Volume 03, 2019 ISSN-2523-9368ijpehsas.org/docs/journals/the-sky-vol-3.pdf · Prof. Dr. Mehmood...

Volume 03, 2019 ISSN-2523-9368

CONTENT

A Comparison of coaching leadership behavior preferences between Male and Female Pakistani Intervarsity Level Basketball Players

Hira Atta, Dr. Zafar Iqbal Butt, Babar Kamil, Mudassar Mushtaq

01

Effect of Yoga on Cardiovascular Efficiency

Prof. Brij Bhushan Singh, Shubi Mirja andSamiya Husain

10

Global Warming and Climate Change and Sports

Shamshad Akhtar and Muhammad Rafique Dhanani

15

Self-Esteem Level in Urban Volleyball Players of Sindh, Pakistan

Shireen Bhatti and Syed Asim Hussain

28

The Correlation of classroom administration performance of Female Directress Sports with their qualification

Toshaba Channa and Dr. Shahzaman Khan

40

The impacts of co-curricular activities on physical and mental health of Secondary School Students in FATA

Dr. Yasmeen Iqbal, Dr. Soniha Aslam and Muhammad Ashfaq

49

Prevalence of anemia in children 6 to 59 months of age in Gadaref State, Sudan -2013

Dr. Mohmoud Mohammed Ahmed and Prof. Elsadig yousif Elbadawi

65

Dedication

The Editor gratefully acknowledges the unquestionable guidance and

support of Professor Iqbal Ahmed Qureshi (Late) in bringing out this

journal. The idea and theme of journal was conceived by him. Without

his thoughtful encouragement and careful guidance especially in the last

phase of his life as a mentor, teacher and of course as an ideal life partner

and our collective efforts and determination the journal could not have

seen the light of the day. I am very much indebted for the direction and

tutelage provided by him.

Prof. Qureshi passed away at the age of seventy, considered the most senior faculty and authority

in the field of Political Science, leaving behind an excellent and outstanding record of academic

and non-academic services in University of Sindh, Jamshoro.

I as an editor dedicate this Research Journal to my beloved husband, a strong and gentle soul

who taught me to trust Allah, believe in hard work and perseverance. For being my first teacher,

for being my guardian during my educational career. For earning an honest living for us and

supporting and encouraging me to believe in myself.

He was the Founder of the following research journals:

• The Shield – International Journal of Physical Education & Sports Science, University of

Sindh, Jamshoro.

• The Government – Research Journal of Politic Science, University of Sindh, Jamshoro.

• Asia Pacific – Research Journal of Far East & South East Asia, University of Sindh,

Jamshoro.

Prof. Yasmeen Iqbal, Ph.D

Editor

About Journal (The Sky) ISSN 2523-9368

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PATRON

Prof. Dr. Mehmood Hussain Qazi (Sitara-e-Imtiaz & Tamgha-e-Imtiaz)

Vice-Chancellor, University of Lahore, Pakistan

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

Prof. Dr. Syed Amir Gilani Dean, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences,

MD. Ph.D (ultra sound), Ph.D (Public Health) University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan

Prof. Dr. Abel Lamina, Toriola

Department of Sports, Physical Rehabilitation & Dental Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences.

Tshwane University of Technology Pretoria, South Africa

EDITORS

Prof. Dr. Yasmeen Iqbal Department of Sports Sciences & Physical Education

University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan

Prof. Dr. Soniha Aslam Centre for Physical Education, Health & Sports Science

University of Sindh, Jamshoro, Pakistan

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Dr Aslam Ghouri MBBS, FCPS,

Associate Professor Liaquat University of Medical and Health Sciences

Jamshoro, Pakistan

Dr. Shahzaman Khan Assistant Professor

Department of Sports Sciences & Physical Education University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan

CO-ORDINATORS

Dr. Basit Ansari Chairman

Department of Health & Physical Education University of Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan

Syed Asim Hussain

Assistant Professor Centre for Physical Education, Health & Sports Science,

University of Sindh, Jamshoro, Pakistan

PROOF READERS

Prof. Muhammad Rafiq Dhanani Former Chairman

Department of Geography University of Sindh, Jamshoro, Pakistan

Shumaila Arslan

Masters in Busniss Administration & Bachelor in Human Resources

Institute of Busniss Administration, University of Sindh, Jamshoro, Pakistan

Nida Shahmeer Bachelors in English Literature

Govt. Post Graduate College, Rawalpindi Affiliated with University of The Punjab, Lahore

Areeba Shah

Bachelor of Dental Surgery (B.D.S) Courses of Arts (USA) and Interior Design(IVS)

PANEL OF INTERNATIONAL ADVISORY BOARD

Prof. Darlene Kaluka Ph.D

Online adjunct professor, MAN 510 – Business Ethics (Sport Administration)

ST. THOMAS UNIVERSITY Miami, Florida, USA

Prof. Colin Higgs Ph.D School of Human Kinetics and Recreation, Memorial university of New foundland,

Canada.

Prof. Abel Lamina, Toriola Ph.D Department of Sports, Physical

Rehabilitation & Dental Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences.

Tshwane university of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa.

Nabeela Iqbal (MBBS-CCRP) Administrative Manager-Phase1/

Experimental Therapeutics Program-o-ctsu University of Michigan, USA.

Akhtar Adil Shah, MD Ph.D Former Assistant Professor,

Centre for Physical Dducation, Health & Sports Sciences

University of Sindh, Jamshoro at present Houston, USA

Farhan M. Khan, MD Assistant Prof. of Medicine, Chairman PGIP Committee

Michigan State University, USA

Prof. M.A. Monyeki Ph.D School of Biokinetics, Recreation and Sport

Science, Faculty of Health Sciences North-West University, Potchefstroom,

South Africa

Prof. Brij Bhushan Singh Ph.D Muslim Aligarh University

Aligarh, India

Prof. Joel Gaillard Ph.D University of Lorraine Nancy,

France

Prof. D.I. Musa Ph.D Department of Human Kinetics and Health

Education, Kogi State University Anyigba, Kogi State, Nigeria

Prof. Zamirullah Khan Ph.D Muslim Aligarh University

Aligarh, India

Prof. Frank Fu, JP Ph.D Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences, Hong Kong Baptist University

Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong

PANEL OF NATIONAL ADVISORY BOARD

Prof. Parveen Usmani Ph.D

Former Director Institute of Pure & Applied Geology,

University of Sindh, Jamshoro

Prof. Qadar Bakhsh Baloach, Ph.D Dean Faculty of Busniss and Economics

Abdul Wali Khan University, Mardan. KPK, Pakistan

Prof. Aslam Pervez Memon, Ph.D Department of Political Science

University of Sindh, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Prof. Raja M. Ilyas Rajput, Ph.D

Department of Statistics University of Sindh, Jamshoro, Sindh, Pakistan.

Aslam Ghori MD, FCPS Consultant Physician

Liaquat University of Medical & Health Sciences, Jamshoro, Sindh, Pakistan.

Shaheen Khan, Ph.D Advisor Learning innovation,

Higher Education Commission, Islamabad.

Prof. Salahuddin Khan, Ph.D Department of Physical Education & Sports

Sciences, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Khyber Pakhtoon Khawa,

Pakistan

Abdul Waheed Mughal, Ph.D Dean Faculty of Arts, Social Sciences and

Education, Sarhad University of Science and Information Technology, Peshawar

Prof. M. Athar Khan, Ph.D University institute of Public Health,

Faculty of Allied Sciences University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan

Prof. Nazarullah Raja Ph.D Head of Department

University Institude of Medical Lab Technology, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences

USA, UK

Prof. Muhammad Rafique Dhanani, MS Former Chairman,

Department of Geography, University of Sindh,

Jamshoro, Sindh, Pakistan

Jamshaid Ahmad, Ph.D Assistant Professor

Department of Sports Sciences & Physical Education, University of Lahore

Lahore, Pakistan

Basit Ansari, Ph.D Chairman

Department of Health & Physical Education University of Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan

Muhammad Arif Khan, Ph.D Associate Professor

Allied Health Sciences, University of Lahore

Ashfaq Ahmad, Ph.D Head of Department

University Institute and Clinics of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Allied Sciences

University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan

Shahzaman Khan, Ph.D Assistant Professor

Department of Sports Sciences & Physical Education, University of Lahore,

Lahore, Pakistan

Zafar Iqbal Butt, Ph.D Director Physical Education

University of The Punjab Lahore, Pakistan

PANEL OF INTERNATIONAL PEER REVIEWERS

Prof. Darlene A. Kluka Ph.D

Online Adjunct Professor, MAN 510 – Business Ethics (Sport Administration) ST. Thomas University, Miami, Florida

USA

Prof. Abel Lamina, Toriola, Ph.D Department of Sports, Physical Rehabilitation & Dental Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences

Tshwane University of Technology Pretoria, South Africa

Dr. Nabeela Iqbal (MBBS-CCRP) Administrative Manager- Phase 1

Experimental Therapist Progarm-o-ctsu University of Michigan, USA

Akhtar Adil Shah, MD Ph.D Former Assistant Professor,

Centre for Physical Dducation, Health & Sports Sciences, University of Sindh,

Jamshoro at present Houston, USA

Prof. Lateef O. Amusa Ph.D Centre for Biokinetics, Recreation and

Sports Science, University of Venda, South Africa

Prof. D.I. Musa Ph.D Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education, Kogi State University, Anyigba,

Kogi State, Nigeria

Dr. Farhan M. Khan MD Assistant Prof. of Medicine Chairman PGIP Committee

Michigan State University USA

Prof. M.A. Monyeki Ph.D School of Biokinetics, Recreation and Sport Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, North-

West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Naseer Ahmad. Ph.D University of Verona,

Italy

Muhammad Akram Tariq. Ph.D Apartment # 502, 45 Danshan Road

Qingdao, Shandong, China

M. Amjad Qureshi Coordinator, Health & Physical Education

Al Warqaa, Dubai, UAE

Prof. Dr. Brij Bhushan Singh Ph.D Muslim Aligarh University, Aligarh, India

Prof. Dr. Zamirullah Khan Ph.D Muslim Aligarh University,

Aligarh, India

Prof. Dr. Arisa YAGI Department of Dance Study, Japanese

Women’s College of Physical Education, Japan

Dr. Maryam Koushkie Jahromi Executive board member of IAPESGW Ph.D of Exercise Physiology , Associate

professor of Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran

Prof. Frank Fu, JP Ph.D Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences,

Hong Kong Baptist University Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong

Dr. Abdul Roof Rather, Assistant Professor

Central University of Kashmir Jamu & Kashmir, India

PANEL OF NATIONAL PEER REVIEWERS

Prof. Dr. Parveen Usmani

Former Director Institute of Pure & Applied Geology,

University of Sindh, Jamshoro

Prof. Dr. Raja Muhammad Ilyas Rajput Department of Statistics

University of Sindh, Jamshoro, Sindh

Prof. Dr. Aslam Pervez Memon Department of Political Science

University of Sindh, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Prof. Dr. Salahuddin Khan Gomal University,

Dera Ismail Khan, Khyber Pakhtoon khawa

Prof. Dr. Nazarullah Raja MS (USA), Ph.D (UK) Head of Department

University Institude of Medical Lab Technology, Faculty of Allied Health

Sciences

Prof. Muhammad Rafique Dhanani, MS Former Chairman,

Department of Geography, University of Sindh, Jamshoro, Sindh

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Akram Ansari Director,

Centre for Physical Education, Health, Sports Science, University of Sindh,

Jamshoro, Pakistan

Dr. Aslam Ghori MD, FCPS Consultant Physician

Liaquat University of Medical & Health Sciences, Jamshoro, Sindh, Pakistan.

Dr. Jamshaid Ahmad Assistant Professor, Department of Sports

Sciences & Physical Education, University of Lahore

Dr. Basit Ansari Chairman, Department of Physical Education

Health & Sciences, University of Karachi

Dr. Muhammad Arif Khan Associate Professor,

Allied Health Sciences, University of Lahore

Dr. Ashfaq Ahmad Head of Department,

University institute & Clinic of Physical Therapy, The University of Lahore

Dr. Asif Ali Goraya Head of Department,

Physical Education & Sports Science Islamia University, Bahawalpur

Dr. Shahid Bashir Head of Department,

University Institude of Diet & Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences.

Dr. Shahzaman Khan Assistant Professor

Department of Sports Sciences & Physical Education, University of Lahore

Lahore, Pakistan

Dr. Zafar Iqbal Butt Director Physical Education

University of The Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan

Dr. Atiya Chudhry Asistant Professor

Institute of Physical Therapy University of Lahore

Dr. Riffat Mehboob Faculty of Allied Health Sciences

University of Lahore

Aqsa Shamim M.Phil Senior Lecturer

Department of Sports Sciences and Physical Education, University of Lahore

Dr. Farhan Tabbasum Assistant Professor

Department of Sports Sciences and Physical Education, University of Lahore

A COMPARISON OF COACHING LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR PREFERENCES BETWEEN MALE AND

FEMALE PAKISTANI INTERVARSITY LEVEL BASKETBALL PLAYERS

Hira Atta, Dr. Zafar Iqbal Butt, Babar Kamil, Mudassar Mushtaq

ABSTRACT

The aim of the current study is to examine the coaching leadership behavior preferences at intervarsity level by Pakistani basketball players. A total of 150 players participated in the study. The preferred version of leadership scale for sports (LSS) developed by Chelladurai & Saleh (1980) has been used to investigate the five dimensions of coaching leadership behavior. The statistical test Multivariate analysis is used to check the gender differences in coaching leadership behavior. Distinctly, training and instructions coaching leadership behavior was found most preferred coaching leadership behavior by male and female athletes. The results of the present study will be helpful for the coaches in order to understand about most preferred coaching leadership behavior for the desired results.

Key words: Leadership behavior, preference, gender and basketball players.

INTRODUCTION Leadership is an influence

that can be developed in any one because all of us are lea-ding in some areas, and at the same time, we are the followers in some other areas (Maxwell, 1993). In sports coach is viewed as a leader for his/her team because he directs the activities of the athletes, helps them to achieve their goals, and enhan-ces motivation level of athletes. Leadership has been defined in different philosophical perspec-tives by the researchers. Initia-lly, leadership was viewed as a

traits / ability of the great leaders. The “Great man the-ory” revealed that great leaders would be great in all situations (Carlyle, 1910). The theory was based on the belief that leaders are having specific traits that distinguished them from follo-wers. In the early studies, lead-ership was focused as a trait of great leaders and it was belie-ved leaders are born not made. After the World War II, the focus of leadership shifted from universal traits to universal behaviors. It was believed that once these leadership behaviors

THE SKY-IJPEHSAS, Vol. 03, 2019

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were identified that could be taught to potential leaders. Later in 1950s-1960s, research on universal behaviors has been conducted at Michigan and Ohio university and it has char-acterized two constructs of lea-dership styles a) Consideration (Democratic type) b) Initiating (Autocratic type). These two ge-neral dimensions have provi-ded a framework for many le-adership theories. (H.cox, 2007).

In 1978, Chelladurai & Saleh identified that there is no relevant leadership model of other organizational settings available that can be taken into the sports settings. They have developed a multidimensional model of leadership (MML) sp-ecifically for the sports settings. According to MML an athlete’s satisfaction and performance depend upon three types of leadership behavior a) Required leadership behavior b) Actual leadership behavior 3) Prefer-red leadership behavior. In 1980, they developed a Leade-rship Scale of Sport (LSS) to investigate coaching leadership behavior. The LSS consists of five different variables: a) Trai-ning and Instructions, b) Demo-cratic Behavior, c) Autocratic

Behavior, d) Social Support and e) Positive Feedback. The train-ing and instruction behavior involves directing towards imp-roving the performance of ath-letes. The democratic coaching behavior allows athletes to part-icipate in important coaching decisions like team goals; strate-gies etc., whereas the autocratic behavior shows authority to take independent decisions. On the other hand, social support behavior focuses in developing interpersonal relationships with athletes, and positive feedback coaching behavior involves rei-nforcing, recognizing and rewa-rding the good performances.

In the field of Sports, lea-dership coaching behavior has been explored by different per-spectives. Researchers studied coaching leadership behavior and its impact on athletes’ perf-ormances, team cohesion, satis-faction, gender, intrinsic motiv-ation, success motivation, moti-vational climate and achieve-ment motivation. The resear-chers also investigated most preferred leadership behavior about the athletes belonging to different sports but results are not identical. The researchers concluded that leadership beha-

A Comparison of Coaching Leadership

14

viors associated with training and instructions, positive feed-back, and social support are hi-ghly correlated with athletes’ satisfaction (Chelladurai 1984; Horne and Carron 1985; Schli-esman, Dwyer et.,al 1990; Rie-mer&Chelladurai 1995; Riemer & Toon 2001; Horn, 2002; Ming 2007; Pilus & Saadan 2009; Naz-arudin 2009; Bahrami et., al 2011; Khalaj et., al 2011). Lead-ership styles can also affect team cohesion (Light Shields, Gardner, Light Bredemeier, & Bostro, 1997; Jowett and Cha-undey 2004). Teams found more cohesion that perceived their coaches as high in training and instruction, social support, positive feedback, democratic behavior and lower levels of autocratic behaviors (Ramzani-nezhad, Rahim, & Keshtan, Misagh Hoseini 2009).

