008. Working with children: Assessment, representation and

intervention. London: Routledge.

Burman, E. 2008. Deconstructing developmental psychology. London: Routledge.

Finkelstein, V. (1993b). Disability: A social challenge or an administrative

responsibility? In: J. Swain, V. Finkelstein, S. French & M. Oliver (Eds.) Disabling

barriers-enabling environments (pp 34-43). London:Sage Publications

Goodley, D. & Runswick‐Cole K. (2011). Problematising policy: conceptions of

„child‟, „disabled‟ and „parents‟ in social policy in England. International Journal of

Inclusive Education, Vol. 15, 71–85

Ζώνιος-Σιδέπη, Α. (1998). Οι ανάπηποι και η εκπαίδεςζή ηοςρ Μια

τςσοπαιδαγυγική πποζέγγιζη ηηρ ένηαξηρ. Αθήνα: Ελληνικά Γπάμμαηα.

Ζώνιος-Σιδέπη, A. (2004). H αναγκαιόηηηα ηηρ ένηαξηρ: Πποβλημαηιζμοί και

πποοπηικέρ. Σε Α. Ζώνιος-Σιδέπη (ειζαγυγή-επιμ.) Σύγσπονερ ενηαξιακέρ

πποζεγγίζειρ, Α ηόμορ (ζελ 29-54), Αθήνα, Εκδ. Ελληνικά γπάμμαηα

Oliver, Μ. (1990). Τhe politics of Disablement. Reader in disability studies. Tames

Polytechnic.

French, S. & Swain, J. (1997). Towards an Affirmation Model of Disability.

Disability & society, Vol. 15, 4

Oliver, M. (1996). Understanding Disability: From theory to practice. London:

Macmillan.

Walkerdine, V. 1993. Beyond developmentalism. Theory Psychology 3: 451–69



New technologies in teaching Latin

Galanopoulou Georgia, University of Ioannina, [email protected]

Georgopoulou Efstathia, University of Peloponnese,

[email protected]

Abstract

In our study reference is made to new technologies in teaching Latin. A brief

reference, in the first place, is made about the prerequisites required for

effective teaching. The most basic of all is the discontinuing of the teacher-

centered model and placement of emphasis on the student‟s role. The

traditional model is substituted by a new type of student-centered and group-

collaborative teaching in order to avoid sterile learning. This method is

conducive to the reduction of students‟ prejudice against Latin. In order to

achieve this in practice, suitable work sheets are used through which the

motivated students are able to self-actualize, to exercise their critical thinking

and initiate in the group-collaborative spirit.

Key words: technology, group-collaborative, student-centered

1. Introduction

Teaching forms a value system in which the interaction subjects are the

teacher and student aiming at the knowledge acquisition and skills cultivation.

It is, therefore, in direct relation to learning since it aims at it. The use of

appropriate methods will make it substantial as well. The Greek educational

system, in many cases, uses old-fashioned pedagogical teaching methods.

As an outcome, the mechanic memorization is promoted directing the student

towards inert behavior and sterile knowledge.

Latin is taught, accordingly, in the theoretical direction of 2nd and 3rd grade of

the Lyceum. On the basis of the curriculum, teaching is carried out through

the use of school books and the teacher is being addressed as an authority.

Even though students have all the material concentrated while it is





unnecessary to look for other resources, they lack critical thinking, research,

self-actualization and personal initiative.

What is important to be mentioned is that teachers, under the burdening need

to set the foundation in Latin in the 2nd grade of the Lyceum, emphasize on

the cognitive material which is foreseen to complete a certain volume of

material. Thus, focusing on the 2nd grade, which is depended on the basis of

the 3rd grade, there is no room for student-centered teaching left.

Nonetheless school communities are equipped with technological means such

as computers and projectors they are not fully utilized regarding, at least,

Latin.

2. Teaching Latin at school

The conclusion drawn from the above mentioned is that even though school

books meet the needs of the school program, current pedagogical methods,

however, are not adjusted. As a result, teaching does not reflect the students‟

real needs, it is old-fashioned, non student-centered and students are faced

with problems. More analytically, the subject is disdained and feared by

students. Latin is a foreign language to them.

But the objective of this subject is children to learn Latin and, at the same

time, to initiate in the Roman civilization because they would be able, this

way, to estimate its value. Nevertheless, the subject deviates from its real

objective. Since students‟ needs for the panhellenic examinations have to be

met, significance is given to grammar, syntax and vocabulary without any

focus on the texts content. There is, therefore, difficulty in comprehending the

morals projected and, as a consequence, the texts educational value is not

recognized. Besides, the fact that Latin is a dead language to them reinforces

even more their confidence that its character is not of usage to their lives.

Therefore, the subject is rejected as indifferent and unsubstantial.



In addition, frontal teaching forms another argument about this type of

teaching to be rejected by students. The subject is deemed obsolete because

it aims at sterile memorization and passive attendance. No motives and

audiovisual stimuli for active participation are provided resulting to the

suspension of personal initiative.

Another phenomenon which is being observed is the grading pursuit and the

students‟ targeting to high performance in the panhellenic examination in

order to enter to higher educational institutions. Thus, they remember the new

information in order to take the examination whereas, afterwards, they either

forget it or do not use it to solve every day life problems (Vosniadou, 2006:

93).

Students, however, focus on the need for a change. They state that they

prefer computers to traditional classroom activities. They also regard the way

the lesson is carried out as unsatisfactory, feeling, many times, tediousness

and boredom. This passive attitude does not represent them at all.

(Vosniadou, 2006: 39)

They also wish to participate in learning as active members who, through

motives and various activities, will be able to meet the lesson requirements,

pursuing, of course, their personal initiative projection through an experiential

learning model.

Within the framework to avoid mechanized and without approach learning,

computers and projectors were introduced that is innovations adopting the

intensive use of technology for a wide framework of projects, interactively,

providing students the opportunity to get constructively and actively involved

with interdisciplinary issues. Thus, projects will be characterized by a spirit of

investigation and autonomous guidance (Vosniadou, 2006: 360).

Latin should correspondingly be modernized through the use of new

technologies slipping from the traditional teacher-centered model. On the first

level, the teacher acting as a guide selects some units, according to his own



will, dedicating, now and then, instruction hours because this project is

regarded as more significant that the one carried out during one instruction

hour since all the necessary elements of a long teaching are contained

(Trilianos, 2008: 20).

Then, the teacher, after having selected subject matter and unit, creates work

sheets which contain the text and general guidelines on the basis of which

students will work. Afterwards, within the group-collaborative teaching

framework, he divides students into groups under the clarifications of the work

sheets concerning the manner of the activity as well as the elements to be

pursued through the internet sites given. In the next phase, groups should

evaluate data, classify them and, eventually, present them in the classroom.

In this manner, the procedure does not form a mechanized method of

knowledge and this is achieved through the learning environment

organization. According to Meyer‟s analyses, the lesson structure is carried

out within a group-centered teaching spirit by putting into practice certain

functions which separate and diversify the lesson from the frontal model. As a

consequence, the students are provided with the possibility to freely

experience their curiosity, develop their systematic work while, concurrently,

the teacher is able to observe and experience the class or group of students

in a way different from the teacher-centered model (Kossivaki,2004: 391).

3. Lesson plan and work sheets

TEXT II

Dido and Aeneas

Aeneas filius Anchisae est. Patria Aeneae Troia est. Graeci Troiam

oppugnant et dolo expugnant. Aeneas cum Anchisa, cum nato et cum

sociis at Italiam navigat. Sed venti pontum turbant et Aenean in



Africam portant. Ibi Dido regina novam patriam fundat. Aeneas

reginae insidias Graecorum renarrat. Regina Aenean amat et Aeneas

reginae insidias Graecorum renarrat. Regina Aenean amat et Aeneas

Virgil, Aeneas

To achieve the lesson teaching objectives three groups of at least six people

each are going to be needed. The procedure of material research as well as

its presentation will last two instruction hours.

According to the procedure:

GROUP A

They undertake the task of looking for author‟s biographical elements as well

as the historic framework in which he lived and acted.

Relevant internet sites:

www.sfrang.com/selide/mm1/html/wirgil.htm

www.ebdomi.com/arthra/24ii-latina-virgilios-publius-verciliw-maro

GROUP B ΄

They will look through internet sites to locate the text translation and along

with comments on syntax they will proceed to its syntax. Syntactical

comments should eventually be understood in order to be analyzed during the

presentation.

http://www.sfrang/

http://www.ebdomi.com/arthra/24ii-latina-virgilios-publius-verciliw-maro



examsos.youblog.gr/2008/11/18/147

blogs.sch.gr/larmoisiades/files/2008/09/keimena.pdf

GROUP C

Locate grammar relevant to the text and gather comments on vocabulary.

Relevant internet sites:

apostolos/963.blogspot.com/2010/os/blogspot_1855 html

latinika/keimena/oo2 Lat.B.Keim.pdf

WORK SHEETS FOR STUDENTS

GROUP A

Open the computer and go to the installed internet provider.

Navigate in the websites:

www.sfrang.com/selides/mm1/html/virgili.htm

www.ebdomi.com/arthra/24ii-latino-virgilios-publius-vercilius-publius-vergilius-

maro

QUESTIONS

Α) Who was Virgil?

Β) Which era did he live in?

C) What are his works?

D) Which was the socio-historic framework of the era?

GROUP B



examsos.youblog.gr/2008/11/18/147

blogs.sch.gr/larmoisiades/files/2008/09keimena.pdf

http://www.sfrang/

http://www.ebdomi.com/arthra/24ii-latino-virgilios-publius-vercilius-publius-vergilius-maro

http://www.ebdomi.com/arthra/24ii-latino-virgilios-publius-vercilius-publius-vergilius-maro



EXERCISES

Α) Write down the text translation

Β) After you have observed the syntactical comments, proceed to the syntax

of the text.

GROUP C



apostolos/963.blogspot.com/2010/os/blogspot_1855 html

latinika/keimena/oo2 Lat.B.Keim.pdf

EXERCISES

Α) Write down the grammar relevant to the text

Β) Write separately grammatical exceptions

C) Write down the unit syntactical phenomena

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Κπξηαθίδε α.ε



Lucian from Samosata and his neglected libel titled as “To an

uneducated book-collector”

Vassiliki Belogiannis, MPhil Candidate on Classical Literature

To Dr. Orestis Karavas my schoolmaster

for imparting the light of knowledge and inspiration

Summary

Even if Lucian is one of the most important spokespersons of Greek Literature

during the first centuries AC, his life and writings haven‟t really intrigued

philologists in order to elaborate on their views and findings as regards to his

written inheritance. One of his most intense writings, the libel “To an

uneducated book collector” remains hardly studied and commented by the

modern researchers of literature, even if this text touches in many ways the

different tasks of Greek and Roman antiquity with a sense of humor that

differs from rude to worth-telling. In the article below as brief as possible a

presentation of the precious libel is being cited.

