Gunther Schuller: A Discussion of Third Stream Elements in His Compositions

Derek Volkmann Middle Tennessee State University

Spring 2017

Volkmann 1

American music of the 20th century has always represented a fusion of styles. Jazz music

in particular fused elements of Western art music with African slave traditions, and it was soon

established as an original American art form. Within this new music, composers like Duke

Ellington, Artie Shaw, and Paul Whiteman sought to expand jazz into something that was more

classical in nature, and these composers approached this new fusion of styles from a variety of

ways.1 Later on, other American composers like Gunther Schuller began to formalize this

approach into a genre distinct from classical and jazz called third stream. It is in this third

stream that Schuller fuses elements of jazz and classical music in an attempt to equally

represent both styles in his compositions, and his work has influenced the way composers and

instrumentalists approach their respective techniques regarding writing and performing in

contemporary settings.

Biography

Gunther Schuller was born on the 22 of November, 1925 in New York City. His parents,

who were German immigrants, were influential in Schuller’s musical upbringing. His mother

Elsie was a “devout music lover,” and his father Arthur was a violinist and violist in the New

York Philharmonic and later in the Cleveland Orchestra.2

Schuller was sent to Germany when he was seven years old to attend a boarding school

to help curb his discipline problems,3 but he came back to the United States five years later due

to his parents’ concern with the rise of the Nazi Party in Germany. Shortly after arriving back in

1 Brian Harker, Jazz: An American Journey (New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. 2005), 220. 2 Norbert Carnovale, Gunther Schuller: A Bio-Bibliography (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987), 3. 3 Ibid, 3.

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New York, Schuller auditioned at and was accepted into St. Thomas Choir School as a boy

soprano. He also began study flute and French horn, and would later make the French horn his

exclusive instrument of study.4

After Schuller reached puberty, his voice changed, and he had to leave St. Thomas Choir

School. He then began general studies at Jamaica High School in Queens and elementary theory

and French horn at the Manhattan School of Music. The level of his horn playing at age sixteen

was so accomplished that he participated in the American premier of Dmitri Shostakovich’s

Symphony No.7 with the National Broadcasting Company Symphony. This led to another

professional engagement with the Ballet Theatre Orchestra at age 17, but he was subsequently

fired for missing entrances due to laughing at the principal hornist’s jokes. It was also during

this period of time that Schuller began his foray into composing works for horn and piano.5

Following his termination from the Ballet Theatre Orchestra, Schuller landed a job as the

principal hornist with the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra in 1943. He would remain there for

two seasons, and it was during this time that Schuller began to compose large scale works for

himself and as a commissioned composer. Schuller also taught part-time at the Cincinnati

Conservatory of Music, and he became engaged to Marjorie Black. Schuller became intrigued by

the music of Arnold Schoenberg, and he began to incorporate Schoenberg’s technique of

composing melodies by using twelve-tone rows in his own music. It was also during this time

4Norbert Carnovale, Gunther Schuller: A Bio-Bibliography (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987), 4. 5 Ibid, 4.

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that Schuller began his intensive study into the history and development of jazz music which

resulted in two comprehensive text being published later on in his career.6

After Schuller had completed two years of study and work in Cincinnati, he joined the

Metropolitan Opera Orchestra in New York City as a member of the horn section. His five-hour

commute by subway to the Metropolitan Opera allowed him to compose new material as well.7

This move to New York proved to be critical in Schuller’s career by being immersed in the

highly-accomplished music scene comprised of both classical and jazz fields, particularly bebop,

which was at its height in the late 1940s before evolving into its later incarnations of cool jazz

and hard bop.8 Schuller befriended many of the bebop musicians who had established

themselves as leading figures within the music, and in 1950, he joined jazz trumpeter Miles

Davis along with seven other musicians to record songs that would be compiled into the

landmark album Birth of the Cool.9

Schuller also befriended pianist John Lewis, who had contributed his playing,

arrangements and compositions to Birth of the Cool and had begun work with vibraphonist Milt

Jackson, bassist Percy Heath, and drummer Kenny Clarke as the first incarnation of the Modern

Jazz Quartet (Clarke would be replaced by Connie Kay in 1955).10 Schuller completed a piece for

6 Norbert Carnovale, Gunther Schuller: A Bio-Bibliography (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987), 5. 7 Ibid, 8. 8 Ibid, 6. 9 Ibid, 7. 10 Brian Harker, Jazz: An American Journey (New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. 2005), 221.