Athletes with high intrinsic motivation reported high perce-ption with training and instru-ctional behavior, democratic behavior and low in autocratic behavior (Horn, T. 2000). Kari-mi et al., (2012) concluded that training and instructing, social support, and positive feedback behaviors showed a positive significant relation with success

motivation and a negative sig-nificant relation between aut-ocratic behavior and success motivation. Several researches showed that male atheletes pre-fered training and instructions coaching behavior, wherase fe-male atheletes prefered dem-ocratic coaching behavior from their coaches (Beam, Serwatka, & Wilson, 2004; Chelladurai & Arnott, 1985; Lam, et al. 2007; Martin et al.2001; Riemer & Toon, 2001; Turman, 2003; Wei-nberg & Gould, 2007). Unfortu-nately, there is no study found on preferred coaching leader-ship behavior by Pakistani pla-yers. Therefore, the purpose of the current study is to inves-tigate the most preferred lea-dership behavior by intervar-sity level basketball players of Pakistan. This study will be helpful for the coaches who are working with university level basketball players to know abo-ut most appropriate coaching leadership behavior for effec-tive coaching in order to enha-nce optimal performance of athletes. In addition, this study will also contribute towards strengthening the literature of preferred leadership coaching style.


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METHODOLOGY

Research Design

A survey research design was chosen to investigate the preferred coaching leadership behavior among university lev-el basketball players of Pak-istan. Surveys are important tool for gathering and analyze the information from the selec-ted sample and it is widely used in social sciences. (Rossi James D. Wright, and Ander-son, 1983). Target population

Target population of the present study is all the basket ball players of Pakistan at uni-versity level. Sample

Sample size for the current study is 150 intervarsity level basketball players of Pakistan who have voluntarily partici-pated in this research study.

Instrument Following instrument was

used in the present study: 1) The leadership scale for sports: LSS preferred version developed by Chelladurai and Saleh (1980) was used in this

study. LSS consists of 40 items on five-point Likert scale ran-ging from 1 (never) to 5 (alw-ays) that described the five aspects of leader behavior. 1. Training and Instructions Behavior (Thirteen items): Coa-ching behavior that has a main focus towards improving ath-letes’ performance by providing them support, facilitate them during hard training sessions, improving techniques, tactics of the game, structuring team ac-tivities and coordination among team members (Chelladurai, 1990). 2. Democratic Behavior (Nine items): Coaching behavior that encourages athletes to partici-pate in decisions making rela-ted to the team goals, practice sessions, and game strategies (Chelladurai, 1990). 3. Autocratic Behavior (Five items): Coaching behavior that does not allow athletes in dec-ision and stresses over personal authority (Chelladurai, 1990). 4. Social Support (Eight items): Coaching behavior that shows concerns for the athletes’ wel-fare, and interpersonal rela-tionship with members (Chell-adurai, 1990).


16

5. Positive Feedback (Five): Co-aching behavior, which invol-ves in reinforces athletes by rec-ognizing their efforts and rewarding their performances (Chell-adurai, 1990).

Each item of LSS perceived version starts with “My coach” and preferred version items starts with “I prefer my coach” Responses from athletes were made on the following 5-point Likert-type scale (1) never, (2) seldom, (3) occasionally, (4) often, and (5) always.

ANALYSIS

Table- 1 Multivariate test

p value > 0.05

The above table shows (p

value > 0.05) that there is no significant difference in prefer-ence of male and female coa-ching leadership behavior.

Table-2 Test of between subject effects

Source Sum of Squares

df Mean

Square F Sig.

Gen

der

Preferred Training and Instructions

.055 1 .055 .067 .796

Preferred Autocratic

3.325 1 3.325 3.374 .068

Preferred Democratic

.245 1 .245 .729 .394

Preferred social

Support

.614 1 .614 .885 .348

Preferred Feedback

.258 1 .258 1.029 .312

p value > 0.05

The above table 2 showed univariate test for the indepe-ndent variables effects on de-pendent variable and it clearly displayed that there is no dif-ference in gender preference of different coaching leadership behavior (p value > 0.05).

Table-3 Mean scores of preferred leadership Behavior

Preferred training

and instructions

behavior

Preferred Autocratic Behavior

Preferred Democratic

behavior

Preferred Social

Support Behavior

Preferred Feedback Behavior

Male 4.9032 2.5699 3.8817 2.9301 4.7742

Female 4.9067 2.4533 3.9133 2.8800 4.8067

Table-3 displayed that univer-sity level male and female basketball players both scored higher on training and instr-uctions behavior, positive feed-back, democratic, and social support respectively. The auto-cratic coaching leadership beh-avior is least preferred behavior by them.

Effect Value F df Sig.

Gen

der

Pillai's Trace

.028 .820 5.000 .537

Wilks' Lambda

.972 .820 5.000 .537

Hotelling's Trace

.028 .820 5.000 .537

Roy's Largest Root

.028 .820 5.000 .537


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DISCUSSION

Leadership coaching behav-ior is one of the extensive stu-died topics in the field of sports psychology. The extensive theo-retical literature on coaching le-adership style and in the con-text of most preferred leader-ship style is still debatable. Past researches showed that leader-ship behaviors have high asso-ciation with training and inst-ructions, positive feedback, and social support are highly corre-lated with athletes' satisfaction (Chelladurai 1984; Horne and Carron 1985; Schliesman; Dw-yer et.,al 1990; Riemer & Che-lladurai 1995; Horn, 2002; Ming 2007; Pilus & Saadan 2009; Naz-arudin 2009; Bahrami et., al 2011; Khalaj et., al 2011). However, it appears that the coaching leadership behaviors are more associated with trai-ning and instruction, whereas positive feedback and social support is most highly corre-lated with athletes' satisfaction (Horn, 2002) and intrinsic moti-vation (Amorose& Horn, 2000; 2001).

In the present study, multiv-

ariate analysis of variance and

mean scores were used to investigate preferred coaching leadership behaviors of subs-cales of the LSS: 1) Training and instructions, 2) Autocratic beha-vior 3) democratic behavior 4) positive feedback behavior. Findings revealed that unive-rsity level basketball players both male and female preferred more training and instruction behavior from their coaches followed by democratic, posi-tive feedback, social support and autocratic leadership.

Several leadership coaching behavior researches have been conducted which focused on basketball players (Chelladurai 1984; Horne and Carron 1985; Weinberg & Gould 2003; Lam 2007; Chen 2007; Jacob, R. L. 2006). The Training and instruc-tions is most highly preferred behavior by athletes and the findings are consistent with the Martin et al., 1999; Sherman, Fuller, & Speed, 2000; Terry & Howe, 1984; Sherman et al. 2000; Chia et al. 2015; Sharma et,. al 2015; and Cruz et, al, 2017. Further, Results are in contrast with the findings of Chelladurai & Arnott, 1985; Beam, Serwatka, & Wilson,

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5465978/#ref28



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2004; Lam, et al., 2007; Martin et al., 2001; Riemer & Toon, 2001; Terry, 1984; Witte, 2011 showed that male and female athletes differ in their preferences for coaching leadership behavior. The results are also conflicted with the findings of team sports such as basketball, volleyball, and football where athletes prefer more autocratic coaching behavior than individual sport athletes such as tennis or golf (Beam, Serwatka, & Wilson, 2004; Weinberg & Gould, 2007, Lam, 2007). References

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H.cox, Richard. (2007). Sports Psy-chology: Concepts and applications (6thed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Hanin, Y. L., & Straub, W. F. (1980). Sport psychology: Sport psych-ology: An analysis of athletic behavior. Ithaca, NY: Movement Publ. 236–249.

Peter H. Rossi, James D. Wright, Andy B. Anderson (1983). Handbook of survey Research (pp. 35-45). New York: Aca-demic Press

Jowett, Sophia, & Chaundy, Victoria. (2004). An Investigation Into the Im-pact of Coach Leadership and Coach-Athlete Relationship on Group Cohesion. Group Dynamics: Theory, Res-earch, and Practice, 8(4), 302.

John C. Maxwell (2005). Developing the leader within you. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, Inc

Jacob, R. L. (2006). The relationship bet-ween perceived coaching behaviors and win-loss success in National Collegiate Athletic Asso-ciation (NCAA) Division-I men and women’s baske-tball coaches. Un-published doctoral disserta-tion. State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo.

Kravig, S. D. (2003). Coaching beha-vior preferences of interscholastic athletes [Abstract]. Unpublished doctoral dis-sertation. University of North Texas, Denton.

Khalaj, Gilda, Khabiri, Mohamad, & Sajjadi, Nasrollah. (2011). The rel-ationship between coaches leader-ship styles & player satisfaction in women skate championship. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 15, 3596-3601.

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Robi-nson, D A., & Ziegler, S. G. (2007). Preferred and Perceived leadership styles by NCAA baske-tball players. Paper presented at the 2007. American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recr-eation, and Dance National Con-ference.

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Coaching leadership styles and athlete satisfaction among hockey team. Journal of Human Capital Development, 2(1), 77-87.

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coach behavior in training and competition predicts collective eff-icacy in female elite handball pla-yers. Int. J. Sport Psychol, 46, 321-336.

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Sherman, C. A., Fuller, R., & Speed, H. D. (2000). Gender comparisons of prefe-rred coaching behaviors in Australian sports. Journal of Sport Behavior, 23(4), 389- 406.

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preferences of athletes. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 9, 188-193.

Witte K.S. (2011) Coaching leadership

preferences: Insight from the Nat-ional Collegiate Athletic Asso-ciation Division-III Athlete. Inte-rnational Sport Coaching Journ-al 4, 73-87.

EFFECT OF YOGA ON CARDIOVASCULAR EFFICIENCY

Prof. Brij Bhushan Singh, Shubi Mirja andSamiya Husain

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of yogic practices on cardio-vascular efficiency. Material and methods: Total Forty (40) subject’s boys/girls were selected as the sample of the study through the random sampling and their age ranged between 20 to 25 years from the Department of Physical Education, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. The subjects were divided into two groups comprising 20 subjects in each group, namely group “A” (the experimental group) performs yogic practices (Asanas, Pranayamas and Kriyas) and group “B” (the control group) served as control. Statistical technique: for the assessment of the cardiovascular efficiency through Harvard step test pre and post-test was conducted and t-test was applied for the analysis. Result: revealed that there exist a significant difference between group A and group B, at .05 level of significance. On the basis of the pre and post-test among experimental and control group, experimental group found better than the control group on cardiovascular efficiency and significant result were found in this study.

Key Words: Cardio-vascular efficiency and Yogic practices

INTRODUCTION

Man has made tremendous progress in almost every walk of the life. Modern scientist and researchers have absolutely cha-nged the lifestyle. However poll-ution of air, water and others also is the result of the science. Longing for material wealth has hardened the hearts of human beings. Human values are dec-lining. Strain and stress are cause of physical as well as mental dis-traction Yoga has the surest rem-edies for men's physical, phy-siological as well as psycholo-

gical elements. It makes the organs of the body active in their functioning and has good effect on internal functioning of the human body.

The practice of yoga had proved to be of great help in the treatment of certain ailment as shown by the scientific investi-gation carried out in India and elsewhere. It is a way of achiev-ing perfect health of all parts of the body and influencing brea-thing and other functions going in it and through them bringing


13

a perfect harmony in mental and physical activities. It helps to pre-pare a healthy body and mind in such a way that a necessary equi-librium is established in over all functions.

Cardiovascular efficiency is the ability of the heart, lungs working muscles to quickly come to normal position after an exh-austed physical labour. It may be defined as the ability of the heart and lungs to take in and tran-sport adequate amounts of oxy-gen to the working muscles, for activities that involve large mus-cles masses to be performed over long periods of time for example running, swimming and bicycl-ing activities involve large mus-cles. (Fox. et. al. 1988)

Feuresteen, G. (2001) says that Yoga has been practiced in India for thousands of years, and is traditionally used by spiritual seekers as a system of self-dev-elopment for purification of the body and mind.

Ornish Dean (1996), Indeed, much to the astonishment of western scientist accomplished yogis have demonstrated that they can exert conscious control of heart rate, blood pressure,

respiratory rate and even the circulation of the blood.

(Gore, M. M. 1980), as emo-tions often reflect in the body, asanas provide a means to deal with the emotional blocks and character logical muscle tensions. A regular practice of asanas may be helpful to change the dispo-sition and attitudes that lead to adjustment in life.

Krishnan, A. (1991) observed that due to the selected bharti-yam exercise and yogic practices pulse rate was decreased signi-ficantly and breath holding time, cardiovascular efficiency and vi-tal capacity improved significa-ntly. The breathing practices of yoga can help improve lung cap-acity and posture, and harmonies the body and mind. Hypothesis:

It was hypothesized that yo-gic practices would be effective to improve cardio vascular efficiency.

METHODOLOGY

Selection of the subjects: The purpose of this study was to find out the effects of selected yogic practices on cardiovascular effi-ciency. Total 40 boys were sel-


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ected for this study, 20 control group 20 experimental groups who were the students in the Department of Physical Edu-cation AMU Aligarh was ran-domly selected between the age group of 20 to 25 years. Test Administration: For the assessment of the cardiovascular efficiency the researcher has cho-sen to go through with the Har-vard step test. The subject was well taught prior about the worth and the value of the study a pre data was recorded and subjects were practiced the yogic exercises for 6 weeks after which the post data has been recorded.

Training Programme

Asanas Pranayama and

Kriyas

Sarvangasana Anilom vilom

Bhujangasana Kapalbhati

Dhanurasana

Pawanmuktasana

Vajrasana

Makrasana

Tadasana

Shirsasana

Halasana

Shavasana

ANALYSIS OF DATA AND RESULTS OF THE STUDY

The score of individual was recorded by Harvard step test and after the performance pulse was counted thrice before and after training programme. Findings

The mean gain and losses of group A and group B presented in Table-1.

Table-1 Group Mean Difference in

Performance on Cardiovascular Efficiency after Six Week Training

Group M1 M2 M2-M1

S.E. difference

t ratio

A (experimental)

94.49 112.10 17.60 3.73

4.988*

B (control)

91.65 90.56 -1.99 .34

*Significance at the .05 level of confidence.

Table-2

Group Mean Difference in Performance on Cardiovascular

Efficiency after Six Week Training

Group Mean

Mean Difference

S.E. Difference

t ratio

A (experimental)

17.60 16.51 3.39 4.98*

B (control) -1.09

*Significance value at 0.05 level of confidence.


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Discussion of Findings:

A healthy circulatory system goes a long way to preventing a number of life threatening disea-ses. Maintaining cardiovascular fitness can help to prevent many of the death causing accidents.

The cardiovascular efficiency generally can be referred to as the efficiency with which the human body can distribute blood and oxygen. It is a measure of the performance capacity of circula-tory system. It can be generally measured by counting number of beats per minute, and calculating the maximum volume of oxygen that is taken by an individual during exercise condition.

The results of the study as mentioned in the table no 1 and table no 2 reveals that there was a significant difference in the heart rate of experimental group as compared to control group at .05 level of the confidence. The experimental group has the low-er heart rate than the control group. This significant improve-ment in the performance of the subject is being caused by the re-gular practice of six weeks yoga training programme has imp-roved their cardiovascular effic-

iency rather than control group who have not participated in any of the physical activity or trai-ning programme. Decrease value of heart rate is being reported by Gharot, M. L. and Ganguly, S. K. (1973), Nandi, S. and Adhikari, H. (1999), Tripathi, R. Bhagirathi, S.E. and Pathak, A.(2005) in their findings.

Regular exercise conditions your heart and allows it to pump the blood throughout your body more efficiently. While any and all exercise can help to streng-then your cardiovascular func-tioning. Yoga exercises particu-larly improves cardiovascular ef-ficiency, endurance and strength. Yogic activity that contributes to optimal health of your cardio-vascular system includes doing some type of repetitive asanas, pranayamas, and kiryas, which keeps your heart, and lungs work more efficiently.

This shows clearly that there is correlation between our card-iovascular efficiency and yogic practices like asanas, pranayama and kiryas.

Conclusion Within the limitation of the

present study following conclu-

sions were drawn.


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1. The cardiovascular efficiency can be improved by asanas, pranayama and kiryas.

2. Evidence has been found to indicate statically significant in cardiovascular efficiency at .05 level of confidence.

References Feuersteen, George (2001). Encylopedic

Dictionary of yoga. London: unwin Hyman limted.

Gharrote M.L. & Gangully S.K. (1973).

Effect of yogic training on physical fitness. Yoga Mimamsa XV (Janu-ary):pp. 31-55.

Gore M.M. (1980) "Physiology of yoga

Practice". Yoga MimamsaMudrana-laya; Lonavla P 200

Krishnan, Arunagiri.(1991). Effect of

selected bhartiyam exercise and yo-gic exercise on physiological varia-bles among schoolboys. Unpub-lishedMaster Degree Thesis Alagappa university, Karaikudi, Tamilnad

Ornish, Dean, Dr. (1996) "Programme

for Reversing Heart Disease. My books; U.S. P 631 Prasad, K. V. (1994). Comparison of effects of yoga & physical exercise in athletes. Indian Journal of Medical Research, Aug 1994, 100:81-87. PMID: 927562.

