Vocabulary: Theory, research, and promising practices Michael C. McKenna

Vocabulary:Theory, research, and promising

practices

Michael C. McKenna

Today’s Goals

Learn about how children acquire word meanings

Examine research findings on vocabulary instruction

Discuss scientifically-based instructional approaches

practice making a vocab. lesson

Is the word vocabulary in your vocabulary?

What is vocabulary? Speaking vocabulary Listening vocabulary Reading vocabulary Writing vocabulary General vocabulary Technical vocabulary Meaning vocabulary

Modality

Domain

1755 Dictionary of the English Language


114,000 words


114,000 words

impertransibilityquecknould


2005 Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.)

114,000 words



114,000 words

660,000+ words


660,000+ words

webcamcyberphobic

doh

English users follow set rules for coining new words, thus adding greatly to the number of potential words in the language.

English users follow set rules for coining new words, thus adding greatly to the number of potential words in the language.

The postman likes our street because it is dogless.

Are you a logophile?

Are you a logophile?

words

A Vocabulary Riddle

To comprehend what we read, at least 95% of the words must be recognized

automatically.

How is this possible given the number of words in English?

50K

40K

30K

20K

10K

0

K 12

5,0001,500

45,000

17,000

Oral vocabulary at the end of first grade is a significant predictor of comprehension ten years later.

Cunningham, A.E., & Stanovich, K.E. (1997). Early reading acquisition and its relation to experience and ability 10 years later. Developmental Psychology, 33, 934-945.

Why is a large vocabulary associated with good

comprehension?

The Instrumental Hypothesis

Vocabulary aids comprehension by providing the reader with a tool, or instrument.

The Knowledge Hypothesis

It’s not so much the words themselves that help, but the knowledge they represent.

The Aptitude Hypothesis

Comprehension and vocabulary are correlated “not because one causes the other, but because both reflect a more general underlying verbal aptitude.” – Stahl & Nagy (2005)

The Access Hypothesis

A larger vocabulary means

a deeper understanding of words (including nuances of meaning)

quicker access to words in the lexicon

flexibility in deciding among multiple meanings

The Reciprocal Hypothesis

Being a better reader makes it possible for

you to read more

Reading more gives you a bigger

vocabulary

Having a bigger vocabulary makes you a better reader.

Four Obstacles to Acquiring a Large Vocabulary

1. The number of words in English is very large.

2. Academic English differs from the kind of English used at home.

3. Word knowledge involves far more than learning definitions.

4. Sources of information about words are often hard to use or unhelpful.

– Stahl & Nagy (2005)

How do we learn words from experiences?

gavagai

An aborigine points to a running rabbit and says “Gavagai.” Can you infer the word’s meaning?

Each encounter with a word helps a child narrow its meaning. For example, if he next hears the word gavagai used to refer to a sitting rabbit, the child will infer that running is not connected with the meaning.

Young children learn word meanings from one-on-one interactions with parents and siblings. These interactions may be rich or poor. Consider two examples based on Hart and Risley’s (1995) comparison of families of different socioeconomic levels.

Do I have to eat these?

Yeah.

Do I have to eat these?

Yes, because they have vitamins that will help you grow and get stronger.

“Motherese”

What does it mean to know a word?

A Continuum of Word Knowledge

No knowledge

A vague sense of the meaning

Narrow knowledge with aid of context

Good knowledge but shaky recall

Rich, decontextualized knowledge,connected to other word meanings

The Reading System (Adams)

Reading Writing Speech

MeaningProcessor

Phonological Processor

OrthographicProcessor

ContextProcessor

The Reading System (Adams)

Reading Writing Speech

MeaningProcessor

Phonological Processor

OrthographicProcessor

ContextProcessor

Lexicon

lexicon

That part of long-term memory devoted to word knowledge

How is a word stored in the lexicon?

cat

/kat/

c-a-t

cat

/kat/4 legs

“meow”c-a-t

pet

cat

/kat/4 legs

“meow”c-a-t

animal

petlion

cat

/kat/

mammal

4 legs

“meow”c-a-t

animal

petlion

cat

/kat/

dog

mammal

4 legs

“meow”c-a-t

animal

petlion

Dual Coding Theory

Two systems are involved in learning words. One contains verbal information, the other non-verbal (images). When we learn a word, real-world images that we associate with the concept are also stored. Accessing a word in the lexicon therefore involves both the verbal system and non-verbal (imagery) system.

~ Moral ~When teaching new words, use pictures and other images where possible.

cat

/kat/

dog

mammal

4 legs

“meow”c-a-t

animal

petlion

The Nonverbal (Imagery) System

New meanings and even new pronunciations of a word may be added to a child’s lexicon over time.

produce

próduce

Raw veggies

prodúce

to make

Biemiller, A. (2004). Teaching vocabulary in the primary grades.In J.F. Baumann & E.J. Kame’enui (Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice (pp. 28-40). New York: Guilford.