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the Modern Jazz Quartet called 12x11 in 1955, and two years later, Schuller completed a piece

much in the same style of 12x11 called Transformation.11

Transformation was premiered at Brandeis University on June 7, 1957,12 and the

performance featured instrumentalists who have become celebrated jazz musicians and

composers in their own right such as Bill Evans, Charles Mingus, Art Farmer, Barry Galbraith,

and Jimmy Knepper.13 Transformation featured the use of the twelve-tone techniques in the

Klangfarbenmelodie style inspired by Schoenberg followed by jazz oriented sections and

sections of improvisations that followed standard jazz chord changes.14 Schuller continued to

compose in this style of fusing jazz with classical music, and the following section discusses the

ideas and controversies caused through Schuller’s explorations and observations.

Third Stream

After this festival, Schuller was asked to lecture at the Lenox School for Jazz in Lenox,

Massachusetts, and it was here that he first presented the idea of third stream.15 Schuller used

this term as an adjective to describe ‘a new genre that attempts to fuse “the improvisational

spontaneity and rhythmic vitality of jazz with the compositional procedures and techniques

acquired in Western music during 700 years of musical development.”16 In Schuller’s words, he

11 Norbert Carnovale, Gunther Schuller: A Bio-Bibliography (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987), 9. 12 Ibid, 9. 13 Discogs.com (2017). Accessed April 24, 2017 https://www.discogs.com/Gunther-Schuller-And-George-Russell-Brandeis-Jazz-Festival/release/2148930. 14 Norbert Carnovale, Gunther Schuller: A Bio-Bibliography (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987), 9. 15 Ibid, 9. 16 Gunther Schuller, Musings: The Musical Worlds of Gunther Schuller (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 115.

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believed that “jazz is our country’s one and only homegrown, quintessentially American

music,”17 and he was seeking to use the term third stream to characterize the new genre rather

than seeking to “improve, replace, or ‘make a lady out of’ jazz.”18

This term sparked controversy among jazz and classical critics alike. Schuller was forced

to address these qualms about the identity of jazz and classical being separate entities and the

perceived intent by Schuller to domesticate jazz through the use of classical elements. Schuller

recognized that “the relationship between jazz and classical ‘concert music’ has always been

both profound and fragile.”19 In addition to this understanding, Schuller explained that “the

storm raised by the concept of third stream was but one brief cloudburst in a long, ongoing

history of coexistence and cross-fertilization between jazz music and concert music.”20 Despite

these criticisms and arguments, Schuller continued to move forward in writing music within the

third-stream.

Compositions

The following pieces showcase the goals that Schuller had of combining equal elements

of both the jazz and classical traditions in this third-stream concept. Some pieces allow classical

musicians the chance to improvise while other pieces provide a some of the first true writing

for unique characteristics of instruments in a brass quintet. Other aspects include writing that

17 Gunther Schuller, Gunther Schuller: A Life in Pursuit of Music and Beauty, Rochester (New York: University of Rochester Press 2011), 182. 18 Gunther Schuller, Musings: The Musical Worlds of Gunther Schuller (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 115-116. 19 Gunther Schuller, “The Influence of Jazz on the History and Development of Concert Music,” New Perspectives on Jazz: Report on a National Conference Held at Wingspread, Racine, Wisconsin, September 8-10, 1986, ed. David Baker (National Jazz Service Organization. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press 1990), 9. 20 Ibid, 14.

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pays homage to the instrumental section writing of big band arrangers and composers while

incorporating content based on progressive directions taken by classical composers in the first

half of the 20th century. These pieces reflect Schuller’s sensibilities to modern classical trends

and explorations, and his familiarity with jazz as a historian and participant in pivotal works

allow him to use jazz elements in a way that is not novel or an act of parody.