Young, D.R. (1993) Association between changes in physical activity and risk factors coroner)' heart diseases in community based sample for men and women. The standred five city project, Medicine and Science in Sports AND Exercise, 2 5 (5) may http://www.einmotion.com/heart_rate_and_cardiovascular_efficiency.htm

http://www.einmotion.com/heart_rate_and_cardiovascular_efficiency.htm



GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE AND SPORTS

Shamshad Akhtar and Muhammad Rafique Dhanani

ABSTRACT

Climate change is not the new phenomenon. The palaeo-climatic studies reveal that during the Pleistocene and Holocene periods several warm and cold periods occurred, resulted change of sea level and change in climatic processes like rise and fall of global average temperature and rainfall. The last medieval warm period was observed from 950 to 1350 AD, followed by the little Ice Age from 1400 to 1900 AD. Occurrence of these climatic changes and their impacts are considered due to natural processes that are geological and astronomical. In 1970s environmentalists and some climate scientists pointed that earth’s average temperature is rising linked with the anthropogenic causes of global warming and emission of carbon dioxide through fossil fuels. In late 1980s the problem was discussed in politics and media. To examine and monitor the global rise of temperature and its impacts due to the emission of carbon dioxide an organization of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was created in 1988 by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). The IPCC released several reports based upon anthropogenic causes of climate change and their impacts. According to IPCC, 2007 report on climate change during the last 100 years the earth’s average temperature has increased up to 0.6 degree Celsius and if emission of greenhouse gases particularly carbon dioxide continues to rise, global temperature will rise up to 5.8 degrees Celsius by the end of 2100 AD. Similarly as a result of this threat of global warming, glaciers will disappear even from Antarctica and Arctic sea will open for navigation throughout the year. Many islands and coastal cities will submerge as a result of sea level rise. In 2004 Canadian Broadcasting T.V presented a documentary with the name “ The doomsday called off” in which leading climate scientists, astrophysicist and geophysicist presented evidences that science of global warming presented by IPCC scientists is incomplete and incorrect based upon computer models and stimulations which are deliberately exaggerated. Many climate scientists have shown disassociation with the IPCC views and speculations on the basis of its doubtful manipulated and exaggerated figures of global warming and some consider it a climate scam. Since then debate between UN pro man-made global warming scientists and anti-man-made global warming climate scientists continue.

Key words:climate change, global warming, greenhouse gases, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC)


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Introduction

The phenomenon of global warming and climate change came into discussion in the early 1980s when climate scientists argued that warming of atmos-phere is because of earth’s out-going long wave radiation, ab-sorbed by the atmospheric gree-nhouse gases. The level of cov-erage that the Western mass me-dia gave to global warming was low prior to 1988. But interest increased significantly after the 1988 drought in USA when NASA’s chief climate scientist James E. Hansen attributed the anomaly of hot weather to global warming. Similarly, coverage of climate change in the British press began at the end of 1988, which instigated then British Prime Minister Margret Thatcher to promote nuclear energy and to dismantle coal industry due to threat of global warming (Ah-med Rafique and Shamsuddin Dara, 2011).

Due to growing popularity of the issue of global warming and climate change in global media, politics and environment scien-tists the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was created in 1988 by the World

Meteorological Organization (W MO) and the United Nations En-vironment Programme (UNEP) to assess the scientific, technical, and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of the risk of human-induced cli-mate change”. Since the creation of the IPCC in 1988, it published several reports on global warm-ing and climate change. These reports claimed that most of the warming observed during last 50 years is linked with human acti-vity, increased natural green-house effect process due to man-made emission of greenhouse ga-ses particularly carbon dioxide and methane due to burning of fossil fuels causing global warm-ing. The IPCC scientists claimed in 2007 report that earth’s tem-perature has increased up to 0.6 degree Celsius since the late 19th century and if emission of greenhouse gases continues than global temperature will increase by 1.4 to 5.8 degree Celsius bet-ween 1990 to 2100 (IPCC, 2007). As a result of this global warm-ing glaciers will almost disapp-ear and sea level will rise up to 50 meters from the present sea level submerging low land coa-stal areas and islands and mill-ions of people will be homeless.


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Similarly this magnitude of war-ming will create serious threat for agri-culture, flora, fauna and human life. As a result of this extremely disastrous picture presented by United Nations sponsored IPCC scientists press-ure on the governments of cou-ntries was growing through media and NGOs that finally an agreement among countries on the reduction of green-house gases particularly carbon dioxide was signed in the UN summits on climate change in 1992 in Brazil and in 1997 in Japan. Since then UN summits were held to monitor the pro-gress and the last summit was held in 2016 in China.

The debate whether the pro-blem of present century global warming and climate change is natural as happened in the past geological epochs and most rece-nt in the medieval warm and cool periods or as a result of man-made activities became po-pular in United States and Can-ada when Canadian Broad-casting T.V presented a docum-entary with the name “The doo-msday called off” in which leading climate scientists, astro-physicist and geophysicist pre-sented evidences that science of

global warming presented by IPCC scientists is incomplete based upon computer models and stimulations which are deliberately exaggerated. Since then debate between UN pro man-made global warming sci-entists and anti-man-made global warming climate scientists cont-inue. 2. Materials and Methods

The present study is based upon the evaluation of ideas and observations presented by some leading astrophysicists, climate scientists, geophysicists, glaciolo-gists and environmentalists in the field of global warming and climate change. The study pro-vides an analytical view about the human induced climate cha-nge hypothesis, advocated by IPCC scientists who believe that human induced carbon dioxide emission is responsible of global warming and climate change. Another group of scientists who provide evidences that climate change is taking place but it is a natural phenomenon as happe-ned in the pre-industrial age and not with alarming rate. In this paper secondary sources of data and results were used to examine the factual position of global


36

warming and climate change in retrospect.

Result and Discussion

The problem of human ind-uced global warming and climate change has become very much politicized in media and climate summits of the United Nations. Therefore it is quite difficult to make understandable another look of its scientific and acade-mic status. In this paper an att-empt has been made to examine the complexity of the problem in the light of available facts related to atmosphere and climate system.

1. Energy sources for the Hea-ting of the Atmosphere The ultimate source of energy

for the heating of earth’s surface and atmosphere is the Sun. Out of the total solar radiation that reaches the top of atmosphere, about 49 percent reaches on the earth’s surface called insolation. 31 percent is reflected back to space while 20 percent is abso-rbed by atmosphere. This shows atmosphere absorbs only 20 per-cent of solar radiation directly while earth’s surface is the major source of energy for the heating of atmosphere. Earth’s surface after being heated by the inso-

lation, emits radiation in wave-lengths ranging from 4 to 70 mic-rometer called long wave terres-trial radiation. Thus earth’s atm-osphere is heated by long wave earth’s radiation instead of direct solar radiation.

2. Natural Greenhouse Effect

There are some atmospheric gases, called greenhouse gases, which absorb earth’s long wave radiation; thereby they contri-bute to the heating of the atm-osphere. Major atmospheric gree-nhouse gases are water vapour, carbon dioxide, ozone and meth-ane. The heat trapping mecha-nism of the greenhouse gases is known as the natural greenhouse effect. As a result of the green house effect earth’s average sur-face temperature is 15 degree Ce-lsius. In the absence of green house effect, earth’s global tem-perature would be –18 degree Celsius. It may be noted that that the greenhouse effect is a natural process (Chrichfield, 2003 and Ahmed R. 2011).

3. Water vapour is the single largest atmospheric gas rat-her than Carbon dioxide.

It is quite interesting that pro human induced global warming


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scientists exaggerate the contri-bution of carbon dioxide as a major greenhouse gas in absor-bing long wave earth’s radiation which is not true. The fact is water vapour is the single largest atmospheric greenhouse gas (2 percent by volume), Carbon dioxide is second major absorber (0.0385% by volume). Out of the total atmospheric carbon diox-ide only 3 percent come from fossil fuel burning while 97 per-cent comes through natural pro-cesses. Water vapour absorbs in a much wider band of long wave radiation (4-8 micrometer and 12-70 micrometer bands), Carbon dioxide absorbs in a narrow ban-ds (13-16 micrometer) and ozone absorbs in a much smaller nar-row band 9-10 micro-meter). Thus water vapour abso-rbs in a much wider wave length band, it has the single largest greenhouse effect among all the greenhouse gases (calculated by Prof. S.F Singer (Atmospheric Physicist, University of Virginia).

4. Increase in Atmospheric Carbon dioxide Concentration

It is estimated that atmos-pheric concentration of carbon dioxide was 285-290 ppm before the industrial revolution (18th

and 19th century. Measurements of carbon dioxide taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Ha-waii show that atmospheric car-bon dioxide has increased from 310 ppmin 1957 to 385 ppm in 2009, IPCC reports claim that if the rising trend continues, atmo-spheric carbon dioxide may reach 450 ppm by the year 2050. Present atmospheric concentra-tion of 385 ppm is simply 0.0385 percent of the atmosphere by vo-lume and projected value of 450 ppm by 2050 is nothing 0.045 percent of the atmosphere by volume, which still is very small fraction of the atmosphere (Ahmed R, 2011).

5. Earth’s Temperature Varia-tions During last 1000 years

Earth’s temperature was ne-ver constant, Instead, its past te-mperatures varied in cyclical pa-tterns. Earth’s temperatures for the past 1000 years were cons-tructed on the basis of historical records, measured temperature data and several proxy data (ice core data, tree ring analysis, po-llen analysis). Earth’s tempera-ture pattern in the past 1000 years shows two relatively long cycles


38

a. The Medieval warm period from 950 AD to 1350 AD foll-owed by

b. The cool period called little ice age from 1400 to 1900 AD.

According to Dr. Steffensen of Neil Bohr Institute of Geophy-sist, university of Copenhagen who conducted 3 km deep ice core study at Greenland conclu-ded that the Little Ice Age mar-ked the lowest temperature in the last 8000 years of earth’s his-tory while the Medieval Warm period was about 1.5 degree Cel-sius warmer than the present day. It is clear that increased in temperature was natural without burning of fossil fuels like coal. Like in the past the natural pro-cess of global warming is still valid in the present period.

6. Scientific Facts Contradicting IPCC’s Claims of Global War-ming and Climate Change

There is a large group of sci-entists who strongly oppose IPCC’s claims of global warming caused by human activity (due to burning of fossil fuels) on many grounds. Some of the contradic-tions and neglecting factors are discussed below.

a. Complexity of the Earth’s Cli-mate System Earth’s climate system consis-

ts of several interactive compo-nents of lithosphere (rocks), hyd-rosphere (water), cryosphere (sphere of ice), biosphere (living organism) and atmosphere (sph-ere of air). There are several sub-systems of these spheres, which interact and develop a complex system of climate system of the earth. Therefore any forecast of climate system based upon selec-ted parameters of stimulated co-mputer model as used by IPCC for future projection and estima-tion is not real and correct pic-ture of global warming and cli-mate change. According to Dr Sallie, Harvard Centre for Astro-physics did not agree that un-usual rise of temperature in 20th century is because of man-made climate change. Dr. David Lega-tes, Centre of climate Research criticized the IPCC computer sti-mulation model for climate cha-nge because computer models work like garbage in and garbage out far from the real world. Dr. Freeman Dyson (Emeritus Phys-ics Professor) Princeton Univer-sity is of the opinion that we can learn a lot from computer mo-dels, but we cannot learn what


39

will happen 10 years from now. Dr. Neil Frank (former Director of the US National Hurricane Centre, Miami pointed out that weather forecasting done by nu-merical models cannot make accurate forecasts for 5 to 10- day weather, Then how do we beli-eve in 50-100 year temperature forecasts, based upon climate models. b. Recent global warming and

Climate Change is because of Natural factors

It is quite interesting that the mandate of IPCC scientists to pu-blished reports on climate cha-nge based upon man-made fac-tors particularly burning of fossil fuels. Therefore IPCC reports did not consider natural factors of climate change. Evidences on the basis of ice cores, tree rings and historical data confirm the medi-eval warm period and cold period, which were caused by natural, processes like

1. Change in Earth-Sun orbit shape and angle of earth’s axis.

2. Variations in solar radiation and activities, such as solar fl-ares or sunspots, if large eno-ugh, could have an impact on

the Global temperature. For example, in the seventeenth century, a fainter sun was believed to have contributed to a climatic period known as the “Little Ice Age”, where the average global tempera-ture was about 1 degree Cel-sius cooler than it is today. Dr. Willie Soon (Harvard Centre of Astrophysics, USA) concluded that earth’s tempe-rature anomaly from 1875 to 2000 is much better explained from solar irradiance than to carbon dioxide anomaly.

3. A more widely accepted volc-anic ash theory suggests that from time to time volcanic ash has increased both the albedo of the atmosphere, reducing insolation at the earth’s surface. Ash layers in Antarctic ice show a period of intense volcanic activity from about 30,000 to 17000 years ago, during which tempera-tures decreased by about 3 degree Celsius. In the modern era the eruption of Mount Tambora on the Indonesian Island of Sumbawa in 1815 ejected an estimated 150 cubic kilometer ash into atmosph-ere. The following year was known as ‘the year without a


40

summer” in the United States and Europe but a direct cause and effect relation is hypo-thetical (Chrichfield, 2010). The factor of massive volcanic eruption effect on tempera-ture, which dropped tempe-rature up to 1 degree Celsius, was also noticed in 1980s due to massive discharge of ash from Mt. Pinatubo.

4. Deep ocean conveyor belt cir-culation theory also suggests the eruptions of hot molten volcanic materials on the oce-an floor and oceanic ridges, which affect the movement of horizontal and vertical circu-lation of water and rise of global surface temperature.

Solar flares Source: Chrichfield, 2010

c. Water Vapour is the Over-whelming Primary Green house Gas Water vapour because of wi-

der wavelength and largest sh-are by volume is the largest greenhouse effect among all the greenhouse gases. Water vapour contributes 95 percent to the gre-enhouse effect; all other green-house gases put together contri-bute only 5 percent to the green-house effect and man-made por-tion of carbon dioxide contribu-tes only 0.117 percent to the gree-nhouse effect. IPCC did not con-sider water vapour as a green-house. d. Effect of Urbanization and

Urban heat island Urban areas are much warm-

er than the surrounding open / rural areas because of the buil-ding materials, high density of buildings, high-rise buildings, la-rge number of vehicles and heat emissions. Since the 1970s, urban areas have grown rapidly in nu-mber and size all over the world. Very importantly, almost all the weather stations are located in cities. So, rapid growth in urban-ization has created a bias toward warmer temperature. This factor was also not considered by the


41

IPCC. Prof. John Christi, an ast-rophysics of the University of Alabama studied ground recor-ded temperature and found tem-perature is rising while the wea-ther satellite temperature data and air balloon recorded temper-ature show little change in tem-perature. He also studied urban heat island phenomenon in the city of Alabama and pointed out that down town temperature is 5 to 6 degree higher than suburban open areas. Therefore people feel false impression of climate change. It is true that climate of cities are warmer but this is because of building structure, high rises etc.

e. Global Distribution of Clim-atic Stations and Data Bias

There were about 100 wea-ther stations in the world in 1875, all of which were located in Eur-ope and North America. This nu-mber has increased to about 1700 in 1975, and since then the num-ber of stations has increased dramatically, thanks to the effor-ts of the World Meteorological Organization. At present there are about 10,000 weather stations around the World. This shows that most of the stations did not exist prior to mid -1970s. Most of

them are located on the contin-ents of northern hemisphere, in the mid-latitudes in urban areas and most of them do not have historical records because they did not exist prior to mid-1970s. So our climate data set is biased towards landmass (Ahmed, R, 2011).

The quality of global tempe-rature was also questioned by many climate scientists. The most important is Dr. John Christy (Professor of Astrophysics) Uni-versity of Alabama and author of several IPCC reports. His article was published in 2010 in UK’s Sunday time. According to him recorded temperatures at these stations have been influenced and compromised by such fac-tors as land use changes, urbani-zation, industrialization and in many cases physical movement of station location from one site to other site. All these factors led to the bias toward warmer temp-eratures.

f. Credibility of IPCC is Ques- tioned.

A major blow to IPCC credi-bility came on October 19, 2009 when thousands of documents and emails were leaked out by some computer hackers from the


42

Climate Research Unit (CRU) of UK’s East Anglia University. CRU is one of the IPCC’s Centres for research on global warming and climate change. Some of these documents were published in newspapers and discussed in talk shows labeled as the Climate Gate. These leaked documents reveal misconduct of the top IPCC climate scientist in the UK and USA in creating manufac-tured data about release of car-bon dioxide through burning of fossil fuels and industries caus-ing global warming. Some of the US governmental agencies like US National Climate Data Centre and NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies were also involved in data manipulation. The Hockey Stick Graph

Dr. Michael Mann of the Pe-nnsylvania State University and a leading IPCC scientist, recons-tructed earth’s temperature ano-maly for the period 1000 to 2000 AD. His study was based on tree ring data analysis. The shape of his plotted graph is similar to that of an ice hockey stick; this graph is known as The Hockey Stick Graph. In the third and fourth (2007) IPCC reports this graph was adopted replaced by

the original graph, used in first and second reports. This was cri-ticized by many climate scien-tists. Although the hockey stick graph was quite attractive in ap-pearance. It has two major flaws. First it shows that earth’s tem-peratures were below normal for a long period -1000AD to 1970s (for about 970 years) then te-mperature increased dramatica-lly since 1980s. Secondly it also shows the long accepted Medi-eval Warm period (950 AD to 1350AD) as colder than normal. It was found out that the hockey stick graph was drawn on the ba-sis of a very small ring samples (10 out of 85 samples) and by data manipulation and statistical exaggeration. Source: IPCC, 2007


43

g. Assessments of IPCC about global warming impacts on sea level rise and glacier me-lting are incorrect and over-stated.

According to IPCC reports issued 2007 global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 degree Celsius since the late 19th century. As a result of melting of glaciers and polar ice sheets global sea level has risen by 15 to 20 cm over the past 100 years. If this trend continues sea level will rise up to 50 to 80 me-ter by the end of 2100AD. Lowland areas and islands like Mal-dives will submerge into seawater.