Age-old Lucian

Throughout the entire length of progression of Greek philology that has been

meditated on writings from the 1st and 2nd century AC, Lucian was considered

as a highly controversial -certainly notorious- literary personality. A blatant

ideological divide which separates the Syrian scholar from grammarians of the

next centuries -who were strongly motivated by Christianity- was enough to

“mark” him with the most repulsive descriptions such as “blasphemous” or

“ridiculous” (βλάζθημορ or γελοῖορ)1. However, despite those various negative

comments that were occasioned by the different expressions of his satirical

wit, Lucian has managed not only to remain memorable as regards the

1 Suda‟s dictionary refers: “«Λοςκιανὸρ Σαμοζαηεύρ∙ ὁ ἐπικληθεὶρ βλάζθημορ ἢ δύζθημορ ὅηι

ἐν ηοῖρ διαλόγοιρ αὐηοῦ γελοῖα καὶ ηὰ πεπὶ ηῶν θείυν εἰπημένα παπαηίθεηαι».



following grammatological studies, but also influenced many of the

contemporary thinkers and writers2. It has been said that Julius Verne was

inspired his “De la Terre à la Lune” writing by Lucian‟s True Tales (Αληθή

Γιηγήμαηα)3. Closer to the current literary era, K.P. Cavafy comes to dedicate

a whole poem to “the famous one”4.

Since the author‟s death eighteen hundreds of years have been served,

however, the precise date of his birth and action remains unattainable.

Nevertheless, most of the philologists affix his birth in somewhere around 120

AC, whilst he‟s rather believed to have died in 180-190 AC according to data

derived by reading his writings themselves. However, we are able to be aware

of his living in the Imperial period, during the reign of Antonines, when Syria

was under the authority of the Roman Empire, and his meeting closely the

acne of the Second Sophistic movement, which so deeply affected his

worldview and his writing style5.

Born in Samosata of Commagene, a wide Syrian province, Lucian drafted

about 82 literary manuscripts written on a perfect ancient attic dialect, many of

which are nowadays defaulted as illegitimate. These manuscripts are

conventionally divided into two wide categories, writings with dialogue and

writings without dialogue. He‟s traditionally considered to be the founder of the

fictional novel, whilst his fame, once hated and sometimes admirable, was

2 See Mystakidou M., “Trips to the moon”, Eleftherotypia, 25.07.2009: pp.9 and

Mastrodimitris PP.D., “Makrygiannis and Lucian about History”, Nea Estia, 953, 15.03.1967:

pp. 376.

3 See Mystakidou, opp.cit.

4 See Nikolareizis D., “Recreational pursuits of our scholars”, Nea Estia, 222, 15.03.1936: pp.

436, Cavafy K.PP., “Greek scholars at Roman houses”, Nea Estia, 602, 1927: pp. 585 and

Cavafy K.PP., Poems 1897-1933, vol. I, 1984, Athens, Ikaros: pp. 49. Konstantinos Cavafy

borrowed the titles of his poem This Famous (Οὗηορ ἐκεῖνορ) by the eminent narration of a

Lucian‟s dream in his writing titles as Πεπὶ ηοῦ ἐνςπνίος ἤηοι Βίορ Λοςκιανοῦ, 11.

5 For further information about the cultural and literary production of the period Nesselrath

H.G., Introduction to the knowledge of antiquity, vol.I, 1997, Athens, Papadimas: chapter:

The Imperial period.



spread while the writer was still alive6. In conclusion, Suda‟s dictionary

describes his natural end most likely under the effect of some mythical rumor

according to which Lucian was supposed to be massacred by stray dogs at

the age of 75. Nonetheless, this dying version is strongly contested by the

modern philological skepticism. In my opinion, the way that Lucian was

supposed to have died does hardly correspond to historical reality. Instead, it

was perhaps the copiers‟ community -consistent mostly of religious persons in

the acne of Christianity- that had tried to reciprocate the insult to Lucian for

what was considered as contempt to the divinity by him. As far as I am

concerned, the fact that the Syrian writer was said to have been devoured by

stray dogs is far from coincidental, since Lucian frequently narrates of stories

where the main character expires after his circumcision by passerby stray

dogs7. We could apply this reasoning to assume that the age-old (mostly

Christian) grammarians have attempted to get their revenge by “offering” him

the false rumor of his very favorite coda, which is nothing but “a killing by

dogs”. Furthermore, the researcher can infer that the pattern of division by

wildlife is often found in ancient Greek mythical tradition, just like the

stereotypical battle between a mortal and Death in Modern Greek folk songs.

Facts about the author in brief

The “great satirist”, as Vaggos Papaioannou called him8, was a child of a

petty family without any particular prosperity who hadn‟t fall back on the field

of literature and intellectual from the outset of his professional career. The

author himself outlines his course towards humanities through an essay titled

6 See Papaioannou V., “Cicero and Lucian at Thessaloniki”, Nea Estia, 1403, December

1985: pp. 59 and Karantonis A., “With Lucian in the island of immortals”, Nea estia, 1263,

15.02.1980: pp. 287.

7 As mentioned above, the rumor of Lucian‟s demise by stray dogs is probably not true. In his

inscriptions the conclusion of a division by savage dogs is often encountered with most

distinctive the examples of Neanthos (To an uneducated book collector, Ππὸρ ηὸν ἀπαίδεςηον

καὶ πολλὰ βιβλία ὠνούμενον, 12) and Actaion (Dialogues of gods: Hera and Leto, Θεῶν

Διάλογοι: Ἥπα καὶ Ληηῶ, 2).

8 See Papaioannou V., Lucian. The great satirist of Antiguity, 1976, Thessaloniki,

Konstantinidis.



as “About a dream or Life of Lucian” (Πεπὶ ηοῦ ἐνςπνίος ἤηοι Βίορ Λοςκιανοῦ)

which refers to his initial involvement in the art of sculpture under the urging of

his parents. However, fate forces him to quit this occupation just after his first

day of exercising, since his uncle and employer beats him after breaking a

piece of marble by mistake. The same night he dreams of two women,

Sculpture („Δξκνγιπθηθή) and Education (Παηδεῖα) arguing and demanding

him under their sponsorship9. Eventually, Education wins and this is how

Lucian‟s route to the scholar education begins10. Long after, Lucian leaves an

appreciable forensic career and switches from the field of Rhetoric to the

much afflicted domain of Philosophy, right after his first meeting with Nigrino

the philosopher11. In the end, he quits this career too and he‟s devoted to a

more monotonous job at the Egyptian government, a fact for which he‟s going

to submit his defense after a long time through his creative pen12.

9 See Lucian‟s, About a dream or Life of Lucian (Πεπὶ ηοῦ ἐνςπνίος ἤηοι Βίορ Λοςκιανοῦ).

10 See Lucian‟s, Accused twice (Διρ καηηγοπούμενορ). When Lucian would abandon Rherotic,

she lodge a lawsuit against him, so that the writer has the opportunity to apologize into an

unparalleled speech titled as “Accused twice”. For further biographical information of Lucian,

see Papaioannou 1976, op.cit.: pp. 59-86, Kroh PP., Dictionary of Ancient Authors, Greek and

Latin, trans. Lypourlis D., Tromaras L., 1996, Thessaloniki, University Studio Press: pp. 303-

305, Nesselrath 1997, op.cit: pp. 278, Sirinelli J., Children of Alexander, trans. Bini-

Sotiropoulou S., 2001, Athens, Zacharopoulos: pp. 422-428, Trédé M. - Saïd S., Le Boulluec

A., History of Greek Literature, vol. II, trans. Karamanos Xanthaki G., Pothou

V., Kyriazopoulos A., 2004, Athens, Papazisis: pp. 197-199 and 236-245. See also, Harmon

A., Lucian, vol. I, 1921, Cambridge-MA-London, Loeb Classical Library: pp. 173 and De

Romilly J., Ancient Greek Literature, trans. Mikrogiannaki-Christopoulou Th., 1988,

Athens, Kardamitsa: pp. 300-304.

11 See, Lucian‟s “Nigrino” (Νιγπῖνορ).

12 See Lucian‟s “Apology” (Ἀπολογία). Lucian wrote this project in order to defend himself

directly as regards his last career choice. The need for apologizing gets generated because of a

previous writing of Lucian named as “About those who run after salary” (Πεπὶ ηῶν μιζθῷ

ζςνόνηυν), where he criticizes the intellectual men of the time, who prefer to resort in courts

of the rich in order to work as teachers for their living. However, there they‟re made to endure

various acts of humiliation by their employers.



Lucian and his era

Before a reader begins to meditate on the libel, he has to take into account

that there‟s no real match between Lucian and his living era. The blooming

Roman Empire extends hospitality to a crowd of fake-schoolmasters who

promise they can lead their rich patrons to both long intellectual leaps and

social distinction through their “magical teaching tricks”. On the other hand,

multicultural consistence of the Roman Empire had brought a varied crowd of

people and cultures to co-existence. In fact, this crowd lives under constant

collision of attitudes, values and cultures. Simultaneously, classical literature

gets “fashionable”, although mode does not focus on classical ideals, too.

During such a multiform era lives Lucian, when everything can be sold or

bought; authority, education, love and friendship.

It‟s important to be elucidated that Lucian does not observe that general

corruption as regards the field of education and humanities through the eyes

of a naïve and astonished rustic man. Contrarily, his birth place was an

important station of commerce and a spot of hostility for various foreigners

and different schools of oratory. Besides, after his decision to treat on oratory,

the Syrian scholar begins with a roaming during which he‟s going to be a

witness of charlatanism, shadow education and often parastate13.

The libel

As in many of his other manuscripts, thus in his libel “To an uneducated book-

collector” Lucian refers at first to the subject of “lack of education” with some

tempestuous honesty. Traditionally, the libel is concerned to be written at

about 168 AC and it is included in the category of Lucian‟s “writings without

dialogue” or “letters”. Nevertheless, a more extensive observation at the text

could raise many questions as regards the main categorization of the

mentionable libel. In fact, Lucian does not import any straight conversation

into the libel with the form we are used to meet “dialogues” in ancient Greek

texts as some kind of mimesis. However, the author gets to ask Apaedeftos

(Ἀπαίδεςηορ, the uneducated man) questions directly for which he also

13

See Nesselrath (1997), op. cit.: p. 274.



receives not oral responses, but simple-minded signs and nods. We could

interpret this dramatic trick as an emphasized exposition of Lucian‟s mental

superiority in comparison to Apaedeftos, since the ignorant Syrian man seems

unable to defend himself by structured speech and arguments, as his talking

failure makes him act like a buffoon for readers. So this writing look more like

a direct conversation, where Lucian is the only character that uses (human)

oral speech as the man with the higher quality of intelligence contrary to

Apaedeftos who hardly involves actively in the libelous debate. Wherefore, the

existence of this particular communicational practice between the two

principal characters of the libel sets a new frame of questioning about

correctness of its current categorization.

On the other hand, the text is reasonably described as a “libel” as it conflicts,

scoffs, humiliates and sneers a certain person who primarily constitutes the

motive that triggered Lucian‟s pen. Within thirty steles Lucian manages to

debase the object of his deriding, to document his contention with anecdotal

stories and facts, to use many of the common oratory techniques for

persuasion and, finally, to humiliate Apaedeftos through phrases of escalating

emotion and culminate in a crescendo of anger, where the author sounds stiff.