K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 •••

leanTo rest

oneobject againstanother

To rely on anotherperson

forsupport

Is wide reading enough?

Why Wide Reading Why Wide Reading Is Enough Is Not Enough

Vocabulary size andthe amount a child reads are correlated.

Direct instruction cannot possibly account for the number of word meanings children acquire.

Context is generally unreliable as a means of inferring word meanings.

Most words occur too infrequently to provide the number of exposures needed to learn them.

Marzano, R.J. (2004). The developing vision of vocabulary instruction. In J.F. Baumann & E.J. Kame’enui (Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice (pp. 100-117). New York: Guilford.

“There is no obvious reason why direct vocabulary instruction and wide reading cannot work in tandem.”

– Marzano (2004, p. 112)

RobertMarzano

The Vocabulary Catch-22

Children need to learn more words to read well, but they need to read well to

learn more words.

McKenna, M.C. (2004). Teaching vocabulary to struggling older readers. Perspectives, 30(1), 13-16.

What are some of the guiding principles of

teaching vocabulary?

Preteach key words to improve comprehension.

Guiding Principle

In 1367, Marain and the settlements ended a seven-year war with the Langurians and Pitoks. As a result of this war, Languria was driven out of East Bacol. Marain would now rule Laman and the other lands that once belonged to Languria. This brought peace to the Bacolean settlements. The settlers no longer had to worry about attacks from Laman. The Bacoleans were happy to be part of Marain in 1367. Yet a dozen years later, these same people would be fighting the Marish for independence, or freedom from United Marain’s rule.

In 1763, Britain and the colonies ended a seven-year war with the French and Indians. As a result of this war, France was driven out of North America. Britain would now rule Canada and the other lands that once belonged to France. This brought peace to the American colonies. The settlers no longer had to worry about attacks from Canada. The Americans were happy to be part of Britain in 1763. Yet a dozen years later, these same people would be fighting the British for independence, or freedom from Great Britain’s rule.

Provide more than definitions.

Guiding Principle

WORD = DEFINITION

Stimulus Response

WORD = DEFINITION

Stimulus Response

truncate “to cut off”

WORD = DEFINITION

Stimulus Response

truncate “to cut off”

“She truncated the lights.”

Combine definitions and contextual examples.

Guiding Principle

Minimize rote copying of definitions.

Guiding Principle

Introduce new words in related clusters.

Guiding Principle

wing

antennae leg

abdomen

thorax

In content areas, clustering words is natural!

But general vocabulary words can be clustered if you work at

it!

Provide brief, periodic review.

Guiding Principle

A Thought Experiment

Group 1

• Receives 1 hour of direct instruction on 20 new words

• Spends 1 full hour of intense review on all 20 words

• This hour is uninterrupted.

Group 2

Group 2



• This hour is broken into 6 10-minute sessions, 1 per month for 6 months.

Assuming that no one encountered any of the 20 words again, which group would do better on a test after a delay of 10 years?

Massedvs.

DistributedPractice

What did the National Reading Panel conclude

about teaching vocabulary?

NRP Findings on Vocabulary

Teaching vocabulary improves general comprehension ability.

Preteaching vocabulary helps both word learning and comprehension of a selection.

Much vocabulary is acquired through incidental exposure.

Repeated exposures in a variety of contexts are important.


A combination of definitions and contextual examples works better than either one alone.

Many instructional methods can be effective in teaching vocabulary.

Instructional methods should result in active engagement.

Both direct and indirect methods should be used.


The more connections that are made to a word, the better the word tends to be learned.

Computer applications can be effective. The effectiveness of some instructional

methods depends on the age or ability of the children.

What the NRP said they didn’t know about vocabulary instruction

Which methods work best with students of different ages and abilities?

How can technology best be used to teach vocabulary? How is vocabulary best integrated with comprehension

instruction? What combinations of instructional methods tend to work

best? What are the best ways to assess vocabulary?

To what extent do you see these findings reflected in your core materials?

What are some of the most effective ways of teaching vocabulary?

Some Research-Based Techniques

Read-Alouds Semantic Feature Analysis Graphic Organizers List-Group-Label Semantic Maps (word webs) Word Lines Word Sorts Possible Sentences

Read-Alouds

Planning a Read-Aloud Choose engaging, well-illustrated books. A number of words should be unknown to about

half the students. Choose 3 target words that are important for

comprehension but likely to be unfamiliar. Keep track of the words you choose. Plan to repeat the read-aloud. Plan multiple exposures in the days following.

Conducting a Read-Aloud Be “performance oriented”; read with expression. Include “rich, dialogic discussion.”

Activate prior knowledge. Link the story to experiences of students. Elicit responses from students.

Give direct, clear, and simple instruction in word meanings before the read-aloud.