Professor Nelis Axil of Stock-holm University and president of International Organization of Sea level change and coastal evolu-tion conducted several studies on the beaches of Maldives and co-ncluded that during last 50 years no permanent rise of sea level. He observed that due to high evaporation local sea level is falling and Maldives have no threat of disappearance.

IPCC claimed that Antarctica will lose 40 percent of its ice as early 2050, however a recent stu-

dy done by the Atmospheric Science Department, University of Illinois shows that the ice cap in Antarctica has been fluctua-ting about its mean value since 1978 and has been increasing since 2003. IPCC also claimed that Himalayan glaciers will dis-appear by 2035 (IPCC, 2007) but recent conducted by glaciologist Dr. John Shroeder of the Uni-versity of Nebraska (2009), based on satellite analysis since 1960 shows that Himalayan glaciers have been growing since 1980.

What will be the future of ene-rgy requirement of the world if UN policy of climate change and reduction of carbon dioxide is implemented by governments?

In each earth’ summit of UN it is stressed to the heads of cou-ntries that the level of carbon di-oxide must be reduced and fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) energy generating sources must be repl-aced by renewable energy sour-ces like solar and wind. It is a desire but not reality. For econo-mic development low price, aff-ordable and sufficient sources of energy are essentially required. Because of this fact fossil fuels have dominated over other sour-ces of energy.


44

The shares of global energy consumption by sources in 2015 were: Oil (41%), coal (10%), gas 15%, electricity 18%, Bio-fuels and waste 12%, Solar and wind (3.5 %). Similarly shares of global Electricity consumptions by sou-rces in 2015 were: coal (42%), gas 22%, Hydro 16.3%, Nuclear 11%, oil 4.5%, (solar, wind etc. 5.7%). Climate Change and Sports

This is an important observa-

tion that climate change pheno-menon affects on sports activities and performance of players. Raise in temperature and hotness affect the performance of out-door games like cricket, football, hockey etc. Fog is most impor-tant clim-atic hazard that adve-rsely affect on the schedule of games, performance of players and number of visitors watching games. The schedule of many games particularly cricket is badly affected due to long foggy weather and rain. In Pakistan sports activities in Lahore is bad-ly affected during winter due to very low visibility and foggy weather. Cricket matches are ca-nceled due to bad light condi-tion. Dew is another important problem, which badly affects the

day and night limited over cri-cket matches all over the world. Bowlers feel difficulty to bowl and their performance are also affected. Similarly climate cha-nge phenomenon also affects the global and local pattern of rain and snowfall. Due to torren-tial rain and severe cold weather sports activities become stand still and game lovers confine the-mselves to indoor games. During the last five years summer is abnormally hot in Europe and United States. This has affected outdoor sports activities and per-formance of players. Conclusion

The issue of global warming and climate change has been popular since 1980s in media and politics when environmentalists claimed that earth is in danger due rising of temperature which is because of human activities pa-rticularly emission of carbon di-oxide through burning of fossil fuels. This argument was taken up by UN Environmental prog-ram formed IPCC. IPCC public-shed several reports of global warming and climate change and forecasted very alarming picture of climate change. Since 1990 there are two groups of scientists


45

one supports IPCC assessments and human induced causes of global warming while other gro-up disagrees with IPCC estima-ted and projected figures of glo-bal warming and consider them overstated, fabricated and mani-pulated based upon computer models. They consider warming is due to natural processes as ha-ppened in the past.

The debate of global warming between pro and anti IPCC scien-tists continues.

It is almost a consensus that global warming is taking place.

The differences are: 1. Whether it is natural or man-

made. 2. Whether the rate1is alarming

or slow. 3. Whether the policy of UN

Climate Summit to replace fo-ssil fuels energy resources with solar and wind is prag-matic particularly for poor co-untries.

Acknowledgement: We are than-kful to Rafique Ahmed, Professor (Emeritus), Department of Geog-raphy and Earth Science, Univ-ersity of Wisconsin, La Crosse for his guidance and suggestion.

References

Ahmed Rafique and Shamsuddin Dara,

2011, Climate Change, Dhaka, Ban-gladesh.

Antonnov, J, Linear trends of tempe-rature at intermediate and deep la-yers of the North Atlantic and the North Pacific Ocean,1957-1981. Climate, 6.

Barros, V and I.Camilion,1994, Urban biased trends in Buenos Aires’ mean temperature, Science,257.

Bradley, et al, 1993, Little Ice Age sum-mer temperature variations: their nature and relevance to recent global warming trends. The Holo-cene, 3.

Briffa, 1993, Global surface air tem-perature variations during the 20th century, Holocene, 4.

Critchfield, 2010, General Climatology, 4th edition, New Delhi

Diaz, H., 1994, Historical and Paleo-climatic aspects of the Southern Oscillation, Cambridge University Press.

Houghton, 1995, Climate Change, Cam-bridge University Press.

Inter-Governmental Panel of Climate Change(IPCC), 2000, Climate Cha-nge, University of Cambridge Press.

Inter-Governmental Panel of Climate Change(IPCC), 2007, Climate Cha-nge, University of Cambridge Press.

Pittock, A., et al, 2003, Climate change and variability, Cambridge Univer-sity Press.

SELF ESTEEM LEVEL IN URBAN VOLLEYBALL PLAYERS OF SINDH, PAKISTAN

Shireen Bhatti and Syed Asim Hussain

ABSTRACT

Self-esteem has earned much interest which is believed to be an important construct for athlete to be able to perform during competition however it is the most crucial and influencing factor contributing to the success or failure of an athlete. The present research explored the aforementioned factor, which influences the performance of volleyball players. The study explored through survey and interview. To triangulate the data, volleyball players of urban areas of Sindh province were interviewed using Rosenberg self-esteem scale. Players were asked to rank various factors that affected their self-esteem. The study was conducted in Hyderabad, Karachi and Mirpurkhaas.The participants were 200 in number. All participants were players of volleyball game only, ranged from 16 to 20 years. The findings indicated that the self-esteem was witnessed low in volleyball players at public colleges. Results from this study suggest that coaches and sport psychology consultants to understand, prepare, and devise and implement, more effective strategies in order to help volleyball players in heightening self-esteem.

Key words : self-esteem, volleyball, player.

1. Introduction It is recognized as a fact by

researchers that volleyball play-er's emotional side of behavior has significant influence on com-petition. The motivating factor behind the selection of the topic, which lies in subjective experie-nce. I compare two phases of my sports career as volleyball player where in phase one, I see myself very confident and responsive in the early years one of the best player of college whereas in sec-ond phase, few years later being a senior volleyball player my pe-

rformance got affected greatly. In phase-one, the reason I see of be-ing successful volleyball player lays in my positive attitude to-wards myself which in other words holding high self esteem whereas in phase two, I lost beli-ef in myself which turned me to be passive volleyball player. My negative attitude towards myself developed a fear of failure in case of participation and a fear of being laughed at. Furthermore, if I compare both phases of my sports career, the question arises here what was the reason to exp-

Self Esteem Level in Urban Volleyball Players

51

erience feeling of anxiety as voll-eyball player in phase two and not to experience the aforemen-tioned feeling in phase-one? The tentative answer is the percep-tion I developed for myself, the way I evaluated myself. It is ter-med as self-esteem in termino-logy of psychology.

The other motivating factor is observing my sports students experiencing the same feeling as mine. Being a sport teacher, wh-en I see my students I find am-ong them the Fear of failure, uneasiness, evaluating them neg-atively and I always hear my sports player saying I cannot do it. This drove me to undertake this as research study to know the background of the scene.

2. Psychology of sport Itis considered the study of

behavior of athlete in sports. It is believed an effort to know how and why it is considered basic sports behavior. It is believed the study of psychological progress-ions as it recounts human sports performance. Sports psychology-ists employ the evidence when studying concepts like accompli-shment, motivation, stimulation, acknowledgement and persona-lity development with the skills,

which a man has with the judgm-ents, which an individual expects to do with the skills, an individ-ual owns. Volleyball requires dy-namic skills, which could define continuous ex-change of actions and pauses demands an ability of fast attention focus and refocus, and emotional stability and flexi-bility of a player. The unpredict-able setting increase psychologi-cal pressure, causing stress that one should know how to cope with.

Competitive sport can make the best athlete apprehensive. Factors which work behind it are Antic-ipations, fear of failure, lack of self-reliance and anxiety in players.

3. Self esteem a psychological construct.

Many studies shed light on the term self-esteem which refle-cts human’s complete emotional assessment of one’s own worth. It is considered one’s evaluation and perception to the self. Self-esteem incorporates views and feelings like victory, dejection, superiority and embarrassment. Furthermore it is practice of bei-ng capable to handle the basic judg-ments of life and being content.

Observing competitive envir-onment the higher self-esteem,


52

the more volleyball player is pro-ductive whereas lower self est-eem brings anxiety to volleyball player. If the demand of compe-tition goes high it brings fear of failure in player. Many players, who are low at self-esteem, with-draw from competition in the re-sult of repeated failure. An indi-vidual self-esteem is tied with the self-perception in relation to others. It poses threat towards the ego or one’s self esteem, fear of being measured negatively and unpredictability. It happens once the competition challenges the ability of player, which ma-kes environment threatening in res-ult anxiety, is observed in player. Whoever responds in the form of either fight or flight?

4. Factors affecting level of

self-esteem. Self-esteem is one’s calcula-

tion, a judgment of being good, and valued. William James, who is believed the founding father of Western psychology measured it an significant characteristic of mental health. According to Jam-es, self-esteem is a product of ‘observed capability in regard of its importance. Charles Horton Cooley proposed that self-respect origins from the ‘observing glass

self’ – it is how one perceives oneself in the eyes of others Psy-chologists’ attention in self-este-em has grabbed attention with 15,000 journal articles about the topic The huge majority of arti-cles claim that self-esteem is absolutely allied with adaptive results

Self-esteem is psychology’s most attention gaining concepts. It is frequently used to state one’s perception about them. Self-esteem is feelings of love for oneself. High self-esteem is cons-idered by a overall affection for oneself; low self-esteem is varied feelings too. Self-esteem is once established, it stays constant thr-ough period For example, Baum-eister, Tice, and Hutton’s self-pr-esentational model, which based on the hypothesis that individual with low self-esteem, is assumed to be very conscious and self-protective interactive style so as to avoid disgrace. According to Leary’s socio meter theory, expe-riencing feelings of low self- esteem rises once person disting-uishes that she/he is disowned by others.

Researchers say that the gro-wth of self-esteem is taken into

http://constructs.it/

http://constructs.it/


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consideration of person’s evalua-tion of his or her value” has sig-nificant consequences for life ou-tcomes. Moreover, Self-esteem is related with despair, apprehen-sion, motivation and fulfillment with one’s life. Those who lack self-worth appear to be more de-pendent the self-esteem conce-rns with the morals, opinions and attitudes that an individual embraces about him-self. The se-cond part of self-esteem defines the worth and values that one gi-ves oneself or approval of one-self. According to Shaalvik self-esteem is considered the person’s overall emotion of his acts and his or her contentment with his or her attainment.

According to Nathaniel Bran-den, it is a disposition to experi-ence oneself as competent to cope with the basic challenges of life. Similarly, Mc Devitt and Or-mrod. Mention self-esteem to “feelings people have about their capability and worth”. Reasoner States self-esteem as “the experi-ence of being capable of meeting life challenges”. Self-esteem is di-stributed into two types‟global self-esteem and specific self-este-em. Global self-esteem denotes to general assessment set with

wide-ranging implication for self-experience. Specific self-esteem refers to self-evaluation in narro-wly defined domains.

It is taken into view that self-esteem is significant. When they are told that they are unable and unreliable, it either lowers or hig-her self-esteem. Self-it increases when one succeeds a fight, gath-ers reward, resolves a problem, or given approval to a collect-ive it is believed that masses beliefs figure out their actions mainly.

Kleiber and Robers points out that “success in sports comes on-ly to those who already are ment-ally fit resilient and strong”. Less confident player doubts inspire of being good enough to be suc-cessful. He further explains that when you distrust your capabi-lity to succeed or believesome-thingto go wrong you are pro-ducing self-fulfilling prophesy, which is believed the expectation of happening which originates The anticipation of failure which sinks self-esteem and rises fear of failure. Sports psychologists, coa-ches and athletes of today’s age emphasis the worth of mental constancy. Research studies exhi-


54

bited that people can concent-rate, which could heighten hi-gher self-esteem, raise their com-petence and appear successful in their performance after using psy-chological abilities Materials and Procedures

This research aimed to know whether the level of self-esteem in volleyball players was low or high. In order to collect the data, players were asked to fill in the questionnaires provided by rese-archer. There were 200 male and female volleyball players. All volleyballplayers age were from 16 to 20 years. Volleyball players completed 200 questionnaires of Rosenberg self esteem scale. The study used Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale, which consists of 10 items. Each of which is ans-wered on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 4) “Strongly agree” to 3) “Agree” to 2) “Disagree” to 1) “Strongly Disagree” for item number 1, 3, 4, 7, 10 representing high self-esteem and 1) “Strongly Agree” to 2) “Agree” to 3) “Disa-gree” to 4) “Strongly Disagree” for item number 2, 5, 6, 8, 9 representing low self-esteem. It is necessary to mention those items which express low self-esteem

follows reverse coding. It sugg-ests that items with negative wording have to be reversed in scoring i.e. the option of “str-ongly Disagree” has the highest score of 4 whereas same option has the lowest score of 1 in positive worded items. The mea-sures were completed during intercollegiate competition of 2015-16. Athletes came within reach at public colleges of Hyd-erabad, Karachi and Mirpur-khaas cities. Result and Discussion

Findings are based on the qu-estionnaire used for this study. Questionnaire items measuring self-esteem have been described with the help of descriptive sta-tistics. The data was analyzed through research question of the current research study. The data gathered for self-esteem scale.159 participants among 200 possess-ing low self-esteem whereas the 40 percentage of participants hol-ding normal self-esteem. The higher percentage of volleyball players exhibits the low self-es-teem of players; it is evident that player with low self-esteem has no ability to cope with negative feedback and evaluation. They


55

see people, setting and every-thing around themselves with negative filter.

Level of Self-Esteem in participant

The results of current study specified that subjects of study appeared with low self-esteem. The number of studies was car-ried out on the influence of self-esteem on players’ performance.

In 1993 Thomas li.ping pong and David B reynold aimed to examine the interaction effect be-tween self - esteem perceived goal difficulty on subject’s perfo-rmance. It resulted that the high or low self-esteem was consi-

derably affected by setting high and low goals led subject to high or low performance.

In 2002, the study was cond-ucted by Nathlie Koivula, Peter Hassaman and John Fallby to find out the relationship amo-ng self-esteem and sports rela-ted competition, self confidence and self-esteem strategies The results revealed the players with high self-esteem had more posi-tive pattern of perfectionism wh-ereas players with low self-est-eem had negative pattern of per-fectionism.

These are few obvious reas-ons for being low at self-esteem. Few of the discussion responses reveal that most of the partici-pants of the study recorded the similar responses that it is com-monly observed that players are ridiculed and humiliated at the field and in the presence other competitors which put them into great embracement and they pe-rceive such behavior sign of dis-approval which sometimes lead to criticism or punishment. It is interpreted by an athlete as a comm-ent on their worthiness as a person.

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ste

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en

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nt

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erc

en

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ve

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Low level 159 74.6 80 80

normal level 40 18.8 20.1 100.0

Total 199 93.4 100.0 100.0


56

It is also witnessed that the concerns of coaches are attached to results. Coaches consider vict-ory a foremost objective rather benefiting his performance by predisposing traits.

It is generally witnessed that when an individual succeeds he is showered praises upon when fails, harsh criticism and rejection he faces. Athletes with low self-esteem fail to alter emotions. They bear poor opinion about themselves, their dealing towar-ds themselves is poor too, and this attitude invites unequal tre-atment by others in result, they remain unknown from the cap-acity within themselves. Finally, self-esteem can be damaged by repeated, explicit and public fail-ures and rejections.

Another observation found is making mistakes as mistakes are considered the part of game but coaches remain unnatural, inflex-ible and impatient at the time of player's error which results the change of player during matches which lowers the player's self-esteem and they exactly never take their mistakes opportunity of new learning.

The interview responses dis-close that the subjects of study think that their nervousness is

because they feel their self- este-em challenged and it causes their self-esteem low because they feel that he may not be as competent as their team mates and oppone-nts’.It additinally indicates that participants’ failure to accompli-sh directly affects his self-esteem.

In addition athletes compare themselves with others and disc-over their contribution to the team, which remain, unnoticed by coaches and teammates it mini-mize the interest of player in the teamwork. The different opini-ons of participants clearly indi-cate that mostly participants are not permitted to continue their practice due to academic engagements. They fail to exhibit satisf-actory performance there-fore they are completely negle-cted by coaches while forming team. It also reveals that the player links his self-esteem to the evaluation of people around him therefore he feels scared of being ridiculed.

When asked to the one of the participants. She explained it quite comprehensively that mo-stly parents set expectations and they want their children to come up to that set expectations but failing to coming up to their exp-ectation disappoint Therefore


57

they restrict their children from taking part in extracurricular act-ivities specifically sports activi-ties. 70 percent participants of study were of same opinion that they are restricted and demoral-ized by parents for taking part in sports activities because parents never consider sports activities fruitful and career sorting such behavior ultimately lowers the self-esteem of participant.