Then, problematic of the text does not only refer to the difficulty of its precise

categorization. The hefty theme of the libel deserves of assiduous studying

and deliberation, too. At a poor glance, one may assume that carried away by

his indignations for the arrogance of a compatriot, Lucian clasps his pen and

writes this essay just to humble him. All the more so, the letter ends with a

warning against the recipient; Lucian‟ severe criticism is not finished yet with

those famous lines. I‟m of the opinion that the uneducated man is nothing but

the motive of the writing, since ignorance appears frequently as the main

subject of the libel –but not as the sole. Consequently, the libel could be

considered as a manifest of key-ethical issues, as it introduces of many topics

that are in a close reasoning relationship between them, such as moral

inconsistency among theory and practice, losing all sense of proportion,

hypocrisy, lack of self-knowledge, conceit, exhibitionism, charlatanism etc.

Much more, the author refers allusively to the injustice of the social and

financial division of people between rich and poor, which determines access



to education, to the risk of parasitism, the rise of materialism and the depravity

of the population who lives under slavery14.

Apaedeftos as a historical persona and a symbol

The possible existence of such a provocative personality in the familiar

environment of Lucian has been a fortunate fact for us, the posterior

philologists who have the chance to enjoy an instructive, humorous and full of

information about the special conditions of that era writing. However, any

attempt to verify the historical existence of Apaedeftos or prove that he‟s

nothing more than an artificial figure constructed by the author for the literary

needs ends in query. Nevertheless, all along the thirty steles dotted

information -once vague and sometimes convincing- is formulated about the

ignorant man‟s origin, sexual orientation, scandals and the way he acquired

his financial prosperity. All these particular details in the corpus of narration

could substantiate the opinion according to which Apaedeftos existed for real.

On the other hand, symbolic aspect of the protagonist is obvious and

substantial. The researcher has only to combine historical information relating

to the contemporary society to understand the way in which Lucian‟s

uneducated man turns progressively into an invidious representative of an

entire social drift which is described by their moral paradox and unconformity.

In the frame of this -once modern- senselessness, members of that social drift

claim either they can teach some superior wisdom (which in fact they don‟t get

at all) or they belong to the class of the most witty and gifted people of that

current period, although they only know the wealth of classics “superficially

and right from the tags”.

Caricature

In Lucian‟s narration, the ignorant man is described as unable to defend

himself with verbal and reasoning arguments, nonetheless, always ready to

show himself off through his material fortune, which contains -amongst else-

14

For an introduction to the libel see Papaioannou, 1976, op. cit.: p. 104, Hopkinson N.,

Lucian. A selection, 2003, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: p. 119-120 and

Kondylakis I., Complete works of Lucian, vol. 14, 1911, Athens, Feksis: p. 6.



an enviable book- collection. Therefore, the satirized man doesn‟t seem to

have the necessary skills and abilities in order to utilize sufficiently his great

acquisition. As Lucian gets to realize this sort of offence, he feels angry

enough to make an effort to expand his hate to the libel‟s readers or listeners.

On the other hand, all the personal information that the author offers within his

libel reminds more of some “yellow press” that an honest checking of

Apaedeftos’ real level of knowledge. Thus, we‟re being informed that

Apaedeftos was “parasiting” by an old childless master‟s side and that he

managed to place his name illegally as a payee heir into his lord‟s testament.

This attack reaches the peak when the Syrian writer reveals -as if it happened

by the way- Apaedeftos’ reveling sexual activities and when judging arrives to

the relationship between the uneducated man and books, the later one gets

ridiculed and humiliated through rough comments that find him guilty of

discord, misreading and misunderstanding as regards the content and

meanings of classical texts. To conclude, it‟s important to be noted that the

motive of “lack of education” is not innovating, but it is met again and again in

the lines of different Lucian‟s writings as a matter for more thinking.

Detecting Lucian through the libel; spoydaeogelion (σπουδαιογέλοιον)

Nowadays, it‟s widely concerned that most of the Lucian‟s writings offer

scattered information and clues about the author‟s life and personality that

reinforce our endeavor to restore his historical and moral profile. In this libel

the writer comes to admonish his compatriot who seems to reflect the immoral

attitude of an entire social streaming consistent by “uneducated” wisemen.

So, Apaedeftos gets punished for the “crimes” of all the deceivers, the

ignorant and careless people of that time.

I firmly believe that -even though it is carefully disguised- the didactic

discourse of the project should not be disregarded by the reader as the libel

constitutes to some extend an implicit exhortation to moral consistency.

Besides, Lucian attempts to criticize any discordance between the theory of

“how a man is supposed to live” and human actions at last throughout whole

his bibliography. It is precisely this inconsistency, this gap that divides the

particular worldview of men who allege themselves as savants and the



actualization of this ideology that is keenly denoted by Lucian in a neither

consequential nor grandiose way, but with humor and essence, too, so many

readers were hastened to underline the “spoydaeogelion” of his method15.

In this project, the author involves actively and he‟s personally outraged by

the abusing attitude of his compatriot. The indignation against Apaedeftos’

outrageous hypocrisy gets so peaked that Lucian does not hesitate as he

divulges of spicy details about the ignorant man‟s love life and taunts him

constantly.

Always rebellious and under the request of creating a better new world,

Lucian reveals his critique accompanied by plentiful the convincing

arguments. Therefore, in fact, his criticism remains orientated to the

provocation of some emotional and intellectual awakening of readers and

listeners.

But the author makes absolutely no counter-proposal to improve the situation

and the limit that kind of deception. It could probably be said that he kind of

attempts to bestow some justice by threatening indirectly any ignorant

concerned with a public denounced fabricated by his stylus. An alternative

explanation of the absence of anu clear counter-proposals may be the fact

that Lucian does not show off himself as a wise pattern for his fellow citizens

at all. All these frequent references to his barbaric origin and his caustic

sarcasm about it could advocate up this thought. Even when the author gets

to mention himself within his texts, he does it in a way that is far from egotism

or boasting16.

Another element of Lucian‟s rhetorical method, as it can be seen in his

writings, is crossing the line of discretion (tact). Therefore, he very often gives

background information away that is usually referred to the opponent's

personal life, but pnly a little information is really related to the termination of

ignorance of another man and has virtually no testimonial value. However, the

15

During antiquity “spoydaegelion” refers to the joke, the banter which discloses the

ridiculous side of daily serious issues.

16 Within the libel he writes: “καὶ μὴν ὅζα γε κἀμὲ Σύπον ὄνηα εἰδέναι”, 19.



minor clues reported are intended to underestimate the moral value of

Apaedeftos and provide readers with empathy against him of such an extent

that in many cases he becomes “mudslinging”. If we try to reconstruct

Lucian‟s likely political ideology we will face plenty of guiding signs, yet weak

enough as historical evidence, but kind of reinforcing to our conjectures with

some plausibility. However, I strongly believe that Lucian was a supporter of

democratic ideology. This is because thought the entire length of his libel‟s he

cites myths and anecdotal stories that debunk the tyrants and overstate their

lack of prudence. Moreover, he usually refers keenly to their use of being

purchased, to their dazzling by material property and their carrying away by

flatterers, as a result of their substantial ignorance. Finally, his apparent

protest in which the rich ones are able to have at their disposal goods and

services which they‟re unable to use (such as, for example, access to

education) indicates a request for fair settlement of injustice stemming from

the social distribution of people in classes. As a writer, Lucian seems to love

tragic endings of people to whom the action of each story dedicated. The

strong majority of figures of his unpublished stories are experiencing an

unexpected and gruesome death end. For example, Orpheus is massacred by

the Thracian women, Pentheus gets beheaded by the Bacchae, the followers

of Dionysus, the young tyrant Neanthos gets devoured by stray dogs,

Evangelos gets wildly beaten by judges, just as Thersites gets abused by

Odysseus. The examples given in the libel do not dry up here, Phaedra finds

death by her own hand, Proteus is on fire, Dionysius remains doomed to his

clumsiness and lack of talent, Geryon gets murdered and Bellerophon suffers

unfairly for a long time. We could say that through this regular pattern of using

mostly tragic conclusions Lucian declares his own faith to the Solon‟s quote

"bless no one before his death" according to which even the rich do not

escape by a painful end. As regards Apaedeftos, the author is often presented

as an eyewitness of those events that expose irreparably the immorality

icompatriot17. Action is not limited to the disclosure of scandals, but goes

17

See “Ἀλλ’ ἔγυγε καὶ μάπηςπαρ ἄν παπαζσοίμην ηοὺρ ηόηε παπόνηαρ ὡρ ἠγανάκηηζα καὶ

όλίγος πληγὰρ ἐνέηπιτα αὐηῷ σαλεπαίνυν ὑπὲπ ζοῦ, καὶ μάλιζθ’ ὅηε καὶ ἄλλον ἐπεκαλἐζαηο

μάπηςπα ηῶν ὁμοίυν καὶ ἄλλον ηαὐηὰ καὶ λόγοιρ διηγοςμένοςρ”, 25.



further to the mentioning of distinctive admonition towards the ignorant man

as a wanna-be reformer of his negatively criticized culture. Certainly, any

advice to the ignorant Syrian man does not only reflect of Lucian‟s effort to

improve his compatriot, but embraces the request to change the whole

attitude of the respective social drift and also his attempt to unclothe

supposed wise men from their false and void “validity”.

Information about books and paleography as issued from the libel

The “To an uneducated book-collector” writing provides a lot of information

regarding the style of publications of the 2nd century AD and titles of the best-

selling books of the same period. Concerning the outer appearance of books,

we‟re coming in for the period in which the parchment as a graphic material

makes its modest emergence, but the papyrus seems to prevail even though

its price was much higher. Beyond the physical substance of books, there are

scattered information within the libel related to their form that we lead us to

presume the prevalence of cylinders compared the emerging documents as

ηεύση, volumes. Indeed, as the author talks about gold hubs, parchment and

epigrams, he seems to point out rather rolls than codes. However, as we go

on reading the writing, we find that the sense of luxury and a tendency for

splurge has permeated the field of publishing books, since ignorant men

prefer to collect overly ornate books as they ignore the real value of their

content. They even pick especially the most decorated in external form.

Along the 2nd century AD, the possession of books was much regarded as a

source of prestige and self-promotion. At the same time interest in the

classics of Greek literature revives more than ever and traders were looking

for the most classic book, the oldest one and the most coveted18. Of course

there are many people who obtain the oldest books to equip their libraries in

order to be dressed up by the image of "the sage one". A financial

wherewithal purchasing is enough to help anyone seize a little treasure of

knowledge and go on competing with educated ones, who often live in poverty

and deprived of such a possession.

18

See Reynolds L.D.-Wilson N.G., Copiers and scholars, trans. Panagiotakis N., 1987,

Athens, Μ.Ι.Ε.Τ.: p. 47-48.