Eine kleine Fagottmusik: IV “Blues”

This 5-movement piece was commissioned in 1984 by Kenneth Pasmanick, former

principal bassoonist of the National Symphony Orchestra in Washington, D.C.21 It was

premiered on May 16, 1985 at the Kennedy Center for Performing Arts under Mstislav

Rostropovich.22 The five movements are titled:

I. Ballade

II. Berceuse

III. Burlesca

IV. Blues

V. Badinerie

It is in the fourth movement that Schuller makes his most apparent nod to the jazz music that

he had come to regard in such high esteem, and he demonstrates a classic example of the

fusion of jazz with classical elements to present this third-stream genre.

21 Jamie Allen Sinatra, "Awakening Goliath: A Study and Analysis of the Concerto for Bassoon and Orchestra ("Eine Kleine Fagottmusik") 1985] by Gunther Schuller," (DMA diss., The University of Memphis, 2015) 1, accessed April 5, 2017 https://ezproxy.mtsu.edu:3443/login? url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/1725215001?accountid=4886. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. 22 Ibid, 2.

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The form of the fourth movement follows a head-arrangement format in which the chief

melody or “head” is stated and then restated followed by development sections, solos, another

restatement of the head, and then a tag. Here is a diagram of the form put together by Jamie

Sinatra:

Analysis of the Movement Introduction (1:1-7:4) “Head” Part A: (8:1-15:4) “Head” Part B1: (16:1-21:6) “Head” Part B2: (22:1-27:4) Transition (28:1-31:4) “Development A” (32:1-43:4) “Development B” (44:1-55:4) Solo 1 (56:1-67:4) Solo 2 (68:1-79:4) Head material returns in the orchestral parts (80:1-91:4) Tag (Coda) (92:1-104)

Figure 1, Schuller, Eine kleine Fagottmusik, Mvt. IV, formal structure23

One aspect of jazz music that stands out in the fourth movement is the writing that

occurs between the soloist and the members of the bassoon section. It here that Schuller

emulates the sound of the saxophone section of a standard big band24 (albeit without the fifth

23 Jamie Allen Sinatra, "Awakening Goliath: A Study and Analysis of the Concerto for Bassoon and Orchestra ("Eine Kleine Fagottmusik") 1985] by Gunther Schuller," (DMA diss., The University of Memphis, 2015) 37, accessed April 5, 2017 https://ezproxy.mtsu.edu:3443/login? url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/1725215001?accountid=4886. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. 24 Ibid, 38.

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member). The voices move homophonically over a walking bass line that references the four-

part writing technique (called “soli” section writing) used by big band composers of the Swing

Era.

Figure 2, Schuller, Eine kleine Fagottmusik, Mvt. IV, piano reduction, mm7-1225

In addition to the four-part soli writing, Schuller has the soloist improvise over a blues

progression in concert-C.

25 Jamie Allen Sinatra, "Awakening Goliath: A Study and Analysis of the Concerto for Bassoon and Orchestra ("Eine Kleine Fagottmusik") 1985] by Gunther Schuller," (DMA diss., The University of Memphis, 2015) 38, accessed April 5, 2017 https://ezproxy.mtsu.edu:3443/login? url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/1725215001?accountid=4886. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.

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Figure 3, Schuller, Concerto, Mvt. IV, bassoon part, mm. 55-6726

Figure 4, Schuller, Concerto, Mvt. IV, bassoon part, mm. 68-8327

26Jamie Allen Sinatra, "Awakening Goliath: A Study and Analysis of the Concerto for Bassoon and Orchestra ("Eine Kleine Fagottmusik") 1985] by Gunther Schuller," (DMA diss., The University of Memphis, 2015) 39, accessed April 5, 2017 https://ezproxy.mtsu.edu:3443/login? url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/1725215001?accountid=4886. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. 27 Ibid, 40.

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Music for Brass Quintet

This piece was commissioned by the Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge Foundation in 196028,

and it was premiered by the New York Brass Quintet on January 13, 1961 at the Library of

Congress.29 It is considered a “truly landmark work for brass instruments and has come to be a

staple in many professional and student brass quintets the world over.”30

Kathleen Harrison observes in her thesis that “the evidence of jazz influence in Music for

Brass Quintet is harder to detect in the trumpet part than in the two previous pieces analyzed

for this thesis because its presence is largely disguised by its existence as instrumental effects

instead of as an element of music such as the rhythm, timbre or form.”31

The first deeper element of jazz that is incorporated into the piece is in the twelve-tone

row used to define the melody.