Give a sentence context from the story in advance.

Discuss words before and after the story. Embed quick definitions while reading. (Biemiller) Do not display pictures while reading (Beck et al.)

Warning!

Spending too much time discussing read-alouds may detract from valuable reading practice.

– Stahl (1998).

A Closer Look at Definitions

golf

golf n.1. a good walk spoiled

(Mark Twain)

2. a game in which a player using special clubs attempts to sink a ball with as few strokes as possible into each of the 9 or 18 successive holes on a course (Webster)

a game in which a player using special clubs attempts to sink a ball with as few strokes as possible into each of the 9 or 18 successive holes on a course

a game in which a player using special clubs attempts to sink a ball with as few strokes as possible into each of the 9 or 18 successive holes on a course

class distinguishing features

class distinguishing features

Aristotle

Semantic Feature Analysis

humans adult female

woman + +

man + o

girl o +

boy o o

games clubs ball o

golf + +

hockey + o

basketball o +

games clubs ball

golf + +

hockey + o

basketball o +

popinary

popinary

“a fry cook”

popinary

“a fry cook”

Mrs. Byrne's Dictionary of Unusual, Obscure, and Preposterous Words: Gathered from Numerous and Diverse Authoritative Sources

cooks fries makes bakesthings salads

popinary + o o

chef + + +

baker + o + adult female


popinary + o o

chef + + +

baker + + + adult female


popinary + o o

chef + + +

baker s + + adult female

Characters Wise Adventurous

Frog

Toad

Curious George

Graphic Organizers

A graphic organizer is a diagram that shows how key terms are

related.

What’s so great about them?

What’s so great about them?

They help kids “see” abstract content.

There is little to “read.”

They are easy to construct and discuss.

Technical terms can be taught in clusters.

They enhance recall and understanding.

They have an impressive research base.

Shakespearean TragedyAct 1 ExpositionAct 2 ComplicationAct 3 ClimaxAct 4 ResolutionAct 5 Conclusion

Exposition Complication Climax Resolution Conclusion


Complication


Complication

Climax


Complication

Climax

Resolution


Complication

Climax

Resolution

RisingAction


Complication

Climax

Resolution

RisingAction

FallingAction

pupa

egg

larvaadult

How to Find the Area of a Triangle

Right triangle?

Multiplylegs

Determine height

Multiplyby base

No Yes

Divideby 2

Tree Diagrams

Musical Instruments

Musical Instruments

wind nonwind

Musical Instruments

wind nonwind

brass woodwind

Musical Instruments

wind nonwind

brass woodwind string percussion

Musical Instruments

wind nonwind

brass woodwind string percussion

trumpet clarinet violin drum

Venn Diagrams

Frog and Toad Curious George

No people

AnimalCharacters

Animals talk

Could happen

Blue People

Thin PeopleTall People

drugsstimulants

depressantsalcohol

barbituatescaffeine

dexadrine

drugsstimulants depressants

caffeinedexadrine

alcoholbarbituates

drugsstimulants depressants

caffeine dexadrine alcohol barbituates

wing

antennae leg

abdomen

thorax

Labeled Picture

Sociograms

HH

H H H

P P P P P P P P P

James Roosevelt

(1828-1900)

Sara Delano

(1855-1941)

Elliott Roosevelt(1860?-94)

AnnaHall

(1863-92)

FranklinDelano

Roosevelt(1882-1945)

AnnaEleanor

Roosevelt(1884-1962)

Anna James Elliott FDR, Jr. Johnb. 1906 b. 1907 b. 1910 b. 1914 b. 1916

List-Group-Label

Hilda Taba

ListStudents brainstorm all the words they can recall at the end of a unit.

GroupStudents suggest logical ways to group the words.

LabelStudents suggest a label for each group they form.

no legs garterboa

venomcobra

fang scales

coral tail

rattlecopperhead

treesholes

ground

no legs garterboa

venomcobra

fang scales

coral tail

rattlecopperhead

treesholes

ground

Kinds of Snakes garter boa copperhead cobra coral

Things Snakes Might Have rattle scales fang no legs venom tail

Where Snakes Are Found trees holes ground

Semantic Maps

(Word Webs)

BrainstormingStudents offer ideas related to a topic.

MappingTeacher and students form categories and map the words into a diagram.

ReadingStudents read a nonfiction selection.

Completing the MapTeacher and students revisit the map and together refine and expand it.

no legs garterboa

venomcobra

fang scales

coral tail

rattlecopperhead

treesholes

ground

Kinds of Snakes garter boa copperhead cobra coral

Things Snakes Might Have rattle scales fang no legs venom tail

Where Snakes Are Found trees holes ground

Snakes

treesholes

ground

garterboa

copperheadcobracoral

Kinds Where

Things Snakes Might Have

rattle no legsscales venomfang tail

Semantic maps have the advantage of mirroring how

words are stored in the lexicon.

cat

/kat/

dog

mammal

4 legs

“meow”c-a-t

animal

petlion

Word Lines

hot cold

hot tepid cold

hot tepid cold

sweltering

hot tepid cold

sweltering chilly

Word Sorts

thorax pupaabdomen antennaewing larvaadult headegg leg

Open Sort Categories are not given.