We moreover deduce that, thanks to all these points of the 2nd century‟s daily

life, book trade flourishes. Many of the infamous manuscripts of classical

literature were found in large private libraries of Rome as spoils from the

former Greek territory. During this period the pattern of after-Alexandrian

Latinism and Hellenism gets established and puts forward many issues

related to language with most typical the conflict between Atticism and

Asianism, a dispute that will discredit the historical period and set as dual the

proper style of literary language19.

Τhe project as a comment on Education of the 2nd cen. AC

Scholars of the history of Greek literature, at their overwhelming majority say

that the hellenization of the inhabitants of the Roman Empire during the 1st

century BC and 1st century AD led gradually -combined to other factors- to

revival of the classic spirit. In fact, many are those who are studying and

imitating classical models throughout the exaggeration of the language of

classical literature, the Attic dialect20. Lucian, on his side, declares regularly

his aversion to the immoderate use of Attic types in literature and the broader

verbal expression of the time. However, the shift in the glorious past does not

only affect the field of speech, but penetrates in daily public lifestyle too, dress

code and eating habits.

Whilst everyone wants to create a private collection of classical literary

writings as required by the contemporary trend, we‟re sure that copying of

manuscripts was intensified during the 2nd century BC21. Thus, in the libel

there is an indirect reference to regular traders who artificially stale several

manuscripts to satisfy the demand of ancient writings, but also to profit by

raising the price at the argument of the product‟s "scarcity". The libel also

refers to the hypocritical imitation of the great men and the obsession with the

19

See Reynolds & Wilson, 1987, op. cit.: p. 62-97 and Trypakis K.., “Atticism and our

linguistic issues”, Records of Athens’ Academy, Retained session in April 10th 1984, dir. G.

Mixailidis-Nouaros: 10.04.1984.

20 See Trypakis, 1984, op. cit.

21 See Reynolds & Wilson, 1987, op. cit..: p. 47-48.



ascetic appearance of wise men22. So, as the allegedly wise men are nothing

more than owners of expensive books, detached from the knowledge

contained in them, Lucian gets angry and indignant in view of this abusive

dealing with the glorious past, so he taunt them tirelessly.

Various historical sources indicate that many men of the 2nd century liked to

impersonate the scholars and the cultured ones by adopting a thoroughly

sloppy appearance, seem to be ascetic and taking advantage of the prestige

that can be derived from the same impression. Indeed, this is the well-known

Second Sophistic period, a period full of uneducated "authority" that used to

sell their teaching services for high fee. According to Lucian demanding

exchange for teaching indicates exactly a complete lack of true education23.

Within the considered libel the author seems to categorize those ignorant men

into three sub-categories: those who, although they have only received basic

training, they remain uneducated, then those who pretend to be educated by

always bringing a book to present testimonies for their high culture and even

tend to rely just on the titles of the most acclaimed books of the era without

having actually studied them, and, finally, the sophomoric ones, those who

were educated by their congenial men and do not possess any skills rather

than part of writing and reading, let alone the interpretation of classical works.

We could say that Lucian turns his arrows against all those empty advisers

who nevertheless pretend to be educated with some kind of latent

competition. However, the libel does not overlook the lot evils that ignorance

brings out such as facile manipulation, deception, ridicule, lack of critical

thinking and easy moral erosion. The pure and simple demonstration of the

author lies perhaps in a smaller, less obvious degree. Some want to study,

22

Lucian usually criticizes wisdom based just on external appearance: «οὕηυ δὲ ηοὺρ ἀπίζηοςρ

ἐπιλεξάμενορ αὐηῶν, ὡρ ἐνῆν ηεκμήπαζθαι πποζώπος ηε ζκςθπυπόηηηι καὶ σπόαρ ὠσπόηηηι καὶ

γενείος βαθύηηηι», Hecaromenipus or Hypernefelos (Ἱκαπομένιππορ ἢ ‘Υπεπνέθελορ), 5.20.

23 See Papaioannoy, 1997, op. cit..: p. 58-77.



but the financial requirements of teachers do not allow them access to

education, which has now been commercialized24.

On the other hand, many others may have the necessary financial comfort to

attend classical training, but they are not tempered, hard workers or

intellectually qualified to attempt. However, they dare to claim they know

everything in detail25.

From what‟s mentioned above we can conclude this unit by saying that Lucian

lived at a time, when the study of classical literature had reached at its peak,

but the classical culture itself is not growing as rapidly as one might suppose.

This is because the quality of education is not upgraded, as a matter of the

emphasis in sterile memorization of various passages of classical works to

impress, while the value of content, the moral and didactic interpretation of

ancient literature has been placed in the background.

Oratory and philosophy. Thought and Language within the libel.

Both the multiple readings and the so-called "interpretative circle" let us

discern the author's vacillation between two sectors that used to be key-

stations of his life and professional career throughout the length of the libel;

philosophy and oratory.

Nowadays, sources that are at our disposal admit Lucian‟s turn from the art of

rhetorics to the science of philosophy only a few years before writing this

project and just after his meeting with Nigrino the neoplatonist26. Certainly,

Lucian‟s studies on sophistry do not point out any huge incompatibility to

philosophical meditation since sophists had a clear enough philosophical point

of view which led them to keen conflict against the opponent -pure

philosophic- movement of neoplatonism. However, effects of the two rival

intellectual awes acted on Lucian and are now clearly reflected in mainly in

the author's views on hubris and moral consistency.

24

About the education system of that period see Papaioannoy, 1997, op. cit.: p. 19-21.

25 «ἀλλὰ βαπβάποςρ μὲν ηὴν θυνὴν ὥζπεπ ζύ, ἀξύνεηοςρ δὲ ηῇ γνώζει», 4.

26 See Papaioannoy, 1997, op. cit: p. 68-69.



On the other hand, we know that Lucian worked for long as a professional

orator oftentimes taking part in judicial trials. Despite the fact that writing of

this libel follows Lucian‟s swift to philosophy, his oratory experience is not

eliminated, on the contrary, his previous adeptness affects the structure of his

language considerably, so that no one could ignore his lawyer past. From the

first lines of the libel the author attempts to gain sympathy of the audience by

using many of those tricks that ensure favor, attention and orientation. We

need to study the text word by word to perceive the delicacy with which he

organizes his emotional invocation in order to invite the audience to seize his

personal indignation. As we‟re going along reading the text, frequent attacks

on Apaedeftos’ morality are found, where Lucian does not boggle to decry him

about issues that are hardly related to the topic of ignorance for which the

man is typically criticized through the libel. We can also identify many insulting

characterizations combined with relative proofs -which are rather consisted by

“skillful arguments” and parables than objective presumptions, apart from a

few exceptions- while he also refers indirectly and modestly to his own

morality.

Concerning the language, the excessively atticistic spirit of the main period

does not seem to have affected Lucian in real, despite his oratorical

education. Thus, as a typical fan of (philosophical) midway, the Syrian scholar

might choses attic dialect for his literary operations, but he refrains from the

current imitating extravagance that is usual in expression and literature during

the 2nd century AC. In conclusion, we can say that Lucian‟s authorial persona

used those elements that were in compliance with his personality without

taking supporting any of the two basic linguistic movements of that period at

the beginning of what we‟re now calling “linguistic issue”. At the same way, he

seems to embrace many of the great philosophical ideas of the Roman period

barren of being totally agreed with the positions of a certain philosophical

movement27.

27

Besides, within his essay Hecaromenipus or Hypernefelus (Ἱκαπομένιππορ ἢ Ὑπεπνέθελορ)

he claims that he failed to discover a philosophical system which is beyond all doubt.



Cooperative actions within the learning framework on the basis of

projects in the subject of Biology in the 1st Lyceum grade

Babou, D., Secondary Education, Msc (c), [email protected]

Abstract

The present research aims at studying the 1st Lyceum grade students‟

perceptions in relation to the Group Inquiry Projects implementation in the

subject of Biology. An improvised questionnaire based on open questions and

structured in 4 thematic pivots in combination to field notes was used. The

participants in this research were students of all four departments of the 1st

Lyceum grade of an Attica Northern suburbs school (85 students in total)

while the teaching suggestion was implemented in the 12th chapter of

Reproduction – Development of the unit “Sexually Spread Diseases” and

“Maternal Nursing Benefits” both for fetus and mother in the subject of Biology

of 1st Lyceum grade. The data process resulted in the fact that Group Inquiry

Projects were particularly appreciated by students elevating both the

collaboration dynamics and motives increase for learning while their

implementation is concurrently reinforcing students‟ self-esteem and meta-

cognitive ability.

Key words: Learning through projects, cooperative learning, group inquiry

projects.

1. Introduction

When the school classroom is organized according to the Group system and

Inquiry – Compositional projects are implemented, these projects are then

called Group Inquiry Projects (Kapsalis & Nima, 2008). The combination of

interdisciplinary and team spirit stimulates students‟ interest improving both

their attitudes and self-esteem and their abilities to cooperate extending to

their learning and knowledge maintenance. The present research suggests a

learning framework which combines cooperative actions and inquiry –

compositional projects in secondary education. Both teaching methods are

combined to form the ideal framework for experiential learning, skills natural



development as well as team spirit development in all educational grades

students.

2. The research

2.1 The objective and research inquiries

Over the past years in the Secondary Education Greek School, in particular,

students are invited to participate in volunteer programs such as

Environmental Education, and so forth, which are actions primarily based on

the project method. Innovative actions, group cooperative procedures and

inquiry projects from the domains of natural sciences, art, literature and other

are also integrated in the teaching of subjects by many teachers. The present

research was motivated by the previously mentioned actions. In particular,

the implementation (through the students‟ own eyes) of group actions in the

1st Lyceum grade subject of Biology was studied. 1st grade students of all 4

departments of the same school participated for the time period from 24-1-12

until 31-3-12. More specifically, the learning framework is related to the 12th

chapter of Reproduction – Development of the unit “Sexually Spread

Diseases” and “Maternal Nursing Benefits” both for fetus and mother. The

criterion to select this project was based on the writer‟s personal interest as

well as the results probable utility in future researches carried out both by her

and other individuals.

The objective and inquiries of the present research are hereby formulated:

Research objective: It aims at studying the 1st Lyceum grade students‟

viewpoints related to the function of Group Inquiry Projects in the subject of

Biology.

Research inquiries: They are as follow:

To what extent can the implemented teaching method integrating Group

Inquiry Projects:

1. Develop and create new learning motives among students,

2. Increase students‟ self-esteem,

3. Increase students‟ meta-cognitive ability,

4. Develop cooperation skills and motives among students.



2.2 Theoretical standpoints on Projects and group teaching

According to Matsagouras (2007) the Project Method, even though it could be

implemented in individual work, is mainly an implementation of Group

teaching. Without absolutely removing frontal teaching (a thing that is not

possible) the pursuit is to make students work in groups and carry out

activities instead of merely answering questions (Group Inquiry Projects –

G.I.P.).

Carrying out projects is based on group and experiential learning as well as

on the interdisciplinary approach of knowledge and forms the best way to

implement cross-curricular teaching, investigatory and collaborative learning

while the student is concurrently receiving the good feelings emanating from

knowledge and school work is not being addressed as a compulsory work or,

to sound more lenient, as a drudgery.