Figure 5, tone row for Music for Brass Quintet32

28 Kathleen E. Harrison, "The Treatment of the Trumpet in Selected Jazz-Influenced Classical Chamber Works of the Twentieth Century," (MM thesis, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, 2009) 66, accessed April 5, 2017 https://ezproxy.mtsu.edu:3443/login?url=http:// search.proquest.com/ docview/304997885?accountid=4886. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. 29 Ibid, 67. 30 Norbert Carnovale, Gunther Schuller: A Bio-Bibliography (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987), 11. 31Kathleen E. Harrison, "The Treatment of the Trumpet in Selected Jazz-Influenced Classical Chamber Works of the Twentieth Century," (MM thesis, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, 2009) 67, accessed April 5, 2017 https://ezproxy.mtsu.edu:3443/login?url=http:// search.proquest.com/ docview/304997885?accountid=4886. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. 32 Ibid, 68

68

Schuller’s knowledge of brass instruments set him apart from other chamber music composers

because it allowed him to compose idiomatically for brass in a way that many chamber music composers

had yet to achieve. This attribute is another reason Music for Brass Quintet has withstood the test of time.

In his dissertation A Comprehensive Performance Project in Trumpet Literature; An Essay on Selected

Trumpet Excerpts from Brass Quintets by Ingolf Dahl, Gunther Schuller, Alvin Etler, and Jan Bach; and a

Bibliography of Brass Quintets Written by American Composers from 1938-1980, Michael Tunnell

incorporates a survey he administered to find out the most significant brass quintets in the repertoire from

1938-1980 (Tunnell, 1982, p. 84) Below one can see that Schuller’s Music for Brass Quintet is at the top of

the list.

Results of Survey by Michael Tunnell

Ranking Composer CompositionNumber of Votes

1 Ingolf Dahl Music for Brass Instruments 532 Alvin Etler Quintet for Brass Instruments 493 Gunther Schuller Music for Brass Quintet 444 Jan Bach Laudes 415 Vincent Persichetti Parable for Brass Quintet 335 Verne Reynolds Suite 337 John Cheetham Scherzo 328 Karel Husa Divertimento 259 Samual Adler Five Movements 2410 Thomas Frederickson Quintet  23

(in order of votes)

Figure 32-Tunnell, 1982, p. 204, Used by Permission.

Music for Brass Quintet is organized using the twelve tone system. The row Schuller bases this

piece on is indicated below (Coe, 1971, p.109)

Figure 33- row used to construct Music for Brass Quintet

In her unpublished dissertation, Mary Wennerstrom indicates:

Pitch is the most important cohesive parameter in this composition. It functions through the

elements of intervals, chords, and melodic lines, and in many instances can be related to the pitch

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Within this row lies an F dominant seventh chord.

Figure 6, chord within tone row of Music for Brass Quintet33

The dominant seventh chord is featured heavily on most jazz music, and Schuller takes full

advantage of this chord structure so pivotal to jazz.34

Schuller also uses several muting techniques common to the world of jazz brass players,

such as using the hand over the bell to muffle the sound, and he blends the sound of Harmon

and straight mutes in the first and second trumpet parts of the piece.35

The second movement of the piece demonstrates the trend of composers incorporating

pointillism in their works. Composers borrowed this from artists like George Seurat who would

paint with tiny dots of color to portray an image. The musical composers would “paint” with

individual notes of distinct quality of timbre and volume.36 Schuller retains elements of the tone

color used through mutes from the first movement.

33Kathleen E. Harrison, "The Treatment of the Trumpet in Selected Jazz-Influenced Classical Chamber Works of the Twentieth Century," (MM thesis, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, 2009) 69, accessed April 5, 2017 https://ezproxy.mtsu.edu:3443/login?url=http:// search.proquest.com/ docview/304997885?accountid=4886. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. 34 Ibid, 69. 35 Ibid, 73. 36 Ibid, 76.

69

series. The same twelve-note pitch series in different transpositions is used in all movements.