Participants further added that the reason of restricting the-m from participating in sports activities are outdoor activities which darkens the color comple-xion of female players, far most travelling to other cities for atte-nding tournaments or champio-nships and being a female parti-cipant following specific dress code during match in result it de-teriorates self-esteem of player.

It appeared the most impor-tant factor the influence on the level of self-esteem of players is their parents and coaches. The experiences and feedback from parents, peers, and coaches can have great influence on one's Self-esteem in result it affects one’s motivation, learning and performance.

In the context of our society most of the players are never

appreciated by parents to adopt sports, as a profession as sports is never taken source of bread and butter furthermore it never earns interest and motivation of most of the parents. In result it affects the degree of concern, acceptance and interest shown by parents.

Suh behaviors are damaging and enduring effects on the self-esteem of players though being male player he is granted a slight advantage over being female. The negative coaching contribu-tes the same degree of disregard, demoralization and interest, as do parents.

Determining perception abo-ut their abilities and about them-selves effect on the behavior. Their interpretation of environ-ment, influenced by evaluation. Low self-esteem is the reaction to failure and evaluation from oth-ers. Those players who do not have belief in their capabilities and efficiency are unable to resist pressure.

They seem with little confi-dence in their skills and abilities. They never uphold high expec-tations. Moreover they attrib-ute their successes and failures to external causes and refuse to take responsibility of their failure ev-


58

en they have difficulty of coping with it. Thomas ET. Al. describes that players of team sports are open to demanding and stressful setting. These aspects impact the mutual functioning and mental characteristic of the player. The other aspect of low self-esteem and high anxiety is social assess-ment of subject.

It is believed that the impor-tance of psychological factors can never be neglected in the success of any sports performance unfor-tunately less amount of time is spent on mental practice by coa-ches. Those players who obtain reaction through continuous con-tact with their bodily and social setting about what they are cap-able of doing and how others view them shaping a player’s self-esteem. Whether they earn Social acceptance, the Social rein-forcement an athlete receives from other people. Positive rein-forcement is an approval of fruit-ful doing. It usually helps the development of a positive self-esteem, whereas constant critic-ism or lacks of interest in players have a negative effect on the dev-elopment of their self- esteem.

Self-esteem of athlete is chall-enged while being interacted with the complex operation bet-

ween the individual and stressful situation either shows approval or disapproval. Player with low self-esteem remains doubtful ab-out their capabilities, significance and success relatively sense of proficiency or societal consent.

In addition, certain circums-tances such as challenging and frightening agonies affects the level of self-esteem, which results withdrawal from competition ra-ther than withstanding, which deteriorates his performance.

In general, a stressful situa-tion that involves self-esteem results in failure, risks decreasing or destabilizing with the repeti-tion of situations roots the reduc-tion of the mental health. Players who have low self-esteem are uncomfortable and have trouble accepting praise and criticism they usually refract it or put the-mselves down.

It is commonly observed that players bearing low self-est-eem humiliate their mates who reveal their own insecurities. Moreover, they try to control them rather than empowering them, which shows that they feel threatened. It stems from the fear of losing because they don’t feel they are good enough.


59

Most of the times the athlete’ appear to be indecisive. They never become initiative and take resp-onsibility for making the wrong decision; they perceive their opi-nion worthless. Being indecisive they blame other peo-ple and pretend to become a vic-tim of circumstance. They prefer not to take responsibility. Hence making fair and stable decisions is not observed asset. Lack of cour-age and fear of disapproval lead them to delay taking decisions and they consider the external factors cause the unde-sired result rather than spending their energy to achieve the out-come they expect. They magnify their mistakes with guilt and shame which in stables self-es-teem. Their low self-esteem leads to stress and a sinking mood and they remain sensitive to criticism, which drives them to Social withdrawal. Firestone explained, “Worthless individual exhibits poor performance or avoid try-ing. According to Schiraldi, they encounter more humiliation than others.

Players with low self-esteem

feel less of themselves, because they are ignored by coaches, team ma-tes and public. Poor

self-evaluation can have an effect on the performance of player as they never hold high self-esteem for oneself. They meet feelings of adequacy or inadequacy more over; they never value their com-petence and worth.

Kassin (1998), identified that a person with a low level of self-esteem unveil behaviors to expe-ct failure, anxiety and less strug-gle. Self-blame, self-criticism and faultfinding, constant negativity, overbearing behavior, inability to maintain integrity during compe-tition and other settings Constant comparison with others, feeling inferiority or superiority, preva-lent deep-seated feelings of fear, terror, or panic and Reaction to specific setting, coach, team ma-tes and public with extreme emo-tion or no emotion are the com-mon gestures in low self-esteem athlete. CONCLUSION

The responses of 200 parti-

cipants recorded which stated that 40 participants seemed to have normal self-esteem but 159 participants of study appeared with low self-esteem. Discover-ing a significant decrease in self-esteem results performance gets


60

deteriorated which certainly has greater negative effect on team’s psychology. The factors which in turn led low self-esteem were negative attitude towards one-self, the evaluation or judgment make by people, fear of failure, rejection, criticism, nervousness, high expectations of coach, team mates and viewer, negative eval-uation, psychological instability, disapproval from family and society. References

Hetherontod, F and WY land Carrie L. ' assessing self- esteem, positive psy-chological assessment, a handbook of measures and model. Washin-gton and DC: American psycholog-icalassociation.2003.

Milavić. Boris, grgantov. Zoran and Milic. Mirjana. 'Relations between coping skills and situational effic-acy in young female volleyballpla-yers. ‘University of Split, Faculty of Kinesiology, Split, Croatia, 2013; 11 (2)165 – 175.

Ajeesh, P.T. 'A study on self-esteem money men and women volleyball players’. International journal of behavioral social and moment’s science, 2013;2(3): 56-63.

Mottagiv, Mahmoodreza, Atarodi,Alir-ezaand Rohani,Zohra.'The rela-tionship between coaches and ath-letes competitive anxiety and their performance'.Iran J.Psychiatry 2.

Patrick,J. Cohn, ‘warning signs of low self-esteem’ behavior science, 2013;7(2):68 -26

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Tanvi. V.Tarpara. 'Analysis of sports competition anxiety between inter moral tournaments boys Hand Ball & Volley Ball players' Indian jou-rnal of applied research.2013;3(2).

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and E. Kathleen. 'Self-esteem and self-evaluation.‘Cook University of Washington, 2001; 15 (5):615–631

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Jacob Christopher G,'Self-Esteem Maintenance Processes: Why Low Self-Esteem May Be Resistant to Change.'The Society for Personality and Social Psychology, 2003; 29(7)

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'Development from Age 14 to 30 Years: A Longitudinal Study.' Univ-ersity of BaselJournal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2011; 101 (3)607–619

Srivastava. Rekha. Dr and Joshi. Shobana. Dr.'Relationship between Self-concept and Self-esteem in ado-lescents. 'International Journal of Advanced Research, 2014; 2 (2):36-43

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krueger. Joachim and D. Vohs. Kathleen. 'Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interper-sonal success, happiness or heal-thier life style? 'American psych-ological society, 2005; 4(1)


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Nicholas Emler,' Self-esteem the costs and causes of low self-worth'.2001.

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Esteem, and Well-Being. 'Social and personality psychology compass, 2011:1-2.

Ghotbi. Ahmed & ghamary Amin.

'Relationship between mental skills and anxiety interpretation in female volleyball players.' University of Shiraz, Iran, 2011;33

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David. ‘Effects of self-esteem and perceived goal difficulty on goal setting, certainty, task performance and attribution: ‘human resource development quarterly, 1993; (4) 2:153-170.

Yadav, Krishna.R. 'Correlation between

anxieties of mental skill in Univer-sity Volleyball Male players. 'Jour-nal of Exercise Science of physio-therapy. 2015;11 (1):17-21 .

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Altinci, Evrenebru& Atikir, Aslih-an. ’comparison of pre and post anxiety levels of volleyball players aged 11-14:’International Journal of Academic Research, 2012 ;( 4)1:143-147.

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confidence of elite Junior Olympic female volleyball players’. Athesis, IthacaCollege; 2005,

Milavić. Boris, grgantov. Zoran and Milic. Mirjana. 'Relations between coping skills and situational effi-cacy in young female volley ball players. ‘University of Split, Fa-culty of Kinesiology, Split, Croatia, 2013; 11(2)165 - 175

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fileamong the female festal Football players at Jordanian Club. 'Journal of Education and Practice, 2015; 6(II).

THE CORRELATION OF CLASSROOM ADMINISTRATION PERFORMANCE OF FEMALE DIRECTRESS SPORTS WITH

THEIR QUALIFICATION

Toshaba Channa and Dr. Shahzaman Khan

ABSTRACT

The female directress sports in colleges have to performed double tasks. They educate their subject to graduate level students in the classroom and conduct activities of games in the field. The female directress sports might have to acquire all those traits and experiences as compared to other subject tutors. The present study was an attempt to examine theperformance of the female directress sports in classroom (discipline) of college area. A five point likert scale questionnaire (1=Strongly disagree, 2= Partially disagree, 3=Neither agree/nor disagree, 4=Partially agree and 5=Strongly agree) were utilized for collection of data and to acquire the suitable answers about the classroom administration performance of the female directress sports. The questions were disseminated between the (N=90) girl’s pupils of graduate level classes in colleges of Sindh Province. The major conclusion of the study was to observe generally Classroom administration Performance has positively associated with qualification of female directress sports. It was assumed that the female directress sports that possess better knowledge and were high qualified so they can demonstrate better Classroom administration Performance in their professional field as compared to low qualified and less knowledgeable female directress sports.

Introduction According to Bernabea, ET,

al. (2016) female directress sports are an individual who can ins-truct a range of sports or physical activities in an academic setting. The FDS are the person who can perform as coaches and should possess capability to coach the pupils, they are performing dou-

ble job they teach the Physical education subject to pupils in the degree classes and conduct ga-mes activities in the field (Gomal University Prospectus 2006-07). The FDS must acquire all neces-sary traits and qualification that other subject tutors possess; wh-ich includes the coaching and learning procedure (Hall 2007).


2

So, female directress sports may occupy a powerful position (Hall 2007) and they can play a signi-ficant part as compared to the other subject tutors have (Khan et al., 2008).

The tutors must possess the capability to control the class be-cause it is one of the main qua-lities of good tutors that they may uphold classroom discipline and manage the class for the reason that they don’t want to provide control to their pupils (Taylor, 1987). The qualified tut-ors must contain class control and it is frequently observed by the management/authorities as a degree of performance of those tutors. One of the objectives of cl-assroom discipline is the control of pupils by their tutors. The significance of classroom control by tutors is consequently impor-tunate that educators mostly obs-erve discipline and control of cla-ssroom by tutors so it is further needed part of education (Edw-ards, 1994). The female directress sports are doing dual tasks and remain involved in a range of ac-tivities, in the indoor and out-door of the classroom. Thus, the female directress sports may hold more imposing situation

associated to the other subject tutors (Hall 2007).

The classroom administration is a wide set of educational beh-aviors in which the tutor forms and uphold educational situat-ions which may help efficient tra-ining that may results in profi-cient educational society (Hall, 2007). The efficient classroom ad-ministration is a continuousuph-olding procedure, which entails the inspiration of the pupils to study, control the pupils work, gives them suitable trainings and optimistic responses.

Proficient outlook of a tutor during education in classroom can evaluate from his traits, info-rmation, communiqué and man-aging abilities (Chek, & Pandey, 2016). Educational accomplishm-entor success of pupils depends upon their tutor. Excellence of P.E. may depend upon the quality of P. E. tutor (Chek, & Pandey, 2016). It indicates that if the tutors possess higher qual-ities such as having good traits, high-quality lesson plan, good quality communiqué and admin-istrative abilities than he simply endorse the field of P.E by mak-ing a prof-icient pupil. “Quality physical education lecture = Qu-ality physical education tutor”

The Correlation of Classroom Administration Performance

3

(Yaylac, 2012). If tutor uphold his / her traits, modernize informa-tion, uphold class administra-tion, and adopting good commu-niqué abi-lities during the inst-ruction than it will be helpful to the pupils to learned well and will develop general educational performance of the pupils (Chek, & Pandey, 2016).

The classroom administration is mainly complicated part of tea-ching for beginner tutors. Teac-hers must obtain pupils collabo-ration to sustain educational en-gagement and must expand and uphold an education atmosphere that supports knowledge (Rink, 2010). Conducting effective class-room management expertise in supporting pupils to achieve the emotional, psychomotor and co-gnitive behaviors stated it is a great responsibility of P.E tutors to make better physical educa-tion syllabus. Those tutors who acquire high self-efficiency using suitable teaching strategies to cr-eate a quality learning atmosph-ere. Thus, teachers’ self-efficacy will influence the learning atm-osphere in the classroom (Pan, 2014).

According to Edwards (2004) the “Successful classroom admi-nistration can prevent the disci-

pline troubles rather than to reso-lve them before occurrence. Stu-dents’ learning can be enhanced by task that uphold pupils’ conc-entration, giving obvious train-ings, motivating lectures and int-roductions, appropriate utiliza-tion of questionnaire policies, ch-ecking pupils work cautiously, given them suitable and precise responses and manage disturba-nce efficiently”. The pupils’ edu-cation may be improved during the physical and pleasing atmos-phere of the classroom. e.g. Best illumination, sound system, heat, appealing bulletin boards and relaxed equipment may develop the pupil’s education. According to Weinstein (1979) the present study demonstrated that as the excellence of the classroom atmo-sphere get worse, tutors become more controlling, responsive and avoid close intimacy while the pupils become equally involved and avoid quarrels with peers. By the unpleasant classrooms at-mosphere the learners may feel more exhaust, uneasiness and unhappiness. This paper was de-sign to find out the classroom administration performance of the female directress sports and to know that whether they are in a position to control and organ-


4

ize the classroom effectively as the other tutors can or not.

Study procedure

The researcher has adopted the following procedure to rea-ching at certain findings and co-nclusions of the study. A five point likert scale was utilized to conclude the Classroom admini-stration Performance of female directress sports. The (total (N=09) Government girls degree colleges of Hyderabad city Sindh) were selected and the (graduate level) pupils were selected pur-posively in order to evaluate cla-ssroom administration perform-ance of their female directress sports. The questions were dis-tributed to ninety (N=90) girls students of Hyderabad city coll-eges. Methodology

Sample of the study: This st-udy was confined to female dir-ectress sports and girls athletes from nine colleges of governme-nt girls degree colleges of Hyder-abad city (Sindh province). The total (N=90) girls students were selected to evaluate the class-room administration performa-nce of their female directress sports.

Data collection tools: The tools utilized were self-administered coaching techniques evaluation questions which comprises (25) statements and the data was gathered throughout surveys; interviews and discussion. Analysis of data: The data was analyzed by utilizing a statistical technique known as SPSS (statis-tical packages for social sciences).


5

Results

Table-1 Coaching techniques evaluation questionnaires (CTEQ) for college

students of (BA part I-II %) N=90.

TEACHING SKILLS AND CONTENT KNOWLEDGE STATEMENTS

Teaching skills and content knowledge statements %

1 Capability to teach the games easily. 20 12 17.7 13.3 37

2 Use a variety of teaching methods. 20 14 20 13.3 32

3 Plan a meaningful and creative lesson. 21.1 12 17.7 15.5 33

4 Provide easy and clear instruction to you. 24.4 12 16.6 12.2 34

5 Utilize resources to strengthen the physical education subject.

24.4 13 18.8 15.5 28

6 Understand your knowledge, skills abilities and talent to participate.

18.8 17 15.5 16.6 32

7 Assess your progress and provides you helpful feedback.

18.8 13 18.8 18.8 30

8 Provide opportunities to re-learn the activities.

25.5 12 14.4 13.3 34

Source: Self Survey-2016-2017. Table-1 Showing the details regarding the (CTEQ) Questionnaires for college students of (B.A Part I-II) about the teaching skills and content knowledge statements.

Most subjects were strongly agreed to the statement that they possess capability to teach the games easily.

Mostly subjects were neither agree/nor disagreed to the statement that they utilize resources to strengthen the physical education subject and assess your progress and provides you helpful feedback. Majority of subjects were strongly disagreed to the statement that they provide opportunities to re-learn the activities.


6

Discussion:

This study was design to eva-luate classroom administration performance of female directress sports working in Govt, Girls, Degree, Colleges of Hyderabad city Sindh. In this study it was try to investigate that whether the classroom administration pe-rformance of female directress sports has any positive/negative association. A positive relation-ship was established among Q.1, that they possess capability to in-struct the games easily. It means that more experienced and qua-lified female directress sports have demonstrated good perfor-mance as compared to less quali-fied and lack knowledgeable female directress sports. Q.2, Us-es a variety of teaching methods was positively associated with qualification of female directress sports, it illustrated that high ex-perienced (M.Sc/MPHEd) fem-ale directress sports have demo-nstrate better as compared to low experienced (SDPE/BPHEd) fe-male directress sports. A positive relationship was established am-ong Q.3, that they plan a signifi-cant and creative lesson. The significant relationship was esta-blished among Q.4, Provide easy

and clear instruction to you. No significant relationship was esta-blished among Q.5, using resou-rces to strengthen the physical education subject. A negative rel-ationship was established among Q.7, Assess your progress and provides you helpful feedback with qualification and experience of female directress sports, which means that low qualified and less experienced female directress sp-orts haven’t demonstrated best performance as compared to more qualified and experienced female directress sports, and No, significant relationship was esta-blished among Q.6, Understand your knowledge, skills abilities and talent to participate and The negative relationship was estab-lished among Q.8 Provide oppor-tunities to re-learn the activities it means that low qualified and less experienced female directress sp-orts haven’t demonstrated finest performance because they could not using resources to strengthen the physical education subject and assess students progress and they could not providing them opportunities to re-learn the acti-vities while the more qualified and more experienced female di-rectress sports showing better performance and providing opp-


7

ortunities to students to re-learn activities.