Students‟ collaboration and group works form the main attribute of G.I.P.

methodology. Students are divided into groups and each group undertakes

the responsibility to carry out on their own and in a manner mostly wished the

subject matter process. Students‟ collaboration is carried out throughout the

stages that follow. They work jointly at school and, many times, at home, too.

Information is gathered from various sources and following that the subject

matter is analyzed and composed by all of them. The subject matter of the

group is divided into parts and everyone is responsible for his / her own field

of investigation while they are obliged, within a specific time period, to make a

presentation of the information processed by all of them as a group. Students

exchange viewpoints, agree or disagree, communicate among each other and

find solutions that are accepted by the whole group every time. In this

manner, students are activated, undertake responsibilities and learn to work

collectively (Koptsis, 2009).

As it is mentioned by Anderson et al. (2004), bibliography on group learning

indicates how the structures developed within a classroom seem to favor high

level bondages among students; therefore, the students‟ interactions within

the framework of the small group – society is conducive to multiple benefits.

Students work in small groups, cultivate critical thinking (Matsagouras, 2004)

and special relationships among them, previously absent, start to be

constructed (Anderson, A.; et al, 2004). According to Gillies (2004). One of



the basic principles being the basis for group teaching is that should the

members of the group comprehend that collective success is the prerequisite

for individual one, there will be, then, mutual assistance to achieve the goals

of the group. Individual knowledge and individual social development is

produced and promoted by the entirety of learning experiences obtained

within environments of social interaction (Frydaki, 2001).

The experience obtained by students throughout projects process forms a

significant source of learning while the students‟ needs, dispositions and

interests are critical (Korre, 2010). It is about a student-centered teaching

model according to which the student is responsible for his learning as being

of a curious and studious nature while learning itself can be pleasant and

tempting for him (Pigiaki P., 1998).

According to relevant researches carried out by Steinberg and Kincheloe

1998, Kellett 2005 (in Matsagouras, 2011) the projects educational

significance lays in that students‟ thinking, creativity and initiative are

activated through their direct and active involvement in all the Inquiry Project

phases. Besides, the interest in the subjects allocated is increased because

students conceive, in practice, the contribution of the subjects taught to

comprehend the world and to confront daily problems and important life

issues on a local and global level. In addition to that, they aim at the

development of reflection, critical and self-critical thinking, personal

responsibility about human choices and actions, the prevailing standards,

values as well as socio-political and moral dilemmas involved in modern

multicultural societies. They are deemed to promote collectivity and

cooperation provided that students, within the framework of Inquiry Projects,

cooperate in groups to study the subject matter and carry out joint works of a

scientific base concurrently creating channels of communication among

school, local society, its problems and its carriers. Moreover, the issues

examined on local, national and global level prepare students in thinking and

acting as responsible citizens of their country and of the world.

It is realized, therefore, that cooperative forms of teaching, under particular

circumstances, are conducive both to the students‟ academic performance

and the reinforcement of their interpersonal relationships.



2.3 Methodology - Data collection method

The qualitative method of non participatory observation as the most suitable

to carry out, in reference to information and data collection regarding students‟

“everyday life” and under the circumstances given, is eventually selected for

the specific pilot research (Educational inquiry in practice) (Bird, Hammersley,

Gomm, & Woods, pp. 30,39) as well as in terms of its aims (to investigate any

changes in the students‟ attitude and behavior during their transition from

traditional teaching to Group Inquiry Projects). On the basis of this general

aim, the in depth examination of possible changes regarding the students‟

attitudes and behavior during their transition from one teaching form to the

other was deemed appropriate.

The 1st Lyceum grade students comprising two departments of an Athens

suburb school form the sample of this pilot research. The particular school is

situated in one of the most developed areas of Athens since it is resided by a

middle and upper civil class population with a relevantly powerful economic

capital. It is deemed a relevantly big school in terms of the number of its

students but with a moderate performance level concerning the panhellenic

entrance examinations. The departments‟ student force participating in the

research is characterized by a relevant homogeneity in terms of school

performance (3rd High School Grade scoring). Students, in their majority, are

moderate and no one of them was found to have learning difficulties by

KEDDY (Differential Diagnosis Centers and Support).

The Group Inquiry Projects implementation, in reality, was materialized in

students of four departments of 1st Lyceum grade, divided into four groups of

five students each (total of students per class, 20-22). Surplus students were

regularly placed in groups. A total of 16 groups were formulated and

questionnaires with open questions were distributed to each one of the

students after completion of the Group Inquiry Projects method

implementation (24-1-2012 until 31-3-2012). 69 supplementary questionnaires

were received by the total of 85 students. Sixteen (16) questionnaires were

not filled in due to the negative reply – statement of the students‟ parents

regarding their participation in the pilot research.



2.4 Data collection tools

The Questionnaire

The initial thinking of administering individual interviews would be a time-

consuming procedure (within the framework of the pilot research) for both

sides (the students and the researcher). Thus, under a co-evaluation of the

method pros and cons such as low participation percentage, difficulty to

check, in terms of validity and reliability, the information collected or the risk of

a different interpretation of the same question (Faulkner, Swann, Baker, Bird,

& Carty, 1999, pp. 90-102), the drafting of a written questionnaire to be filled

in by students in their free time was decided. The 1st Lyceum grade students

of all 4 departments were given questionnaires with open questions (Annex 2

– The Questionnaire) following their parents – guardians‟ written consent

(Annex 1 – Letter to students‟ parents about their participation in the pilot

research). Guiding, complex, annoying, ambiguous and negative questions

were omitted.

The questionnaire was primarily read in the classroom and questions not

clearly comprehended by students regarding the information required were

clarified. The students were asked to fill in and return it to the teacher in a

predetermined time period (until 6/4/2012). Students‟ anonymity, to avoid

probable prejudice from both sides, was preferred.

The pilot research questionnaire was constructed in a unified unit of 15 open

questions which are closer to the research qualitative nature. Besides, a large

number of open questions in a relatively small sample require a long time for

processing (Faulkner, Swann, Baker, Bird, & Carty, 1999, pp. 90-102). The

research inquiry questions were fully met by the questionnaire while the

students were informed, in a separate paragraph, about the research content

and the reasons of its administration as well as confidentiality, anonymity and

guidelines for filling in.

2.5 The non participatory observation

The non participatory observation method with open type field notes that was

selected is a flexible method which is used in combination with other methods

of data collection such as, for example, interviews or questionnaires



(Faulkner, Swann, Baker, Bird, & Carty, 1999, pp. 117-137). It is a basic tool

in researches of the pedagogical domain. The researcher is present in a

particular space under his true capacity and observes situations and facts.

When he wants to observe a class, for instance, he sits at the back of the

classroom keeping notes. A technique making the researcher “invisible” is the

ideal in this case (Bird, Hammersley, Gomm, & Woods, 1999, p. 175). The

use of such a tool could facilitate the study of how students interpret what is

happening “around them” (that is the Group-Project implementation) and how

this affects their behavior afterwards. Observations done by the researcher –

teacher for the time period of project assignment to students and without

focusing on the research inquiry questions but with as much spontaneity as

possible and without prejudice were recorded. As regards the latter, in

particular, the researcher‟s personal agenda was used to record personal

feelings and reflections about the research procedure (Faulkner, Swann,

Baker, Bird, & Carty, 1999, pp. 31-32).

The observations recording (a sheet with two columns, notes and comments)

was made during the class (at site) and mainly at the moment when each

department‟s students, in groups, were discussing about the issues of their

project in the classroom. Following that, after the class (during the interval or

at home) the field notes as well as her comments were filled in the specific

daily sheets by the researcher. A total of 36 sheets corresponding to 9 sheets

per department, one for every day of teaching Biology, were filled in by the

teacher (9 lessons were totally carried out per department between 24-1-2012

and 31-3-2012). A sample of field notes and comments from the first

department of 1st grade for 6th March 2012 is illustrated in Annex 3.

2.6 Research validity and reliability

Since validity and reliability of the data collected forms the issued to be

pursued, they can be secured by triangulation through the crossing of various

data. Thus, the more methods to detect research data are used, the higher

probability lays for data validity (Bird, Hammersley, Gomm, & Woods, 1999, p.

180).

According to Lacey (Bird, Hammersley, Gomm, & Woods, 1999, p. 183), the

combination of more different data collection methods provide elements



supporting one another and all together comprise a comprehension worm-

screw. For these reasons, questionnaires, field observations and the personal

agenda were used by the researcher in order to achieve the best possible full

scale view and comprehension of the research situation.

In terms of our research reliability, the sample used, both in number and type

(all levels students) forms a representative sample of this pilot research.

2.7 Data processing

During qualitative analysis, the initial stages of research drafting, the nature of

analysis techniques to be used are not easy to be precisely determined. The

qualitative analysis techniques are less standardized in relation to the

quantitative ones in which their determination is more precise. Data

codification, in both kinds of research, forms the basic means of their analysis

(Faulkner, Swann, Baker, Bird, & Carty, 1999, p. 127 & Bird, Hammersley,

Gomm, & Woods, 1999, p. 331-332). When reference is made to codification

what is meant is the determination of categories and the data and information

integration to the corresponding categories, per case. In qualitative analysis,

one more thing to be decided about is what the most suitable categories to

integrate data and comprehend them are.

Between the two aforementioned data analysis methods, the one of thematic

analysis, as the most suitable in relation to the one of discourse analysis, was

chosen for the present research. Discourse analysis focuses on a specific text

or a number of texts closely interweaved among each other. But in the case of

our research there are a lot of and various data sources (questionnaires, field

observations and agenda), their writing was done in different ways and their

content is different and inappropriate for discourse analysis.

Our data were organized and codified in the following thematic units identical

to the research pivots:

1. New motives for learning,

2. Students‟ self-esteem,

3. Students‟ meta-cognitive ability,

4. Skills and collaboration motives among students.



2.8 Results and data analysis

The 69 questionnaires collected as well as the researcher‟s observations and

personal agenda were codified each one separately in 4 thematic units and

were being concurrently studied – analyzed.

Based on their analysis, in relation to the first unit concerning the creation of

new motives for learning, most students regard the lesson through the G.I.P.

as particularly interesting, different, “light” and informative while “we escape

from the ordinary and predetermined lesson of the book”. Besides, they can

learn better “by substantiating our knowledge” as well as broaden their

knowledge in relation to “the book that provides the basic things”. It is also

mentioned that “we search to a larger extent (that is information) and are not

merely bored by the particular book, thus, we learn”. The subject of Biology is

mentioned by a female student to contain “quite difficult scientific terminology

which is incomprehensive to students and quite tiring without the G.I.P.”

through which they are given the possibility to cooperate, communicate and

better study, while at the same time, “we are provided with the opportunity to

learn things which I have always wanted to study in depth”.

Biology was mentioned by a male student to be “tiring and unsubstantial

because the book is closely written” Another one stated that the use or not of

G.I.P. “could make no difference” whereas a third student mentioned that it

could be the same “amusing and educating” without G.I.P. if the appropriate

procedure was followed. It was also mentioned that this method “is not the

suitable one for all chapters and a combination of methods should be done”.