(Wennerstrom (as cited in Coe, 1971, p. 109)

The jazz influence in Music for Brass Quintet exists on several different levels. The deepest level

in which jazz influence can be found is within the row that Schuller used to construct the piece. While

overall the row is comprised of a tritone, three sets of half-steps, two sets of whole steps, and three perfect

fourths, Schuller chose a row that contained a pivotal chord structure in jazz—a major-minor seventh

chord—in this case an F7 in third inversion. This chord occurs in the row from pitches C to E-flat and is

indicated by the brackets in Figure 34 below.

Figure 34-F7 chord within the row used to construct Music for Brass Quintet

Throughout the three movements Schuller explores the sonoric possibilities of the row by

manipulating it. The work is conceptualized through the sounds created by the overlapping of the rows,

rhythmic idiosyncrasies, and the unconventional techniques borrowed from jazz that Schuller introduces to

classical brass players, specifically the trumpet.

While the rhythms of this piece are by and large classical, Schuller is able to intersperse rhythmic

groupings often found in jazz into Music for Brass Quintet in such a way that the rhythms do not appear to

be jazz rhythms. In jazz, the subdivision is centered around the triplet with the third triplet receiving the

accent. Schuller takes full advantage of this. The first occurrence of this rhythm is seen in measure 2 of the

second trumpet part. Both trumpet parts begin the piece muted. As seen in Figure 35 the second trumpet

enters with triplet sixteenths. In measure 3 the first trumpet answers back with two triplet sixteenths on the

upbeat of two. Up until measure 10 the trumpet parts pass the triplet rhythm back and forth in varying

lengths from triplet sixteenths to triplet eighth-sixteenth and triplet quarter-eighth.

Figure 35-MUSIC FOR BRASS QUINTET By Gunther Schuller, I., m. 1-3, Trumpet 1 and 2 Copyright © (Renewed) by Associated Music Publishers, Inc. (BMI)

International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by Permission.

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Figure 7, Schuller, Music for Brass Quintet, Mvt. II, mm. 14-1937

The third movement of Music for Brass Quintet contains another element associated with jazz:

improvisation. However, this done in different manner in that the instrumentalists do not

improvise over a set of chord changes; they are instructed to improvise using a prescribed set

of pitches rather than a prescribed harmonic frame.

Figure 8, Schuller, Music for Brass Quintet, Mvmt. III, mm. 34-3738

37Kathleen E. Harrison, "The Treatment of the Trumpet in Selected Jazz-Influenced Classical Chamber Works of the Twentieth Century," (MM thesis, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, 2009) 78, accessed April 5, 2017 https://ezproxy.mtsu.edu:3443/login?url=http:// search.proquest.com/ docview/304997885?accountid=4886. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. 38 Ibid, 82.

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There is also the introduction of hat mutes in the third movement, the use of which were more

common to jazz arrangements than classical compositions.

Figure 9, Schuller, Music for Brass Quintet, Mvt. III, mm. 62-6939

Overall, Music for Brass Quintet blends various components of jazz music, those being

uses of mutes, articulations, and highlights of specific tonalities (the dominant seventh arpeggio

embedded within the tone row) within a framework belonging to the classical traditions of

Western art music, that being the three-movement work for a brass quintet along with his use

serialism and pointillism.

Concertino for Jazz Quartet and Orchestra

This three-movement work was written by Schuller in 1959 and premiered in Baltimore,

MD on January 2, 1960 by the members of the Modern Jazz Quartet (MJQ) and the Baltimore

Symphony Orchestra under the direction of Herbert Grossman.40 The members of the MJQ at

39Kathleen E. Harrison, "The Treatment of the Trumpet in Selected Jazz-Influenced Classical Chamber Works of the Twentieth Century," (MM thesis, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, 2009) 84, accessed April 5, 2017 https://ezproxy.mtsu.edu:3443/login?url=http:// search.proquest.com/ docview/304997885?accountid=4886. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. 40 Norman A. Wika "Jazz Attributes in Twentieth-Century Western Art Music: A Study of Four

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this point were Milt Jackson on vibraphone, John Lewis on piano, Percy Heath on bass, and

Connie Kay on drums.

Schuller treats the orchestra much like a big band with various backgrounds comprised

of “kicks,” “hits,” and “pads.”