Generally the Classroom ad-ministration Performance was optimistically associated with knowledge and qualification of female directress sports. This means that the experienced and high qualified female directress sports have demonstrated an enhanced Classroom administr-ation Performance as compared to less experienced and lack com-petent female directress sports. A strong positive relationship have established among the tutor doc-umentation (qualification), train-ing, knowledge and learners’ accomplishment (Annual Report of the Florida Department of Education 2004). In addition it was also found that the tutors who possess less knowledge and they were non-certified may de-monstrated negative result on success of pupils’ (Darling-Ham-mond, 2000).

The result illustrated that the highly experienced (MSc / MPH-Ed) (FDS) illustrate best class-room administration performa-nce as compared to less qualified individuals for the reason that they possess improved/extrem-ely well qualifications. The lear-ners are involved in a range of

activities jointly with the class work or educational activities during the Master level degrees in Pakistan and while the pupils have to fulfill their thesis work on any one of the topics assoc-iated to Physical Education field; so they may also be busy to make the initial report, in seminars, de-bate, modern games, finding new projects, umpiring, refreshing, referring of coaching courses / programs and in first aid activi-ties and understand how to con-trol the classroom condition. It is often observed that the pupils who are involved in these activi-ties may also secure high/pass-ing scores in the above-stated ac-tivities. Hence, the highly quali-fied (MSc/MPHEd) (FDS) female directress sports are in a position to demonstrate best performance in Classroom administration per-formance as compared to low qualified (SDPE/BPHEd) female directress sports. As discussed above, those students who attai-ned the lectures during the Master of Science (MSc/MPHEd) in Physical Education classes are well prepared for teaching. They have been trained as to how to deal and manage in the class-room situation. This study demo-nstrates that classroom adminis-


8

tration performance of female di-rectress sports was optimistically associated with qualifications of female directress sports. It meant that experienced and more quali-fied (MSc/MPHEd) female direc-tress sports have demonstrated best performance in Classroom administration performance as compared to less experienced fe-male directress sports. The study further illustrated that female di-rectress sports have demonstra-ted improved performance in the area of Classroom administration. CONCLUSION:

This study was design to find

out that the classroom adminis-tration performance of female di-rectress sports have any positive /negative association with quali-fication. The current study indic-ates that the Classroom adminis-tration Performance was posi-tively related with qualification of female directress sports. It me-ans that more experienced and high qualified female directress sports have shown better perfo-rmance as compared to low exp-erienced and less qualified fe-male directress sports.

References

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BernabeÂ B, Campos-Izquierdo A, Go-nzaÂlez MD.(2016). Job satisfaction of sport and physical activity ins-tructors in Spain according to ge-nder and age. South African Journal for Research in Sport, Physical ed-ucation and Recreation. 2016;38 (1):1±12.

Chek, S.A., & Pandey, U. (2016). Atti-tude of students towards physical education in relation to their pare-ntal encouragement. Journal of Phy-sical Education

Corbin C. B., Welk G. J., Lindsey R and Corbin W R (2004). Concepts of Fit-ness andWellness a Comprehen-sive LifestyleApproach.5Pndp Edi-tion, Mc Graw Hill, pp.223.

Darling-Hammond L (2000). Reforming Teacher Preparation and Licensing: Debating the Evidence. Tea: Coll: Rec: 102910: 28-56.

Edwards C (1994). Learning and control in the classroom J. of Inst. Psy., 21(4): 340-346.

Edwards, H. C. (2004). Classroom Disci-plineand Management.4Pndp Edi-tion John Wiley & Sons, Inc , pp.373

Evaluation of Student Teaching Final Report Form.Department of Kine-siology Towson University Mary-land 21252, Online available HTU http://www.towson.edu/~parr/fnlevl.htmlUTH. Accessed on March, 2007


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Greenwald R, Hedges L and Laine R (1996).The effect of school reso-urces on student achievement.Rev. of Edu. Res., 66(3): 361-396.

Gomal University Dera Ismail Khan, North West Frontier Province, Pak-istan.Gomal University (2006) Pros-pectus 2006-07.Gomal University Dera Ismail Khan, North West Frontier Province, Pakistan.

Hall S C (2007).Responsible Classroom Management Building a Democratic Learning Community.Available at HTUhttp://www3.uakron.edu/education/safescho ols/CLASS/class. htmlUTH Retrieved on Oct: 25, 2007.

Hanushek E (1986). The economics of schooling: Production and efficien-cy in public schools. J. Eco. Lit., 24(3): 1141-1178.

J.E. Rink, “Teaching physical education for learning”, (6th ed.), New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2010.

Keating X D, Silverman S (2004). Phys-ical Education Teacher Attitudes Toward Fitness Scale: Development and Validation. J. Tea. Phy. Edu., 2:32.

Khan et al., Gomal University Journal of Research, 24: 90-96 (2008).

Kulinna P H, Silverman S (1999). The development and validation of sco-res on a measure of teacher attitu-des toward teaching physical activity and fitness.Edu.and Psy. Measur.,59: 507-517.

Louis C, Lawrence M (1986). Research Methods in Education (2PndP Edi-tion) CroomHeln Ltd; Provident House, Burrell Row, Beckenham, Kent BR3 1AT, pp.323 Nasr A R, Edward B and Max G (1994).

Relationship between Lecturers' Attit-ude toward Effective Teaching and their Teaching Performance.Facu-lty of Education, University of Wol-longong, Education, University of Wollongong, Australia, pp.45-48.

Taylor B W (1987). Classroom Discip-line. Dayton, OH: Souther Hills Pr-ess, pp.101-107The Annual Report to the Florida Department of Educ-ation (2004). TheRelationship betw-een Teacher Qualificationand Qua-lity Educational Programs.Chapter 5, pp.18.

The Annual Report to the Florida Department of Education (2004). TheRelationship between Teacher Qualificationand Quality Educa-tional Programs.Chapter 5, pp.18

Wachtel H K (1998). Students Evalua-tion of College Teaching Effective-ness: A Brief Review. Ass. & Eval. inHig. Edu., 23(2): 191-212 Wikip-edia free encychlopidia (2007"HTU http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classroom_managementUTH" Retrievedon Oct: 25,2007.

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Yaylac, F. (2012).Quality development problem in physical education cou-rse. Bilimve Aklın Aydınlığında Eğitim, 13(147), 23-28.

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https://www.research/

THE IMPACTS OF CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES ON PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH OF SECONDARY

SCHOOL STUDENTS IN FATA

Dr. Yasmeen Iqbal, Dr. Soniha Aslam and Muhammad Ashfaq

ABSTRACT

The study was aimed to analyze the relationship of co-curricular activities with students’ physical and mental health of Male Secondary School students of FATA. A sample size of 200 respondents was selected on the basis of random sampling technique. A questionnaire of five points Likert Scale after seeking due permission from Principals and Head Masters was used to reach to the in-depth of the phenomena. Statistical techniques Mean, Percentage and Standard Deviation were run to analyze the collected data. The researcher analyzed the relationship between co-curricular involvement and its positive impacts on students’ health performances. Finally it was determined that co-curricular activities have a long-lasting connection with physical and mental health of secondary schools students.

Key Words: Co-curricular activities, Students health.

INTRODUCTION

Co-curricular activities are not only important for educa-tion but also noteworthy for the total change of behavior of the child. Co-curricular activities play energetic role in the gene-ral development of mental, em-otional and psychomotor atm-osphere of the child. It makes the child daring and bold to transmit out several roles of the society.

Co-curricular involvement involves non-educational expe-rience sponsor, sanctioned, or support by the college or unive-rsity. Those experiences inclu-de, but are not restricted to, in-

volvement in student organiza-tions, intramurals, intercollegi-ate athletics, student governm-ent, leadership programs, and community service programs (Evans, Forneyand Guido-Di Brito, 1998).

Effects of Co-curricular Activi-ties and Human Health

Through involvement in Ga-me’s we can develop our fitness and stopping and handling un-like sicknesses. Bodily asset can lessen a person’s danger of heart-correlated death. Accord-ing to the report of U.S Physi-cian Common 1996, cardiac health pay back happen at practical levels of bodily action


13

and upsurge at developed ran-ks of bodily movement and ca-pability. Persons who take part in common bodily movement are at much less danger of sor-row a prime coronary occasion such as a heart attack. WHO, “1995)”Likewise, persons with well-known heart infection can reduction their danger of harm-ful results by over 60% by attr-active part in normal bodily action (US Surgeon General, 1987).

Those persons who select to involve systematic, reliable in bodily action, how increase var-iation of fitness attractive wel-fares, organized with reducing the opportunity of rising heart infection, dissimilar classes of cancer, diabetes, and hit (Miller, Ogletree and Welshimer, 2002). Bodily activity grows wide-ran-ging delivery, upsurges blood movement to the head, improve atmosphere, induce a restful outcome after exercise, and per-haps develop completion (Ta-ras, 2005). The second of the two sets of welfares is mostly noteworthy in behavior in not-ice tasks in forward facing of today’s college students.

According to Moskal, Dziu-ban and West (1996) indicated

that on the schoolboys ‘theore-tical act, fitness difficulties such as heart disease, cancers and even sugar having important role. Collins, et al. (1997) found that bodily action better quality bodily, intellectual, and sensi-tive aptitude of the members. Crews and Landers (1987), vie-ws about bodily action concen-trated together with bodily ten-sion and self-perceived spiritual burden. Aerobically healthy themes have shown to shorte-ned mental tension when linked to an unnatural regulator coll-ection (Crews & Landers, 1987). Healthy People (2010) by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2000) displa-yed that corporeal action boos-ted vascular well being. Co-Curricular Activities Stop-ping and Treatment Diabetes

Billion of persons in the wo-rld are facing in diabetes. It is expected in 2005 that 1.1 million persons expired from sugar. Around 80% of these decreases happened in little states and virtually partial complicated persons minor than 70 years of age. Ten nations witch packed peak ranks of diabetes, 7 of them are small- and middle-

The impacts of co-curricular activities

14

income nations. New investiga-tion displays that both aerobic and struggle (strength) workout are associated with a bargain danger of category 2 diabetes, which effects a likely 5.9% of the world’s grownup populace. (Gholson, 1985).

Workout supports to overa-wed the accidental of increasing the illness among publics at gr-eat hazard due to be load. Wor-kout participation also support and accomplish diabetes by cal-ming plasma sugar levels; still this caring effect is more visible for those with type 1 sugar. While both aerobic and struggle exercise support to device su-gar, struggle exercise delivers larger profits for plasma sugar device than aerobic exercise. Co-Curricular Activities Stop-ping Cancer

The World Health Organiza-tion in 2005estimatenearly that 7.6 million person expired fr-om cancer worldwide, with 70% of these decreases happen-ing in under developed coun-tries. It is probable that 40% of all cancers can be prohibited by a suitable food, bodily action, and not using tobacco. Bodily laziness is a unlike hazards pact

while unchanging bodily action can support drop the hazard of clear types of cancer such as breast and large intestines part cancer. Co-Curricular Activities Stop-ping Fatness and Dropping Accompanying Health Risks

In 2005, it was estimated that 400 million persons in the world were weighty and expec-ted to be growing700 million in 2015. This leaning is generally due to a change in food and sid-estep bodily workout. Common reasons, such as partial contact to much nourishing foods and an motionless routine, make addressing size mostly puzzl-ing (Campos, 2004), Yet, the be-yond decision supports the be-neficial belongings of an ener-getic routine in persons who then might be at moderately difficult hazard for prolonged illnesses due to heavy body.

The health, bodily, commu-nal, sensitive and mental re-wards of include in bodily ac-tion have been well known in present years (Fulton et al., 2004; Riddoch, 1998; Riddick and Bore ham, 2000; Strong et al., 2005). At the same time pub-lic health has been of growing


15

fear to the Westminster Admin-istration and transferred mana-gements (Health Education Au-thority (HEA, 1998). In actual, heaviness has been familiar as one of the supreme wellbeing tasks in the 21st century (WHO, 2007).

The happening of heaviness has enlarged in many republics since 1980 with a chiefly up set-ting upsurge along with kids (WHO, 2007). In Wales the Welsh Health search found that over partial of males (62%) and females (53%) were categorized as over heavy (Welsh Assembly Government (WAG, 2008a). Next to this, Welsh school fami-lies have been found to be amo-ngst the mostly weighty and have the peak levels of heavin-ess in Europe and North Ame-rica, with 20% teenagers noted as being weighty (WHO, 2006). Aarnio et al concluded result, and show that physical activity when young may affect on cor-poreal actions tags late in life (Aarnio et al., 2002; Kjønnisken et al., 2009; Kjønnisken et al., 2008; Telama et al., 1996).

The etiology of countless ill nesses such as heart disease cr-eates throughout youthful (Rid-doch, et al., 2005) and children with lower stages of corporeal

action are more probable to pr-ogress upper hazard aspects of CHD, hence the importance of launch incorporeal action beha-viors in youthful (Riddoch et al., 2005). Some studies have also showed that appointment in consistent corporal action has caused in lower blood pressure senses and sudden fatness (An-dersen & Jackie, 2003).

Typical bodily movement has been linked with much emo-tive welfare such as a develo-pment in self-respect (Fox, 1988) and self-awareness, and a dec-line in stress, nervousness and hopelessness (Hassmen et al., 2000; Svoboda, 1994). Besides, Gill et al. (1983) newcomer that enjoyable and pleasure were the notable details for fresh persons partaking in game and corporal action. Bestowing aim to out-come in studies like these is mostly inspiring, and some of them deficiency energetic ever-yday suggestion to settle hyp-othetical instructions. But, there is joint traditionalism that there are many well-being rewards, which can be accomplished from energetic commitment in sport and corporal movement.

Furthermore, game and cor-poral movement can affect abs-


16

olutely on apathetic schoolboys through a growth in ability and achievement (Sandford et al., 2004). In some time physical activity planned have resulted in small developments in some students company, show and attitude in institute for the period of curricular time (Loug-hborough Partnership / Insti-tute of Youth Sport (Sandford et al., 2004). When more time was to be rewarded for corporal mo-vement in institutes, minor dev-elopment in learning concert were also found (Sallis& Owen, 1999). On the other hand, the communication and rewards te-stified have been rationally mi-nor, which in turn go over the complication of declaring conn-ection with guarantee.

Corporal teaching undevel-oped persons with a full change of dissimilar sorts of corporal movement; yet obviously it re-mains to be controlled by vio-lent team games (Harris &Cale, 1997), which are often femini-nity labeled (Smith et al., 2007a). In current eras, there has been a change of position to more ex-pectable and rest actions so lo-ng asduring physical educat-ion, regularly at Key Step 4 for 14-16 year-olds(Green et al.,

2005; Roberts, 1996; Smith et al., 2007).

Co-Curricular Activities Imp-roving Bone Health

The weakening of bone ma-tter foremost to defeat of bone form and a higher threat of bo-ne breaks. Females are at progr-essive threat for weakness and softness of bones than males. The overall generation threat of bone break in 50-year-old fem-ale is 40%, parallel to the haz-ard of coronary heart illness. In 1990, 1.7 million persons world wide hip break. Corporal mov-ement, in mixture with calcium and vitamin D, helps build bone form. Bodily action boosts strength on bones and bones act in reply by growing their fore most that the power is spread over a higher range. Corporal action has a supportive outc-ome on bone well-being cro-ssways the age range; still this ou-tcome is greatest in earlier quiet persons. Weight-bearing workout, frequently disappro-val workout, is the greatest valu-able method of corporal action for accomplishing this result (Warburton, 2002). Nor-mal corporal action is also an operative minor difficult idea.


17

Study show that workout train-ing is co-operative in improving bone thickness in older females (75–85 years) with low bone mineral thickness and reducing the frequency of bone loss in before time in females. Cor-poral movement also enables to get heal their stability and ass-ociation. Many scholar have originate that workout particu-larly drops the hazard and qua-ntity of reductions.