The majority of students‟ viewpoint that the subject could be done more hours

per week (two at least) instead of one according to the current situation

because it is “pleasant since I can learn about my body” and feel happy every

time they have Biology is of special interest.

In the second unit regarding the increase in the students‟ self-esteem, most

students believe that they are able to assist their fellow-students “because we

acquire knowledge that makes us able to do this”. Some of them do not feel

able to do this because they themselves face enough difficulties in

comprehending the notions but they are willing to help through the

cooperation conditions created. Another viewpoint of significant interest is that

“the class participants can contribute to a better flow of the lesson and



knowledge acquisition while all unknown aspects of the subject can be

covered”.

The third unit concerned the students‟ meta-cognitive ability. Students believe

that they learn “faster and better through group projects” and because “I

remember better through what I have done with my fellow students, the

central points at least, but when I emphasize on the subject”. Besides,

according to another student “everything is a matter of systematic and correct

study programming” whereas “memorization is not a way to learn in contrast

to G.I.P.s through which knowledge is consolidated”. Another student replied

that “he still learns “by heart” and not effectively” and that “the way the lesson

is administered is not responsible for this but the material structure and the

large number of useless details for Lyceum students‟. Another one mentioned

that “it is up to the student‟s attempt to concentrate and learn a couple of

things”. There is a common viewpoint by many students that the book “is not

appropriately-to-our-level written” and that the G.I.P. “helps overcome this

problem”.

The last unit dealt with the skills and cooperation motives among students and

their viewpoints, in their majority, coincided in that working in a group is much

more interesting, “fun”, “having a great time”, “discovering knowledge from

which we benefit” and that “it can not be compared to individual work”, “it is

much easier”, “conducive to a safer outcome for successful work”, “teaches us

how to work in groups which will be of great help to the rest of our lives”, “it is

not tiring at all but rather relaxing”, “sharing responsibilities and the workload”,

“more ideas are presented”, “we learn how to discuss at the same time”, “my

fellow students make corrections and provide supplementary feedback”.

Those ones that replied differently regarding the aforementioned viewpoint

mentioned that “it is better to work individually so that each one‟s idea and

opinion is separately presented” and because at some moment “there are

contradictions whether someone works more or less”. Additionally, “it is a

matter of coincidence to work in groups and enjoy it”. Reference was also

made to scoring in the sense that in individual projects the score is personal

showing who has worked and who has not. A student mentioned that “I would

rather work on my own because cooperating with another person requires



huge responsibility and attention because should a mistake be made the

responsibility lays for the other member of the group”.

More generally, no cooperation problems or intense annoyance among group

members was mentioned because “every member was assigned an equal

amount of work” and that “everyone worked on his own duties”. It was also

obvious that groups were organized on the basis of friendly relationships

(“hopefully all friends work together”) while their cooperation preferences were

towards “cooperative individuals sharing the same interests with me trying as

much as I do so that the outcome is successful”. The issue of time was also

mentioned in the sense that group work is far more interesting provided that

there is adequate time to meet inside or outside school. Moreover,

misunderstandings or quarrels among the group members were not

mentioned at all.

3. Discussing the results

The study of the questionnaires, observations and the researcher‟s agenda

showed that students corresponded positively to the Group Inquiry Projects

implementation in the specific subject of Biology; the lesson was much more

pleasant and different in relation to formal ordinary teaching. Learning was

organized by students through free procedures, as per the G.I.P.

implementation, in order to acquire the knowledge pursued. Besides, the

student-centered teaching model, according to which the student is

responsible for his learning as being of a curious and studious nature,

confirms that learning itself can be pleasant and tempting for the student

(Pigiaki P., 1998) while new motives for learning are concurrently being

created. It has been observed that the whole teaching procedure and the

teacher-researcher‟s role focus on the creation of an environment suitable for

students to learn on their own. The formation of groups with accepted and

cooperative members in areas that facilitate learning (school classrooms or

meetings in the students‟ houses), means such as the computer or other

supplements except for the school book as well as the relatively quiet

formulation of a school environment far off tensions and noises are conducive

to knowledge and facilitate its acquisition through a natural and unconstrained

manner. It seemed that the method implemented introduced the students‟



active participation and self-actualization possibilities both in acting and

thinking, made students feel responsible and significant individuals, able to

confront school life situations while their self-esteem was simultaneously

being increased (Dervisis, 1998). The students were obviously satisfied with

the result and group members showed responsibility in cooperation without

special problems while, at the same time, their activation was large and

pleasant in order to acquire knowledge far beyond the one provided by the

school book.

What was not obvious through the present research and about which the

group discussions psychoanalysis could form another case study for a future

research, was the manner through which the groups were selected. The

researcher left the students to freely select the group members, a fact that

provided no information at all whether students accept some fellow students‟

diversity or the manner under which it was addressed. According to Slavin

(1982) the G.I.P. implementation develops the group members‟ emotional

intelligence conducive to the students‟ positive attitude towards school, a fact

not absolutely confirmed but a positive attitude in terms of knowledge in

Biology and group members‟ cooperation was at least obvious.

The students‟ viewpoint that G.I.P. is not suitable for all subjects and all

chapters is noteworthy. It should also be taken into consideration the increase

of Biology instruction hours in order to become more assimilative and

constructive and the method to be better administered. Reference is also

made to a closely written, hard-to-understand book whereas the G.I.P.

implementation helps them comprehend in depth all these notions.

3.2 Confinements and a need for further research

The most significant confinement of the present research is that it run over

many partial issues. As a result, it was not possible to penetrate to some of

them. But this can be justified by the fact that the subject matter was much

avant-garde; therefore, the study substantially forms a preliminary research

aiming at depicting a more general tendency, a fact which has been achieved

according to our belief. A future research may focus on more basic and

interesting issues.



4.3 Conclusion

The present research proves that the G.I.P. implementation in 1st Lyceum

grade Biology was positively received by the majority of the school students.

Besides, it has been studied and has been in accordance with the

bibliographical speculations about the creation of new motives for learning,

increase of students‟ self-esteem and their meta-cognitive ability as well as

the cooperation motives and skills.

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Investigating autobiographical memory: gender

differences in valence and emotional intensity in

childhood memories of adults

Lempidaki Maria 1, Kalerante Evaggelia 2

1 Student, Department of Psychology, The Open University.

2 Lecturer, University of Western Macedonia

Abstract

Gender differences in the recall of autobiographical memories (AMs) remains an under-

researched area of cognitive psychology. The present study builds on Davis (1999) to

investigate gender differences in valence and emotional intensity in emotional childhood

memories. 60 participants aged between 30 and 60 years old were presented with either

positive or negative emotional cues and were asked to recall memories of emotional

childhood events. Results revealed a significant gender x cue type interaction [ANOVA,

F(1,58)=0.49, p=<.05] with females recalling more positive emotional memories than males

(t=2.45, df=58, p<.025). Significant gender differences in total number of recalled and

emotionality ratings were also found. A possible reconciliation between emotional intensity

and social-cultural accounts of AMs is explored.

Keywords: autobiographical memories, reminiscence, valence, social constructionist,

emotional intensity, gender

Introduction



Autobiographical memory (AM) concerns memories of events that occurred at a specific

time and place in our life and is thought to be a type of episodic memory according to

Tulving’s definition. Tulving argued that episodic memories are always temporally specific

and are characterized by ‘experiential awareness’ or ‘autonoesis’, i.e. they involve a clear

awareness of the self in the experience (Tulving & Lepage, 2000; Wheeler et al., 1997).

Although ‘experiential awareness’ is a key characteristic of AM, most theorists agree that it

is distinct from episodic memory in that it invokes self-impinging emotions and a sense of

recollection, and is associated with personal meanings (Conway & Rubin, 1993). Since AMs

are self-involved, they begin to form gradually in early childhood as the notion of the self

emerges. Nelson and Fivush (2004) see language as having a central role in the emergence of

AM: parent-child conversations about the child’s past foster a sense of self and

distinctiveness and help the child ‘organize *their+ … memories into … narratives that

emphasize personhood, motivations, outcomes, emotions, and values’ (p.488).

Within this field of inquiry the recall of emotional memories has attracted considerable

research interest, as it has been amply demonstrated that most freely recalled memories

tend to be emotional in nature (Davis & Schwartz, 1987; Kihlstrom & Harackiewicz, 1982). It

is for this reason that Davis (1999) argued that framing gender differences within a social-

constructionist account which emphasizes the role of the socialization of emotion can

enhance our understanding of the impact of gender. According to this view, females are

socialized into more affectionate and expressive roles, with emotion being a more salient

dimension for them than for males. Social-constructionist theorists also emphasize the role

of maternal reminiscing style in the formation of AMs. For example, differences in maternal

narratives about the past have consistently predicted differences in children’s recall of AMs

(Fivush & Fromhoff, 1988; Reese et al., 1993). Mothers have also been found to have more

elaborative memory narratives with girls than with boys (Reese & Fivush, 1993; Fivush, 1998;

Harley & Reese, 1999; Nelson & Fivush, 2004).

A different account centering on affect intensity has also been proposed. According to this

account, emotionally intense experiences are more readily recalled than less intense ones

(Banaji & Hardin, 1994). In line with this account, Fujita et al. (1991) found that women tend

to have a higher accessibility of emotional childhood memories and concluded that this can

be attributed to their tendency to have more intense emotional experiences. However,



interpretation of these results may be limited since no ratings of emotional intensity for the

events recalled were obtained. When Seidlitz & Diener (1998) controlled for emotional

intensity at the time of encoding, they found no evidence for the ‘intensity of affect’

proposition. In the same vein, Conway (1990) posits that people tend to recall more

memories associated with mild positive affect than with intense emotions. A more recent

study by Talarico et al. (2004), however, showed that emotional intensity was a strong

predictor of AMs recall with valence being a more moderate predictor, although no gender

differences were explored.

Within this field of inquiry the recall of emotional memories has attracted considerable

research interest, as it has been amply demonstrated that most freely recalled memories

tend to be emotional in nature (Davis & Schwartz, 1987; Kihlstrom & Harackiewicz, 1982,

cited in Davis, 1999). It is for this reason that Davis (1999) argued that framing gender

differences within a social-constructionist account which emphasizes the role of the

socialization of emotion can enhance our understanding of the impact of gender in the recall

of AMs. According to this view, females are socialized into more affectionate and expressive

roles, with emotion being a more salient dimension for them than for males. Sociocultural

theorists point to the role of maternal reminiscing style in the formation of autobiographical

memories. For example, differences in maternal narratives about the past have consistently

predicted differences in childrens’ recall of AMs (Fivush & Fromhoff, 1988; Reese, Haden &

Fivush, 1993). It has also been found that parents use more emotional language with

daughters when recounting past experiences (Adams et al., 1995), while mothers have more

elaborative memory narratives with girls than with boys (Reese & Fivush, 1993; Fivush, 1998;

Harley & Reese, 1999; Nelson & Fivush, 2004).