Figure 10, Schuller, Concertino for Jazz Quartet, Mvt. I, fig.C41

Selected Compositions," (DMA diss., University of Connecticut, 2007) 66, accessed April 5, 2017 https://ezproxy.mtsu.edu:3443/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/304864187?accountid=4886. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. 41Ibid, 68.

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Volkmann 15

In addition to these background figures, various members of the orchestra are given

instructions to improvise over a prescribed set of pitches much in the same way as Music for

Brass Quintet.

Figure 11, Schuller, Concertino for Jazz Quartet, Mvt. II, fig. G42

Schuller also takes a unique approach to notating swing rhythms for the orchestra

players through the use of triplet figures. Here is an example notated in the clarinet and

bassoon parts at figure E in the first movement:

Figure 12, Schuller, Concertino for Jazz Quartet, Mvt. I, fig. E43

42Norman A. Wika "Jazz Attributes in Twentieth-Century Western Art Music: A Study of Four Selected Compositions," (DMA diss., University of Connecticut, 2007) 72, accessed April 5, 2017 https://ezproxy.mtsu.edu:3443/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/304864187?accountid=4886. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. 43 Ibid, 73.

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Volkmann 16

In regards to the harmonic structure of parts of the piece, Schuller makes use of the

blues form in the third movement much like he does in Eine kleine Fagottmusik, but he extends

the form by one measure to make a 13-bar blues.

Figure 13, Schuller’s blues progression, Concertino for Jazz Quartet, Mvt. III44

Overall, Concertino for Jazz Quartet represents yet another facet of Schuller’s command

of the elements of jazz and classical music and his ability to fuse these elements together.

Conclusion

The work of Gunther Schuller has proven to provide listeners and players an experience

of what both jazz and classical music have to offer through their fusion in third stream. His

various works for a variety of musical settings has helped to bring these elements together in a

way that has equal representation for both types of music through combinations of form,

harmony, melody, articulation, tone color, and improvisation. Combined with his vast

knowledge of jazz history and his pioneering work through establishing a School of Third Stream

Music at the New England Conservatory, Schuller has proven to be a force for progress,

exploration, and artistry in American music and the expansion of musical tastes abroad.

44Norman A. Wika "Jazz Attributes in Twentieth-Century Western Art Music: A Study of Four Selected Compositions," (DMA diss., University of Connecticut, 2007) 76, accessed April 5, 2017 https://ezproxy.mtsu.edu:3443/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/304864187?accountid=4886. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.

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George-Russell-Brandeis-Jazz-Festival/release/2148930. Harker, Brian. Jazz: An American Journey. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc., 2005. Harrison, Kathleen E. "The Treatment of the Trumpet in Selected Jazz-Influenced Classical

Chamber Works of the Twentieth Century." MM thesis, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, 2009. Accessed April 5, 2017. https://ezproxy.mtsu.edu:3443/login?url= http://search.proquest.com/docview/304997885?accountid=4886. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.

Schuller, Gunther. Gunther Schuller: A Life in Pursuit of Music and Beauty. Rochester, NY:

University of Rochester Press (2011). Schuller, Gunther. Musings: The Musical Worlds of Gunther Schuller. New York: Oxford

University Press (1986). Schuller, Gunther. “The Influence of Jazz on the History and Development of Concert Music.” In

New Perspectives on Jazz: Report on a National Conference Held at Wingspread, Racine, Wisconsin, September 8-10, 1986 ed. David Baker. National Jazz Service Organization. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press (1990)

Sinatra, Jamie Allen. "Awakening Goliath: A Study and Analysis of the Concerto for Bassoon and

Orchestra ("Eine Kleine Fagottmusik") 1985] by Gunther Schuller." DMA diss., The University of Memphis, 2015. Accessed April 5, 2017 https://ezproxy.mtsu.edu:3443/ login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/1725215001?accountid=4886. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.

Wika, Norman A. "Jazz Attributes in Twentieth-Century Western Art Music: A Study of Four

Selected Compositions." DMA diss., University of Connecticut, 2007. Accessed April 5, 2017 https://ezproxy.mtsu.edu:3443/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/ 304864187?accountid=4886. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.