Co-Curricular Activities Prev-enting the Spread of HIV and AIDS

Answering the range and effect of HIV and AIDS has bec-ome a noteworthy center of care of the game for Growth progra-mmed in global. By involving people living with HIV and AIDS in sport-based anticipa-tion proposals, sport for health programs are facilitating to dec-rease HIV-related shame and taste. Sport-based proposals can also show a wider task in refi-ning the health of those persons how distress with HIV and AIDS. Numerous works evalua-tions on workout and HIV germ below taken before the outline of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), found work

out to be cooperative. The ana-lyses initiate that engaging in bodily action three or more ti-mes per week is related with re-laxed growth of AIDS. An opp-osed link between virus-related weight and corporeal movem-ent level has also been shown. Study also shows that broad-minded struggle workout or a combination of advanced strug-gle workout and aerobic exer-cise appear to be protected and may be supportive for grown person breathing with HIV and AIDS (O’Brien et al., 2004).Rel-ationships between game and mental well-being Exercise and by addition game have long be-en known to make esteemed special effects on intellectual health, increase self-reliance, help to accomplish stress and nervousness, and lessen sadness. Impacts of Co-Curricular Acti-vities on Mental Health

The function of corporal act-ion as a satisfying treatment for nervous tension and worry has probable significant self exami-nation care in current years. The thoughts of tension and worry are frequently used int-erchangeably in workout study works. The belief of nervous


18

tension however places more prominence on the role of the atmosphere in producing biolo-gical awakening and suscep-tible suffering. Systematic bod-ily movement has been conne-cted with many sensitive in-come such as an improvement in self-assurance (Fox, 1988) and afall in shock, anxiety and sadness (Hassmenet al., 2000; Svoboda, 1994). Booth (2008), Ikagami (2000), Johnson and Coffer (2004), point out that partaking in co-curricular and extra-curricular facilitated in dropping the nervousness level of the contestants. Co-curricular activities play a significant role in the student’s life. The schools follow a best of program in wh-ich physical training and yoga are an element of the regular timetable. Athletics are playing an important role for the tra-ining of the child physically as well as mentally. Progress of sportsmanship and joint effort brings out a brilliant persona-lity improvement in every child (Anjali David 2011). Co-curricu-lar activities provide a huge int-ention in the academic, social, physical and mental improve-ment of children and every child should have the chance to

take part in any case one acti-vity that ensembles his or her personality and interests. These activities however should be intended toward civilizing their improvement and should eng-age some mental and/or physi-ccal ability (Kimoko Fujita, 2005).

Co-curricular activities esta-blish plans to encourage phys-ical suitability in students guide them in games facilitate them realize rules and plan in play-ing and coach them to work as a group. A very energetic aspe-ct in co-curricular activities is to build up interpersonal abilities in children. Sports aim at mak-ing them team members, incr-easing sportsman strength in them and increasing their bloo-dthirsty spirit. Games that form a component of physical educa-tion classes facilitates the stude-nts spend time in creative and spirited activities. Deliberate to indoctrinate in the minds of stu-dents, the significance of pers-onal sanitation and purity. Co-curricular activities training develop the student’s tendency of personal purity and the significance of the maintenance of personal sanitation in life. They are also applied to instr-uct sex-educa-tion to students,


19

facilitate them simplify their hesitations and find respond to all the questions that occur to them. Games, which are a com-ponent of co-curricular activi-ties help in increasing motor ta-lents in children. The capability to hold a rumpus or a flutter the capability to take a ball and the capability to roll a flutter are some examples of the motor talent that can build up with the help of games. The physical activity absorbed to facilitates students in bringing regulation to body position and body movements. Objectives of the Study Following were the main obje-ctives of the study.

1. To evaluate impacts of co-curricular activities on seco-ndary school students’ ove-rall performances.

2. To investigate prevalence and motivation towards co-curricular activities among secondary school students.

3. To determine awareness among secondary school st-udents about importance of co-curricular activities.

Hypotheses of the Study: 1. Co-curricular activities have

positive impact on overall

performances of secondary school students.

2. Students are reluctant to pa-rticipate in co-curricular act-ivities due to unavoidable circumstances of Frontier Region Kohat.

3. Students have less knowle-dge about importance of co-curricular activities.

METHODOLOGY: The collected data classified

and tabulated through SPSS (Statistical packages of social sciences version15), t-test and central tendency were used. While testing research prepos-ition basic statistical method along with statistical technique were applied for initial and secondary data. For quick ana-lysis graph, multiple bar and diagram were used to facilitate the study. A self-Administrat-ed questionnaire was designed to achieve the research objec-tives. The questionnaire was co-mposed of 15 items which were rated on five point Likert scales i.e., “Strongly Disagree” “Parti-ally disagree” “Neither Agree Nor Disagree”, Partially Agr-ee”. “Strongly Agree”. Population of the Study:

All the students studying at secondary level in different Go-


20

vernment and Public High Sch-ools of Frontier Region of Kohat organized population of the study.

Sample of the study: Sample of the study were

200 students from different hi-gh schools for boys of Frontier Region Kohat.

Sr. No

Name of School Populati

on Sample

Size

1 GHS Bosti khel FR Kohat

167 20

2 GHS sheraki khel FR Kohat

183 20

3 GHS Sheen Dand khel FR Kohat

159 20

4 GHS Turkey Ismaeel khel FR Kohat

175 20

5 GHS Zarghon khel FR Kohat

198 20

6 GHS Ara khel FR Kohat 180 20

7 Oxford public School FR Koht

176 20

8 Al Noor public School FR Kohat

169 20

9 Comprehensive public School FR Kohat

171 20

10 The City public School FR Kohat

153 20

11 Grand Total 1731 200

Tools for Data Collection: A total of 200 questionnaires

were administered to respond-ents. 200 usable questionnaires were returned. Total response rate was 100%. The reason for high response rate was that the researcher where possible him-self administered the question-naire.

The data was divided into two phases. In first phase data was collected from100 student

through comprehensive quest-ionnaire of five points liket sc-ale after seeking due permiss-ion from Principals and Head Masters. Thus in second phase, data was collected from further 100 students.

Data Analysis: Descriptive statistics such as

central tendency measurement of dispersion mean percentage and standard deviation were utilized to describe the data. Questionnaire were rated of five point likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to stro-ngly agree.

The collected data were su-mmarized and analyzed using descriptive and inferential sta-tistics. Descriptive statistics i.e., percentage, mean, standard de-viation were applied. Inferen-tial statistics i.e., t-test was ap-plied to investigate the differ-ence between the 9th grade stu-dents and 10th grade students. To establish association associ-ate self-regulating model of t-test was used for all the assum- ptions. The important value of 0.05 was dignified as self-regu-lating variable. Participants’ Re-sponses to the Statements Rega-rding Co-curricular Activities.


21

Table: 1 Co-curricular Activity Maintain Physical Fitness

o. of Respondents

(n) SDA PDA NAND PA SA Mod

Std: Dev

200 Frequency 0 7 3 82 108

5 0.70 Percentage 0 4 2 41 54

Source: Self-Survey-2014-15

Table: 1 shows that 54 % students strongly agreed that Co-curricular activities maintain physical fitness while 41% partially agreed 4% students partially disagreed and 2% neither agreed nor disagreed.

Table: 2

Co-curricular activities maintain physical fitness.

Class N Mean Std. Dev:

T Df Sig. (2-tailed)

Mean Diff.

Std. Err. Diff.

9th Class 100 4.45 .757 -.10 198 .920 -.010 .099

10th Class 100 4.46 .642

Table: 2 Depicts that the calculated value of t was found to be -0.10 which is statistically non-significant (p>0.05) because it is less than the table value of t at 0.05 level of confidence. The results of statistical analysis shows that both students of 9th (mean=4.45, SD= 0.757) and 10th (mean=4.46, SD=0.642) classes strongly agreed that co-curricular activities maintain physical fitness.


22

Figure: 1 Co-curricular activities maintain physical fitness.

0

7

3

82

108

5

0.70

42

41

54

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

StronglyDisagree

PartiallyDisagree

NeigherAgreeNor

Disagree

PartiallyAgree

StronglyAgree

Mod Std: Dev

No. of Respondents (n) 200

Frequency

Percentage


23

Table: 3 Co- curricular activities refreshes the burdened mind.

No. of Respondents

(n) SDA PDA NAND PA SA

Mod

Std: Dev

200 Frequency 0 10 3 81 106

5 0.76 Percentage 0 5 2 41 53

Table-3 Illustrates that 53 % students strongly agreed that co- curricular activities refreshes the burdened mind while 41% partially agreed 5% students partially disagreed and 2% neither agreed nor disagreed.

Table-4 Co- curricular activities refresh the burdened mind.

Class N Mean Std. Dev:

T df Sig. (2-

tailed)

Mean Diff.

Std. Err.

Diff.

9th Class

100 4.44 .756 .47 198 .642 .050 .108

10th Class

100 4.39 .764

Table: 4 Indicates that the calculated value of t was found to be 0.47 which is statistically non-significant (p>0.05) because it is less than the table value of t at 0.05 level of confidence. The results of descriptive and inferential analysis shows that both students of 9th (mean=4.44, SD= 0.756) and 10th (mean=4.39, SD=0.764) classes strongly agreed that Co- curricular activities refreshes the burdened mind.


24

Figure: 2 Co- curricular activities refreshes the burdened mind.

0

10

3

81

106

5

0.760

52

41

53

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

StronglyDisagree

PartiallyDisagree

NeigherAgreeNor

Disagree

PartiallyAgree

StronglyAgree

Mod Std: Dev

No. of Respondents (n) 200

Frequency

Percentage


25

Conclusions Based on statistical analysis

and findings, it was come to light that co-curricular activities play a crucial role in the develo-pment of balanced personality. Co-curricular activities are dire-ctly proportional with physical and mental health. It was det-ermined that co-curricular acti-vities keep bodily fitness and refresh burdened mind. Recommendation and Sugges-tions

In light of the conclusions of our study the following recom-mendations were made: 1. The government should up-

surge school funding and al-lot a specific amount for ea-ch co-curricular activity.

2. School should deliver accu-rate periods for such events in their time tables.

3. There would be qualified co-aches for these events and coaches tasked to run these events should have broade-ned formation almost such activities.

4. Safety must be provided for participants and teachers.Sports day may be celebra-ted every year.

5. Print and electronic media may be involved in bringing awar-eness among masses concerning co-curricular activities.

6. The researcher also suggests similar research preposition to be carry out through Fro-ntier Region Kohat to create more comprehensive pictures of co-curricular activities.

7. They may also include teachers and parents as respondents.

8. The future researcher also suggested comparing acad-emic records and co-curric-ular activities of the students.

References

Aarino, M., Winter, T., Peltonen, J., Kujala, U. M. andKaprio, J. (2002). Stability of leisure–time physical activity during adolescence - a longitudinal study among 16-, 17- and 18- year-old Finnish youth, Scandinavian. Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 12, 179-185.

Anjali D. (2011).Importance of Extra

and Co-curricular activities in school.

Collins, J. R., Valerius, L., King, T. C.,

& Graham, A. P. (1997).The relati-on ship between college students' self-esteem and the frequency and importance of their participation in recreational activ-ities.NIRSA Journal, 25(2), 38-47.


26

Evans, N., Forney, D., & Guido-DiBrito, F. (1998). Student devel-opment in college:

Fox, K. (1988) The child's perspective in physical education Part-5: The Psychological Dimension in Phy-sical Education. British Journal of Physical Education, 19(1), 34-38.

Gholson, R. E. (1985). Student achieve-ment and co-curricularparticipa-tion.NASSPBulletin, 69 (483), 17-20.4 Giannini, “Physical Exercise.”

Hassmen, P., Koivula, N. &Uutela, A. (2000) Physical exercise and psy-chological well-being; a popula-tion study in Finland, Preventative Medicine, 30(1), 17-25.

Johnson, W.R. and Confer C.N. (2004)."Personality dynamics: Psyc-hologicalimplications. "In W. R. Johnson and E. R. Buskirt (ed.) Sc-ience and Medicine of Exercise and Sport.New York: Horper and Row.

Fujita, K. (2005).The Effects of Extra-curricular Activities on the acad-emicPerformance of junior high students.

Miller, K. H., Ogle tree, R. J., &Welsh-imer, K. (2002).Impact of activity behaviors onphysical activity ide-ntity and self-efficacy. American Journal of Health Behavior, 26(5), 323-330.

Moskal, P. D., Dziuban, C. D., & West, G. B. (1996, April 8-12). Scaling health risk behaviors of college students. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York, NY.

O’Brien, E. and Rollefson, M. (1995). Extracurricular participation and student engagement.National Cen-ter for Educational Statistics. Retrie-ved from:

Riddoch, C. &Boreham, C. (2000) Phy-sical activity physical fitness and children’shealth:current conce-pts.In N. Armstrong & W. Van-Mechelen (eds) Pediatric Exercise Science and Medicine, Oxford, Oxford University Press, pp. 243-252

Sallis, J. & Owen, N. (1999) Physical Activity and Behavioural Medic-ine, ThousandOaks, CA Sage.297

Sandford, R. A., Armour, K. M. & Bowyer, S. (2004) It might be fas-hionable but does it work?, Phy-sical activity, behaviour manage-ment and impact Paper presented at the British Educational Resea-rch Association Annual Confere-nce,ManchesterUniversity, Sept-ember, 2004.

Smith, D. (1988).Femininity as disco-urse. In L. Roman & L. Christian-Smith (eds) BecomingFeminine: The Politics of Popular Culture, London, Falmer, pp.37-59.

Svoboda, B. (1994) Sport and Physical Activity as a Socialization Enviro-nment,Scientific Review part-1,Stasbourg, Council of Europe.

Taras, H. (2005). Physical activity and student performance at school. Journal of School Health, 75(6), 214-218


27

U.S. Department of Health and Hu-man Services.(2000, November). Healthy People 2010: Understan-ding and Improving Health. Wa-shington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office.

US Surgeon General, Physical Activity

and Health:A Report of the Surgeon General(Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services, 1996)

Winston, B., Bonney, W., Miller, T.,

&Dagley,J.(2008).Promoting stu-dentdevelopment.Through inte-ntionally structured groups. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Zeidner

World Health Organization, Health and Development Through Physical Activity and Sport (Geneva, 2003) at 1, online: WHO,<http://whqli bdoc.who.int/hq/2003/WHO_NMH_NPH_PAH_03.2.pdf>. [WH O, Physical Activity].

Warburton, “Health Benefits” at 801-

809. at 87, online: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, <http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/sgr/sgr.htm>.[US Surgeon Gene-ral, AReport].Warburton, “Hea-lth Benefits” at 801-809. (2002)

http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/sgr/sgr.htm

http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/sgr/sgr.htm

PREVALENCE OF ANEMIA IN CHILDREN 6 TO 59 MONTHS OF AGE IN GADAREF STATE,

SUDAN -2013

Dr. Mohmoud Mohammed Ahmed and Prof. Elsadig yousif Elbadawi

ABSTRACT

Background: Anemia is a condition characterized by reduction in thevolume of red blood cells and a decrease in the blood concentration of haemoglobin (less than 11gm/dl). Haemoglobin is a main part of red blood cells and binds oxygen. This can lead to range of adverse symptoms. The most common cause of anemia worldwide is an iron deficiency. This study attempted to estimate the prevalence of anemia among children 6 to 59 months of age in Gadaref State, and to determine the related factors, which include socio demographic factors and nutritional status of children. Patients and Methods: A total of 384 children 6 to 59 months of age wereincluded in this cross sectional (community based) study in Gadaref State. The data was collected by interviewing mothers through questionnaire, clinical examination, and blood examination. Data was analyzed by the computer using SPSS.version16. Chi-Square test was used for testing significance. P=0.05 or less was considered statistically significant. Results: Forty eight percent of children were anemic; there is a significantrelation between anemia and nutrition of children in this age. Malnutrition was related to anemia in the affected children; 35.1 % of anemic children had mild malnutrition, 23.8% and17.3% had moderate and severe malnutrition subsequently. Social factors related to anemia in children in Gadaref State are: family income, size of the family and mother education. Conclusion The prevalence of anemia in children 6 to 59 months of age InGadaref State is high. It is more frequent in the age group of 23 months to 59 months; females are affected more than males. There is an association between anemia and nutritional status of children.

Key Words: anemia, prevalence and risk factors.

INTRODUCTION

Anemia is a condition chara-cterized by reduction in the vo-lume of red blood cells and a decrease in the blood concen-tration of haemoglobin in the

blood. A reduction in the volu-me of red blood cells in the blood decreases the amount of oxygen reaching the tissues and organs of the body, causing a range of adverse symptoms.

Prevalence of Anemia in Children

13

(Brabin BJ, 2001). It continues to be a major public health problem worldwide. (World Health

Organization 2001). In preschool age children,

anemia is associated with high risk of death and impaired cog-nitive development, growth, and immune function. (Baker RD,

Greer FR, 2003) According to estimates from

the World Health Organization, two billion individuals suffer fr-om anemia in the world (World

Health Organization 2001). The highest prevalence of

anemia exists in the developing world where its causes are multi-fact-orial, ranging from micronutr-ient deficiencies such as iron, folate, vitamin B12 and to infec-tious diseases such as malaria and worm infestation Yip R, Ramakrishnan 2002) and

(Maramag CC,, 2010). In sub-Saharan Africa, 83.5 million children were anemic represen-ting two-thirds of all children.

In Sudan the prevalence of nutritional anemia in children less than 10 years of age is 63%

(Harm Omer El, 2009). In Gadaref Teaching Hospi-

tal: 877 cases were diagnosed as anemia in the pediatrics Hospi-tal in 2011, constituted 20% of

all admission. Sickle cell ane-mias were 286 cases. Reports revealed 30 deaths related to anemia in the same year. (Statistic

department in Gadarif, 20011) Iron deficiency is respons-

ible for about 50% of cases of anemia in young children and pregnant women in developing countries. (Maramag CC,, 2010).

Socio demographic factors which include (family size, fam-ily income, types of housing, fa-ther occupation and mother ed-ucation) have association with anemia in children.( World Health

Organization. The World Health Report 2005:).

Nutritional anemia is com-mon among families of low so-cio economic status. (World

Health Organization. The World

Health Report 2005). Altho-ugh this nutritional deficiency can affect all socioeconomic str-ata, anaemia is more prevalent among the underprivileged cla-sses.( Karen J.2011).

Anemia can be classified ba-sed on the size and haemog-lobin content of the cells to four types: 1. Hypochromic, microcytic:

The most common cause of this type is iron deficiency anemia and thalassemia; [11].