A different account centering on affect intensity has also been proposed. According to this

account, emotionally intense experiences are more readily recalled than less intense ones

(Banaji & Hardin, 1994). In line with this account, Fujita et al. (1991) found that women tend

to have a higher accessibility of both happier and unhappier childhood memories and

concluded that this finding can be attributed to women’s tendency to have more intense

emotional experiences. However, interpretation of these results may be limited since no

ratings of emotional intensity for the events recalled were obtained. When Seidlitz & Diener

(1998) controlled for emotional intensity at the time of encoding, they found no evidence



for the ‘intensity of affect’ proposition. In the same vein, Conway (1990) posits that people

tend to recall more memories associated with mild positive affect than with intense

emotions. A more recent study by Talarico et al. (2004), however, showed that emotional

intensity was a strong predictor of AMs recall with valence being a more moderate

predictor, although no gender differences were explored.

These conflicting findings suggest that gender differences in valence and emotionality

remain to be abundantly addressed. The present study was designed to explore these topics

further and investigate the influence of gender, valence and emotionality on the recall of

emotional childhood AMs. Building on Davis’s (1999) study, we employed the Galton-Crovitz

method to elicit participants’ emotional childhood memories and emotionality ratings.

Based on existing literature we expected to find gender differences in both valence (positive

vs negative) and emotional intensity, with females recalling both more positive and negative

memories. It was also expected that females’ ratings for emotionality associated with the

events recalled will be higher than males, in line with emotional intensity accounts.

Research hypotheses

H1: Females will recall more positive emotional memories than males.

H2: Females will recall more negative emotional memories than males.

H3: Females will overall recall more emotional memories than males.

H4: Females’ mean ratings for emotionality will be higher than males’.

Method

Design

A quasi-experimental design was used to test our hypotheses. Hypotheses H1 and H2 were

tested using a 2x2 mixed ANOVA with gender (male or female) as the between-participants

factor, and cue (positive or negative) as the within-participants factor. Two simple effects T-



tests were further employed. The DVs were the numbers of positive and negative memories.

Hypotheses H3 and H4 were tested with two independent-samples T-tests. For H3 the IV

was participants’ gender (between-participants) and the DV was the number of total

memories recalled. For H4 the IV was participants’ gender (between-participants) and the

DV was participants’ mean ratings of emotionality.

Participants

The group of participants comprised 30 males (mean age: 43.6 years) and 30 females (mean

age: 42.3 years) aged between 30 and 60 years old, who were recruited among friends,

colleagues and relatives of the researchers. Half of the participants were English and half

were Greek. The recruitment procedure was identical for all participants and potential

participants were initially told that the study aimed at investigating the recall of childhood

events and experiences. They were not screened for medical or psychological conditions as

their personal circumstances were well-known to the recruiting researchers. As an additional

measure of precaution, all participants were asked to report any health or mental health

conditions that may prevent them from participating in this study; those with reported

physical or psychological conditions were excluded. The gender and age of the participants

were recorded but their contributions remained anonymous.

Materials

The materials comprised an informed consent form, a detailed instructions sheet, a debrief

form, a printed A4 answer sheet and a pen. A set of ten visual stimuli was presented to the

participants on a laptop computer. Each stimulus comprised a picture and a short sentence

indicating the emotional event to be recalled, and was presented on screen for exactly two

minutes. Five stimuli referred to positive emotional experiences/events (positive cues) and

five stimuli referred to negative emotional experiences/events (negative cues). For instance,

participants were asked to recall ‘their best achievements when at school’ and ‘fall-outs with

childhood friends’. Retrieval cues were associated with six different emotions: happiness,

sadness, anger, fear/anxiety, guilt and self-consciousness (see Davis, 1999). Cues were

pooled together in a single presentation and their order was randomized so as to disguise

the purpose of the experiment.



Procedure

Participants were tested individually with half of them tested by the first experimenter and

half of them by the second experimenter. They were told that a series of PowerPoint slides

would be presented and that they will be asked to recall specific childhood events or

experiences. Although no deception was deemed necessary, they were not told that we

were specifically interested in gender differences. Informed consent was obtained and

participants were informed about their right to withdraw from the study at any time and

have their data destroyed. They were further informed that their contributions would

remain anonymous and that all data would be destroyed at the end of the study. Prior to the

beginning of the study participants read the detailed instructions sheet and were urged to

ask any questions they had.

After a short introductory screen, the visual cues were presented, with each cue presented

for two minutes. Participants were asked to recall and report briefly as many event-specific

memories as they could remember within this time limit. To protect them from potential

distress or uneasiness related to painful or embarrassing memories, they were told that they

could either not mention these events or record them as instances without giving further

information. After having written down their memories, they were asked to go through

them and give an estimate of the age they were in when the events occurred so that non-

childhood memories could be discarded. They were then asked to go through their

memories once more and rate the emotional valence of reported events on a scale of 1-5 (1

= not emotional/neutral, 2 = slightly emotional, 3 = quite emotional, 4 = very emotional, 5=

extremely emotional). Participants were then debriefed and urged to talk about their

feelings and thoughts about participating in this study.

Results

A total of 1157 memories were analysed. All participants participated in all conditions and

provided four different scores: number of positive memories recalled, number of negative

memories recalled, number of total memories recalled and a mean rating of emotionality.



H1 & H2

A two-way mixed ANOVA revealed a statistically significant effect of gender on the number

of memories recalled [F(1,58)=6.79, p<.05]. The effect of cue type on number of memories

recalled was, however, non-significant [F(1,58)=1.04, p=.31]. A third ANOVA analysis showed

that the gender x cue type interaction was significant [F(1,58)=0.49, p=<.05]. For all ANOVA

analyses our hypotheses were one-tailed, and therefore, the p-values were halved. Figure 1

shows graphically the effects of gender and cue on the number of memories recalled by

participants:

Figure 1: Mean numbers of memories recalled for gender and cue condition.

Follow-up pairwise Bonferroni comparisons on gender with adjusted alpha levels of .025 per

test (.05/2) revealed that females recalled significantly more memories than males in the

positive cue condition (t=2.45, df=58, p<.025); in the negative cue condition, however,



results did not approach significance (t=2.04, df=58, p<.05). The following table summarizes

our findings:

Based on these results, our experimental hypothesis H1 was accepted and our null

hypothesis rejected. For H2, our null hypothesis was accepted.

H3

Participants’ total number of memories recalled were analyzed with an independent-

samples T-test. Overall, females recalled more emotional memories (M=21.40, SE=1.15) than

males (M=17.17, SE=1.14), t=-2.61, df=58, p<.05, r=0.32. On the basis of these results, our

experimental hypothesis was accepted and our null hypothesis rejected.

H4

The fourth hypothesis was that females’ mean ratings for emotionality will be higher than

males’. It was found that females’ ratings (M=3.85, SE=0.11) were substantially higher than

males’ ratings (M=3.26, SE=0.09). The following table summarizes our findings:

Gender Mean Std. Deviation N

Male 3.26 0.50 30

Female 3.85 0.59 30

Gender Mean Std. Deviation N

Positive cue Male 8.67 3.98 30

Female 11.10 3.72 30

Total 9.88 4.10 60

Negative cue Male 8.50 3.05 30

Female 10.30 3.76 30

Total 9.40 3.51 60

Table 1: Summary of findings for memories recalled per gender and cue condition.



An independent-samples T-test revealed that differences in emotionality ratings between

genders were statistically significant (t=-4.14, df=58, p<.005, r=0.48). On the basis of these

results, our experimental hypothesis was accepted and our null hypothesis rejected.

Discussion

This study addressed the question of whether females have a better recall for positive and

negative emotional childhood memories. It also investigated gender differences in the total

number of emotional memories recalled. A final question was whether childhood events

recalled by females were more emotionally intense, in line with AM accounts of emotional

intensity.

With regard to whether females have a better recall for positive and negative emotional

childhood memories, our predictions were partly confirmed: females recalled significantly

more positive memories than males. However, results for negative events did not approach

significance. These findings do not fully support Davis (1999) and Fujita et al. (1991), who

reported enhanced recall for females for both positive and negative emotional events.

Interpretation of these findings, however, may be limited in that the scores of three male

participants in the negative cue condition were far beyond the confidence intervals of the

mean (Appendix E), skewing the results (Skewness=1.115, Std. error=0.427). Time

restrictions did not allow us to adjust their scores and carry out further analyses on the data.

Yet, other theorists (e.g. Talarico et al., 2004), argue that the evidence concerning valence

effects is inconsistent and contradictory: whereas some studies have reported increased

recall for positive memories, other studies have found a memory bias for negative events.

Alea (2010) concluded that emotional intensity, rather than valence, is a stronger predictor



of differences in AM recall. This led her to suggest that ‘emotional intensity, as opposed to

simple valence distinctions, is taking a centre stage in autobiographical memory work’ (p.

155).

With regard to total number of emotional memories recalled, it was found to be significantly

higher for females than males. Despite the modest effect size (r=0.32), this finding supports

other studies which report increased recall of emotional memories for females (e.g. Davis,

1999; Fivush & Buckner, 2003). One plausible explanation comes from social-constructionist

theorists, who see AM as being embedded in and influenced by sociocultural contexts.

According to this view, women’s better recall for emotional memories is mainly a function of

parent-child reminiscing interactions and socialization processes (Bloise & Johnson, 2007;

Davis, 1999). According to this view, mothers’ more elaborative reminiscence style with

daughters may result in more elaborative, in-depth processing with multiple, longer-lasting

associations being formed between encoded representations, benefitting recall (Davis,

1999). This explanation is supported by Craik & Tulving (1975, cited in Rutherford, 2010)

who see depth of processing as a major determinant of memory recall. In this sense, a more

elaborative reminiscence style at encoding will result in more elaborative processing with

multiple, longer-lasting associations being formed between encoded representations. One

weakness of this explanation is that depth of processing cannot be accurately defined and

operationalized. Furthermore, gender studies in AM tend to be inherently biased towards a

social-constructionist perspective, possibly underplaying other important influences.

Regarding our emotional intensity hypothesis, our prediction was confirmed: significant

gender differences in the emotional intensity of recalled events were found, with females

providing significantly higher ratings of emotionality than males. This finding is in agreement

with the emotional intensity literature which sees see emotional intensity as a major

influence in AM recall. According to Talarico et al. (2004), the intensity effect is robust in the

AM literature and has a larger effect than the combined intensity and valence effect. To

account for it they propose that emotional intensity during encoding may enhance

attentional mechanisms benefitting recall. Although this explanation appears to contradict

social-constructionists, reconciliation of these accounts may still be possible.



Gender differences in the socialization of emotion as proposed by Davis (1999) may mean

that emotional aspects of events have increased salience for females as opposed to males,

while emotionally intense events have also been found to have increased salience (Talarico

et al., 2004). A possible explanation is that these two different aspects of AMs may actually

be mediated by similar processes. Allocating more attentional processes to an event either

as a result of emotional intensity or as a function of more elaborative reminiscence, would

result in it being filtered in to receive more processing (Treisman, 1960 cited in Naish, 2010).

This will, in turn, result in deeper and more elaborative processing enhancing recall, in line

with Craik and Tulving’s account presented earlier. Although this is not an exhaustive

explanation, it is quite attractive and one that future research in this field may find it

interesting to investigate.