Closed Sort Parts Stages

thorax pupaabdomen eggwing larvahead adultlegantennae

Closed Sort Parts Stages

Possible Sentences

1. Present a list of 8-12 words the students will encounter in the new text.

2. Add a few familiar terms.3. Ask for sentences containing at

least two of the words.4. Teach the text.5. Return to the sentences.6. Together decide whether they are

correct or can be edited to make them so.

lexiconsyntactic clue

distributed practicepopinary

worddefinition*eponym*toponym

*portmanteau

Some Research-Based Techniques

Read-Alouds Semantic Feature Analysis Graphic Organizers List-Group-Label Semantic Maps (word webs) Web Trees Word Lines Word Sorts Possible Sentences

What do all of these techniques (except one) have in

common?

1. They involve clusters of related words.

2. They encourage children to categorize.

What’s the exception?

Huckleberry Finn

fan-tods

yallerboys

mudcat

Illinois

Kentucky

Tennessee

Mississippi

Louisiana

Arkansas

Missouri

Illinois

Kentucky

Tennessee

Mississippi

Louisiana

Arkansas

Missouri

Hannibal

•

More Suggestions

Echo student talk, using richer vocabulary.

I wrote this.

Wonderful. I hope you told me exactly what you saw on your trip to the zoo.

“Sprinkle” your classroom with vocabulary.

Beck & McKeown (2004)

Talk around words.

Stahl & Stahl (2004)

Be a Word Wizard!wary scowl ridiculous fortunate

Tom Sue Ed Juan Maria Lakesha Paul Jack

– Beck & McKeown (2004)

Ask “silly questions.”

– Beck & McKeown (2004)

Would a fortunate person scowl?

Encourage word play

(including teachers!)

Words Named for People(eponyms)

• einsteinium• teddy bear• boycott• pasteurize• watt• decibel• saxophone• braille

• silhouette• sousaphone• zinnia• sideburns• shrapnel• magnolia• hooligan• gardenia

Words Named for Places(toponyms)

• bikini• tuxedo• badminton• hamburger• californium• uranium• plutonium• damask

• ottoman• bayonet• cologne• frankfurter• magenta• marathon• tangerine• manila

Words with Unusual Stories

• bazooka• bleachers• blurb• cowlick• crowbar• Dixie• gas• goatee

• googol• gorilla• jeep• jumbo• sandwich• Pacific• serendipity• tank

Blends (Portmanteaus)

• beefalo• bit• brunch• caplet• cockapoo• electrocute• guestimate• infomercial

• jack rabbit• liger• lox• modem• moped• motel• sitcom• skort

More Blends . . .

• slurb• smog• snazzy• splatter• spork (why not

foon?)• squiggle• tangelo

• telethon• tiglon• transister• twiddle• zap• zedonk

Acronyms

• scuba

• radar

• sonar

• laser

• snafu

• fubar

Mnemonics

principle

rule

principal

pal

Connotations

What’s the difference between a fiddle and a violin?

What can we do increasechildren’s vocabularies?

1. Make vocabulary a school-wide goal

Amend your plan.

Establish instructional goals.

Raise consciousness.

Communicate expectations.

2. Establish teacher study groups

Organize groups by grade level.

Provide time for discussion.

Reward participation.

Encourage administrator participation.

Select resource books.

3. Consider supplemental and intervention programs

Tie their use to assessments.

Establish guidelines for use.

Locate product reviews.

“In the long run, effective intervention will involve extended vocabulary work as a normal part the curriculum. (p. 34)

Biemiller, A. (2004). Teaching vocabulary in the primary grades.In J.F. Baumann & E.J. Kame’enui (Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice (pp. 28-40). New York: Guilford.

AndyBiemiller

Suggested ReferencesBaumann, J.F., & Kame’enui, E.J. (2004). Vocabulary

instruction: Research to practice. New York: Guilford.Bear, D.R., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S.R., & Johnston, F.

Words their way (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York: Guilford.

Nagy, W.E. (1988). Teaching vocabulary to improve reading comprehension. Newark, DE: IRA.

Stahl, S.A. (1999). Vocabulary development. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.

Stahl, S.A., & Kapinus, B.A. (2001). Word power: What every educator needs to know about teaching vocabulary. Washington, DC: NEA.

Stahl, S.A., & Nagy, W.E. (2005). Teaching word meanings.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Vocabulary: Theory, research, and promising practices Michael C. McKenna

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