14

2. Normochromic, Normocy-tic: Chronic inflammatory diseases, infections, malign-ancy, marrow aplasia and chronic renal failure.

3. Macrocytic: includes vita-min B12 deficiency, folate deficiency, hypothyroid-i-sm, chronic liver disease, Down syndrome, marrow failure and alcohol. [11].

4. Hemolytic disorders: like Hemoglobinopathies and Auto Immune haemolytic anaemia. [12].

Patients and methods

1. Study design Cross sectional, community

based study.

2. Study area Gadaref State is located in

Eastern Sudan. It has an area of 75,263 km² and an estimated population of approximately 1,400,000. Gadaref City is the capital of the state. It includes 12 localities: Gadaref, Wasat Al-gadaref, Alfao, Albutana, Alra-had, Alfashaga, Algallabat Als-hargia and Algallabat Algarbia, Basonda, Gala Alnahal, Alma-faza and Algoreasha. [13].

3. Study population All children of 6 to 59

months of age from both sexes

in Gadaref state are included.

Inclusion criteria: Those who were resident in Gadaref and Wasat Algadaerflocality (55,326 children).

Exclusion criteria: All children who came from outside the area during thestudy as well as visitors from outside the area.

4. Sampling: Sample type and technique:

• Gadaref locality was selec-ted purposively due to its importance as a capital and because it is over populated and Wasat Al Gadaref loca-lity was selected by simple random sampling from the other 11 localities.

• The study area (all quarters and villages of Gadaref loca-lity and all villages of Wasat Al Gadaref locality) was in-cluded in the study. Sixteen clusters were taken by sim-ple random sampling.

• So according to the popul-ation size in each locality: 11 clusters were selected in Ga-daref locality and 5 clusters in Wasat Al Gadaref loca-lity. Every selected cluster represents one quarter or one village.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Qadarif


15

According to the geograph-ical directions, every cluster was divided to 4 sub clusters (North, South, East and West). From each sub cluster 6 child-ren were selected randomly fr-om 6 households by using sim-ple random sample. Random selection of one child has been used for households which involve more than one child of the age (6 to 59 months).

5. Sample size

According to the following formula, sample size was drawn:-

= z2pqd2

n = Sample size z = Standard normal deviate = 1.96 p=Proportion of the characteristic under study estimated in the target population = 0.63 q = 1-p = 0.37 d = Error allowed = 0.05 nr = non response rate taken as 0.07 Sample size =358 taken as 384. 6. Data collection:-

Variables:

Socio demographic factors: age, sex, residences, family me-mbers, family income, mother education and father occupa-tion.

Child nutrition: breast feed-

ing, exclusive breast feeding, number of meals and type of meals.

Z score (weight for height) Clinical examination of the child, Blood investigation (Hb concen-tration. gm/dl, type of anemia and sickling test) were done. 8. Tools of data collection

Questionnaire:

The children's mothers were interviewed through clo-sed ended questionnaires about the socio demographic factors which include: age, sex, resi-dence, family members, father occupation, family income, and mother education. Also they have been asked about child's nutrition, which included bre-ast-feeding, number and type of meals. (See the annex). Clinical examination:

By examining the general condition of the child and ass-essing nutritional status by us-ing weight for height according to WHO standard (after meas-uring weight and height). Three standard deviations were used (z-score). In this standard: nor-mal weight for height of the ch-ild is mention in the chart (ave-


16

rage). So if the child reading was less than one z-score that means it is mild wasting, less than second z-score means mo-derate and three z-score means severe wasting.

Assessment of Hematological level:

Hb estimation: • 2cc of blood were withdr-

awn from cephalic or medi-an cubital vein of every se-lected child into EDTA vac-utainer. Inverting five to six times immediately after drawing the blood gently mixed the tube. Then the tube was put in the Sysmex automated hematology ana-lyzer to give automatic re-sult of Hb, MCV, MCH and MCHC. Sickling test to detect sickle

cell anemia (HBS or HBAS) was done for all anemic children. This test was done by mixing 2 drops of blood with sodium metabisulfite (reducing agent) which induced sickling in susc-eptible cells. After twenty min-utes and through microscope: the normal RBCs morphology would not change (negative results), On the other hand abn-ormal RBCs morphology (cres-

centeric or pointed shape) ind-icated positive result. The cut-off point for anemia was these recommended by the WHO: 11.0g/dL for children 6-59 mo-nths of age. From these results: anemic children were classified to four types: microcytic hypoc-hromic as Iron deficiency (beca-use thalassemia had not been reported among Sudanese pe-ople), normocytic normochrom-ic, Sickle cell anemia and mac-rocytic (megaloblastic). [11].

9. Data analysis:

Data was analysed by the computerusingSPSS.Version-16.Descriptive statistics was us-ed to describe variables. Chi-square test was used for testing significance. P value= 0.05 or le-ss was considered statistically significant.

10. Ethical issues • Ethical clearance was obtai-

ned from Sudan Medical Sp-ecializations Board and the ethical committee of Gada-ref State Ministry of Health.

• Informed consent from all participants’ mothers was obtained.

• Privacy of data and informa-tion was considered in this research.


17

Results:

Table-1 Sociodemographic characteristics of anemic children (6 to 59)

months of age in Gadaref State, Sudan, 2013, (n =185).

Socio demographic characteristic Percent

Age 6 - 11 months 33 17.8

12 - 23 months 59 31.9 24 – 59 months 93 50.3

Gender Female 99 53.5 Male 86 46.5

Owning house status Own house 153 82.7

Rented house 32 17.3

Family members 2 to 3 24 13.0 4 to 5 74 40.0

more than 5 87 47.0

Father Occupation

Employee 65 35.2 Farmer 73 39.6

Merchant 24 13 Others 23 12.2

Family income Less than 300 SDGs 54 29.2

between 300 to 650 SDGs 80 43.2 more than 650 SDGs 51 27.6

Mother Education Illiterate 47 23.3

Basic school 90 48.6 Secondary school 48 28.1

Total 185 100%

From Table (1), regarding the socio demographic characteristics of anemic children that was statistically associated with anemia in this study: 50.3% of anemia occurred in the age 24 to 59 months, followed by 31.9% in the age 12 to 23 months and 17.8% in the age 6 to 11 months. 53.5% of anemic children were females and 82.7% live in their own houses. 47% of family members of anemic children were more than five, 40% were 4 to 5 individuals and 17% were 2 to 3individuals. Concerning father’s occupation of anemic children, 39.6% were farmers, 35.2% were employees and 13% were merchants. Regarding family income: 43.2% between 300 to 650 Sudanese pounds, 29.2% less than 300 Sudanese pounds and 27.6 more than 600 Sudanese pounds. The level of education of 48.6% of the mothers of anemic children was basic school, 28.1% secondary school and 23.3% were illiterates.


18

Table-2 Relation between anemia and nutrition in children (6 to 59)

months of age in Gadaref State, Sudan, 2013 (n=384).

Present Absent

No. % No. %

Breast feeding in Yes 114 41.9 158 58.1 272 (70.8%)

0.002 children 6 to 59 No 71 63.4 41 33.6 112 (29.2%)

months of age Total 185 66.9 199 33.1 384 (100%)

Exclusive breast Yes 79 44.9 97 55.1 176 (45.8%)

0.39 feeding in the first No 106 51.0 102 49 208 (54.2%)

6 months of life Total 185 100 199 100 384 (100%)

Number of meals

Less than 3 65 90.3 7 9.7 72 (18.8%)

0.000 3 – 5 117 41.2 131 52.8 248 (64.6%)

More than 5 3 4.7 61 95.3 64 (16.7%)

Total 185 100 199 100 384 (100%)

From Table (2), regarding breast feeding: 41.9% of childr-en on breast feeding were an-emic, while 63.4% of children who were not on breast feeding were anemic. Among the 176 children underwent exclusive breast feeding during the first 6 month of their life, 44.9% of them were anemic and 55.1% were notanemic. The results showed that 51% of children who didn't undergo exclusive breast feeding were anemic. Concerning number of daily meals, 90.7% of children who eat less than 3 meals per day were anemic, 42.2 of children who eat 3 to 5 meals were anemic and 4.7% of children who eat more than 5 meals were anemic.


19

Table-3 Relation between anemia and nutritional status of children

(6 to 59) months of age in Gadaref State, Sudan, 2013 (n=384).

Nutrition

Anemia

Total P value Present Absent

N0 % No %

Nutrition status Average 44 35.8 79 64.2 123 (32.1%)

0.003 (weight for height)

Mild wasting 65 53.7 56 46.3 121(31.5%) Moderate Wasting

44 50.0 44 50 88 (22.9%)

Sever wasting 32 61.5 20 38.5 52 (13.5%)

Total 185 100 199 100 384 (100%)

From Table (3), concerning nutritional status (weight for height), 35.8% of overall normal children in this study were anemic. 53.7% of mild malnourished, 50% of moderate malnourished and 61.5% of severe malnourished were anemic.

Table- 4 Types of meals in anemic children 6 to 59 months of age in

Gadaref State, Sudan, 2013 (n=185)

Types of meal Frequency Percent

Legumes 65 35.1

Biscuits and juice 55 29.7

Milk 16 8.6

Milk & porridge 10 5.4

Milk, porridge and meat 10 5.4

Eggs 9 5

Vegetables 7 3.8

Porridge 6 3.2

Others 7 3.8

Total 185 100%

From Table (4), Regarding types of daily meals in anemic children, legumes constitute 35.1%, biscuits and juice 29.7%, milk 8.6% and milk, meat and porridge (5.4%).


20

Figure-1 The prevalence of anemia in children (6 to 59) months of age in Gadaref State, Sudan,

2013 (n=384) It is obvious that the prevalence of anemia was high (48%). The mean HB level concentration of anemic children was 9.3 gm/dl. (SD+1.25).

Figure-2 Types of anemia in children 6 to 59 months of age in Gadaref

State, Sudan, 2013 (n=185)

With regard to types of anemia in this research, 41.6% of anemic children were classified as iron deficiency ane-mia, 37.8% as normocytic normoch-romic anemia, 17.9% as sickle cell ane-mia and only 2.7% as megaloblastic anemia.

Discussion:

The prevalence of anemia in this study is 48%. This result is similar to the WHO estimation of anemia in Africa, which esti-mated the prevalence of anemia among preschool children ran-ging from 47.5% to 67.6% [9]. Ac-cording to nutritional survey in Sudan, the rate of nutritionala-nemiain malnourished children was 63%. (Harm Omer El.2011).

In this research anemia was classified to four types: Micro-cytic hypochromic, Normocytic normochromic anemia, SCA and megaloblastic anemia. The differential diagnosis of microc-ytic, hypochromic anemia is ir-on deficiency anemia and thala-ssemia (which had not been reported in Sudan) (Harm Omer

El.2011). So IDA is more frequent among anemic children (41.6%) and this is similar to WHO stu-dies, which mentioned that 50% of cases of anemia are due to Iron deficiency. (World Health

Organization 2001).


21

Normocytic normochromic anemia represents 38.8%, which can be due to infections like mal-aria or due to chronic inflamma-tory disease.

Sickle cell anemia in this study was 17.9% of all cases. In 2011 the admission of SCA was about 30% of all admissions of anemic children. (Statistic

department in Gadarif, 2011). Megaloblasic anemia, which

is usually due to folic acid def-iciency or vitamin B12 defici-ency, is not common in Gedaref State (about 2.7% of anemic ch-ildren). This can be explained by that the majority (70%) of ch-ildren in this research under-went breast feeding which can give their body a sufficient storage of folic acid Statistic

department in Gadarif. IDA was more frequent in

infants (6 to 11 months of age), it represents 57.6% followed by 50.8% in the age (12 to23 mon-ths). This can explain deficiency of iron in children under 2 ye-ars, which represent the period of supplementary feeding with lactation. This result is nearly similar to findings of study in western Africa which showed that the prevalence of IDA in under 2 years old children is

45%.[( Stoltzfus RJ. 2005). Normocytic normochromic

anemia is common in the age 24 to59 months (45.2%), which can be due to malaria or other infe-ctions. In Sudan, 54.1% of pati-ents with malaria are anaemic (.Mohammed F2011).

No significance difference in prevalence of anemia in both sexes. However, it is a little bit more frequent in females (54%).

The majority of all children under the study live in their own family houses. So status of owning house has no impact on anemia in this study.

Establishment of nutritional deficiencies is linked to the po-pulation’s socioeconomic condi-tions. (Osório MM, 2004). Thus, the association found between la-rge family members (more than five), low family income and anemia among children in this research corporate other studies in Brazil and in other countries that have indicated that there is an inverse association between families’ purchasing power and the prevalence of anemia amo-ng children.

The association between mothers’schooling level and the care provided for children is important, given that education


22

has a relationship with the cap-acity to grasp the knowledge needed for adequate healthcare and nutrition for children, just it provides a chance to enter the labor market and probably bet-ter socioeconomic conditions.[17] The results from the present research reflect this relation-ship, through showing that 63% of anemic children’s mothers are illiterate or stopped learning in the primary school.

Concerning types of meals legumes and sweets constitute 65% of anemic children food, while 15 % of them depend on milk and meat. This can explain the nutritional (iron deficiency) anemia among these children.

There is a significant associ-ation between anemia and nu-trition in this research. Breast-feeding has a significant assoc-iation with HB concentration Also number of daily meals has strong association with anemia (P value 0.001). About third of anemic children eat less than 3 meals per day. So this can exp-lain their low HB. Weight for height has been used (Z score) to assess the nutritional status of children in this research. It revealed a significant associat-ion between anemia and maln-

utrition (P value 0.003). Mainly 23.8% are average weight for height. Otherwise, they range from mild (35.1%) to moderate (23.8%) and severe wasting (17.1%). In 2009 a nutritional survey was conducted in Su-dan, 63% of malnourished chil-dren was anemic (Harm Omer El

2004). A similar study was cond-ucted in Nigeria to determine the association between anemia and nutritional status of pres-chool children based on under weight and stunting (i.e. Wei-ght for age and Height for age, respectively). 36% of the anemic children were stunted, 18.3% wasted and 44.2% underweight. Underweight was the most pre-valent form of malnutrition, while the most severe form was stunting. [18],[19]. Conclusion:

The prevalence of anemia in Gadaref State is high. It is more frequent in the age group of 23 month to 59 months; females are affected more than males. The most common type of ane-mia is iron deficiency anemia.

The prevalence of Sickle cell anemia is high.

There is association between anemia and nutritional status ofchildren.


23

Social factors related to ane-mia in Gadaref State are: family income, size of the family and mother education. Recommendations:

Raise awareness of wom-en about child nutrition and the importance of regular nutriti-onal assessment of their chil-dren in PHC centers.

Increase awareness of the community and families about anemia in Gadaref State.

Strengthening of IMCI and school health programs in the state and improve family income.

Iron supplementation is ad-vised to be given to pregnant women and children. References

Brabin BJ, Premji Z, Verhoeff F, 2001.An analysis of anemia and child mortality. J Nutre 131 (2S-2):636S-645S.

World Health Organization: Iron De-ficiency Anemia: Assessment, Pre-vention and Control. World He-alth Organization, Geneva. 2001:167-190.

Baker RD, Greer FR. Diagnosis and

prevention of iron deficiency and iron-deficiency anemia in infants and young children (0-3 years of age). Pediatrics.2003; 126(5): 40-50.

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Volume 03, 2019 ISSN-2523-9368

Contributors

Hira Atta, Dr. Zafar Iqbal Butt, Chairman,Department of Physical Education & Sports Sciences, University of The Punjab,Lahore, Pakistan. Babar Kamil, P.hD.

Scholar and Mudassar Mushtaq have jointly written article tilted “A Comparison of coaching leadership behavior preferences between Male and Female Pakistani Intervarsity Level Basketball Players” Prof. Brij Bhushan Singh, Chairman, Department of Physical Education, Aligarah Muslim University, Aligarh, India, Shubi Mirja, and Samiya Husain have jointly written article tilted “Effect of Yoga on Cardiovascular Efficiency” Shamshad Akhtar, Chairman, Department of Geography, University of Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan and Muhammad Rafique Dhanani, Former Chairman, Department of Geography, University of Sindh, Jamshoro have jointly written article tilted “Global Warming and Climate Change and Sports” Shireen Bhatti, Lecturer, Department of Physical Education, Institute of Busniss Administration, Sukkur, Sindh, Pakistan and Syed Asim Hussain, Assistant Profess, Centre for Physical Education, Health & Sports Science, University of Sindh, Jamshoro, Pakistan have jointly written article titled “Self-Esteem Level in Urban Volleyball Players of Sindh, Pakistan” Toshaba Channa, Director Physical Education, Government Girls College Latifabad, Hyderabad and Dr. Shahzaman Khan, Assistant Professor Department of sports Sciences & Physical Education University of Lahore have jointly written article titled “The Correlation of classroom administration performance of Female Directress Sports with their qualification” Prof. Dr. Yasmeen Iqbal, Department of Sports Sciences & Physical Education University of Lahore, Prof. Dr. Soniha Aslam, Centre for Physical Education, Health & Sports Science, University of Sindh, Jamshoro and Muhammad Ashfaq, Director, Physical Education, Govt. Boys College, Boneer, have jointly written article titled “The impacts of co-curricular activities on physical and mental health of Secondary School Students in FATA” Dr. Mohmoud Mohammed Ahmed, Saudi Arab and Prof. Elsadig yousif Elbadawi, have jointly written article titled “Prevalence of anemia in children 6 to 59 months of age in Gadaref State, Sudan -2013”

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