Overall, the findings of the present study have to be considered in light of certain

methodological issues. The first issue concerns validity and reliability which may have been

undermined as a result of inter-individual differences and the modest sample size. This was

particularly the case for the two cue conditions, as evidenced by the large standard

deviations in the number of recalled memories (Table 1). Furthermore, ratings for

emotionality may also be particularly prone to individual differences. It is possible that with

a larger sample size, these concerns would have been more effectively addressed.

Robinson (1976) argues that studies of AB memories tend to lack sampling control. A

potential sampling bias was identified in the current study: raw data revealed substantial

differences between the two experimenters’ participant groups. For instance, male English

participants contributed the vast majority of extreme values in both cue conditions as well

as emotionality ratings. This difference was more notable for males. Since the recruiting and

testing procedures were identical for all participants, these differences could be attributed

to the different cultural and socializing environments of the two groups. A number of studies

looking at cross-cultural differences in the recall of AMs have found that individuals from

more individualistic societies recall more AMs which are also more elaborate and detailed

(Wang & Conway, 2004; Wang & Leichtman, 2000). Although it would have been intriguing

to investigate whether this finding extends to emotional childhood memories, time

restrictions did not allow us to extend the present study.



Lastly, it was not possible to verify participants’ accuracy in the dating of memories or even

the existence of the events recalled - participants may have felt compelled to contribute

non-existent memories as a result of experimenter desirability. Rubin (1982) found that

errors in dating tend to be small and unbiased; however, other studies have identified

inaccuracies in the recall of memories. To reduce these confounding effects, participants

were explicitly told that we are only interested in real, accurately-recalled memories and

that contributing no memories for a particular cue word is acceptable. However, we could

not verify the extent to which participants complied with these instructions. Future research

in this field needs to take account of these limitations. A design combining the diary-recall

and the cue-recall methods, although more time-consuming, would be better able to

eliminate instances of false recall and further explore the issue of inaccuracy in memory

recall.

Conclusion

The findings were partly in line with AM literature. Females had increased recall for

emotional memories and higher ratings of emotionality. The effect of valence did not prove

to be consistent across cue type. Reconciliation between emotional intensity and social-

cultural accounts of AMs was attempted.

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The Appendices

Appendix A

The Open University DD303 ALE Project

Participant Consent Form

Name...............................................

I agree and give consent to take part in this M4 Autobiographical

Memory project. I have been fully briefed by Maria/Michelle that this is a

project that will involve recalling memories from my childhood.

I agree that my data may be included for analysis and report in an Open

University study.

I understand that I may refuse to participate in any experiment and may

withdraw at any point by simply saying so.

I understand that if I have any concerns or difficulties I can contact

Maria/Michelle who will answer any questions that I have until I am happy with

the outcome.

I understand that my data will be treated with confidentiality

Signed …………………………… Date ……………



Appendix B

INSTRUCTIONS

We are conducting a study about people’s autobiographical memories and

we would like you to take part in it. Specifically, we are looking at the recall of

memories for events that have taken place in people’s own past. This will take

up no more than 20 minutes and will involve you writing down some of your

memories.

All participants will remain anonymous.

WHAT WE WOULD LIKE YOU TO DO: -

You will be presented with ten visual cues and ten brief descriptions of events.

Each slide will be presented for exactly 2 minutes. During this time, please

write down all memories that come to mind from your childhood (between 0

and 14 years of age) on the answer sheet provided.

We do not need to know specific details of memories, just a sentence or two

giving the main points. Please, note that the memory should be for an event

that occurred at one particular place and time, rather than repeated generic

events. For example,’ I fell out of a tree and broke my leg’.

Please, follow the instructions in the answer sheet, which will guide you

through parts 2 and 3 of the experiment. It is important that you do not read

the instructions for parts 2 and 3 before having completed part 1.

PLEASE, NOTE THE FOLLOWING POINTS:-

You have the right to withdraw at any time and if you do not wish to disclose a

memory you can either:

a) State that you have a memory for a good event or a bad event and the age

at which it occurred but do not give any other information.



OR

b) You can choose not to mention it at all.

Everyone is different and you may feel that you should remember more, or

you may be surprised that you remembered so much; this bears no reflection

on you. This study is not a test, we are not trying to find out if your memory is

“good” or “bad” we are only interested in the memories you have and the age

at which they occurred.

If you have read these instructions and are willing to participate in this study,

please sign the consent form.

THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME AND PARTICIPATION



Appendix C

DD303 Project

Procedures for debriefing

Once the experiment has been completed all participants will be fully

debriefed on the following point

1. Participants will be informed that this study is based on measuring the

amount of childhood memories each participant could recall.

2. We will also tell them that emotion with regards to gender was playing

a part and were trying to establish if males or females recall the most

emotional memories.

3. We will also inform them that there were two condition groups for this

study one being negative cues and one being positive cues. At this

stage we will also inform them which condition they took part in.

4. The nest stage of the debriefing will be to ask them if they have any

questions that they would like to ask.

5. Finally we will thank them for their time in completing the study.



Appendix D

RESPONSE SHEET

Age of participant:…………………………….

Sex of participant:…………………………….

PART 1

Please, use the second column of the table below to write down childhood

memories (up to 14 years of age) of specific events. You can write about

your memory in a few words or keywords, or write only a title that is

meaningful to you, or state that you have a memory using an asterisk (*)

without disclosing anything about this particular memory. Please, use a new

line for each memory and do not exceed the time allowed. Before you begin,

you are kindly advised to read the instructions sheet once more and ask any

questions that may arise.

Important! Do not proceed to part 2 and part 3 before you have

completed part 1 and part 2 correspondingly.

Thank you for your participation.



Slide 1

Slide 2

Slide 3



Slide 4

Slide 5

Slide 6



Slide 7

Slide 8

Slide 9



Slide

10

[Page left intentionally blank]

PART 2

Please, go through your memories in the above table and use the third

column to state the age you were when they occurred: for example, „6 years

old‟. Do not worry if you can‟t remember your exact age when the event

happened; an estimate of age will be fine. After you have completed this part,

please proceed to part 3.

[Page left intentionally blank]

PART 3

Please, go through your memories in the above table once more and use the

fourth column to rate the intensity (1-5) of emotion experienced during the

event described in each memory. Please, use the following scale:



1 = not

emotional/neutral

2 = slightly emotional

3 = quite emotional

4 = very emotional

5 = extremely

emotional

[End of response sheet]

Appendix E



Culture Journal - CALL FOR PAPERS

Dear colleagues,

We send to you the information about the possibility to submit an article for the

international scientific journal “Culture journal”, ISSN: 2241-1720

Papers submitted to the journal should be original work and substantively different

from papers that have been previously published or are under review in a journal or

another peer-reviewed conference. Particularly we invite submission of papers

describing innovative research on all aspects of education and related areas.

Submitted papers will be assessed based on their novelty, scientific and technical

quality, potential impact, and clarity of writing.

Topics:

Culture sciences

Medical Anthropology

History

Lifelong Learning

Special Education

Psychology of education

Educational Policy

Literature

Philosophy

Education sustainable development

Management of education and educational policy

Quality of education

Information and communication technologies in teaching/learning

Teacher education

Distance education

Methodology of educational research



Adult and continuing education

Vocational education

ICT learning

History of education

Anything concerning education and teaching

We are also planning to publish a special issue concerning medicine, philosophy

of medicine, history of medicine

Sincerely yours,

Alex Argyriadis



INSTRUCTIONS

In order to get more information about how you can send your paper to

Culture Journal please read the instructions we provide in the text below.

Culture & Science is published every three months and its main target is

to provide continuous education and information to professionals.

Studies referring directly or indirectly to the ancient history, language and

culture are accepted.

Research studies: Original Articles are scientific reports of the results of

original research, including experimental, retrospective or perspective

studies which are conducted basing on a research protocol.

Reviews: Interesting topics relating to cultures and sciences well

developed, written by two Authors, at least. NOTE : The text of an

original or a review study is limited to 10 typed pages, including an

abstract, a maximum of 7 tables and figures (total), and up to 40

references.

Articles-comments: of the Editorial Board.

Interesting cases: They are accepted only if they are about new data or

problems and only if a new methodology is followed. They are always

accompanied by a summary in the English language consisting of

approximately 200 words and 3-4 key words. The text of

the study is divided into Introduction, Description of the case(s),

Conclusion. The bibliography should be absolutely specific to the topic.



Letter towards the editorial: They include judgments on published

articles, precursor results of researches critics on the journals, etc. They

are published according to the judgments of the Editorial Committee and

should be signed. They should not be of more than 500 words.

Submission of studies

Submission of studies implies that it reports unpublished work, except in

abstract form and is not being submitted simultaneously to another

publication. Accepted studies become the sole property of our Journal

and may not be published elsewhere without consent from the Managing

Editor. The texts are submitted to the following e-mail address :

Acceptance of studies

Every submitted study is judged by at least two (2) adjudicators, of the

Journal.

In case of disagreement a new adjudicator is being assigned and the

decision on the publication or not, is being made by the Editorial

Committee. The names of the adjudicators remain strictly confidential.

The authors are informed within 4 weeks about the acceptance of the

study. Usually, a study is given to the authors for modification before the

publication. The modified study should be returned to the Journal within

3 weeks, otherwise it is considered withdrawn.



All manuscripts should have the following structure :

The first page includes the following order :

Title of the article. The title should be concise and informative using

terms that can be readily indexed. The subtitle (if there is one) can be also

written.

Names of the authors. The author's full names (surname, first name).

After the Surname and first name of each author follows the superscript

and a comma which separates each author. The superscript declares the

current position of each author (the name of the department and the

institution to which the work) and should be written in the next paragraph

after the end of the authors . For example : Papadopoulou Maria1,

Kanellou Helen 2,

1. Msc, place of work

2. PhD, place of work

If two authors are of the same level at their work then the number of the

superscript is the same.

Abstract. The abstract should include no more than 250 words, divided

into the following subheadings: Background, Method and Material,

Results and Conclusions.

Avoid abbreviations and reference citations in the abstract.



Key words. Below the abstract authors should provide 3-5 key-words

which assist in cross-indexing the article.

Corresponding author. The name, address, telephone number or e-mail

of the author to whom correspondence should be sent.

In the second page begins the text of the article.

If the article is a research study, it should follow the structure :

Introduction, Methodology, Results, Discussion, Tables and References.

If the article is a review or any other study, other descriptive headings and

subheadings can be used. All review articles undergo the same editorial

process as original research reports.

Cite all tables and figures in the text, numbering them sequentially and

place them before references in the same order as they appear in the text,

with Arabic numbers (Table 1, Table 2) followed by a brief title before

each table.

If you cite a picture which has been published elsewhere, then the source

of origin should be noted and the written permit of the editor who has the

exclusive right of republishing it.

In case there are pictures of people they should either accompanied by a

written permit of using the pictures as they are, or otherwise no faces

must be discernible. The pictures must not be more than the dimensions

of the pages of the Journal (width 17 cm height 24.5 cm).



References. The Vancouver Citation System is followed, or the Harvard

system.

Volume III

Documents

Transcript of Volume III