Vitamin lalit

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Vitamin

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the set of organic compounds. For

the nutritional supplement preparation,

seemultivitamin. For the manga, see Vitamin (manga).

A vitamin is an organic compoundrequired as

a nutrientin tiny amounts by anorganism.[1]In other

words, an organic chemical compound (or related set of

compounds) is called a vitamin when it cannot

be synthesizedin sufficient quantities by an organism,

and must be obtained from the diet. Thus, the term is

conditional both on the circumstances and on the

particular organism. For example,ascorbic acid(vitamin C) is a vitamin for humans, but not for most other animals, and biotinandvitamin

D are required in the human diet only in certain circumstances. By convention, the term vitamin does not include otheressential

nutrientssuch as dietary minerals,essential fatty acids, oressential amino acids(which are needed in larger amounts than vitamins), nor

does it encompass the large number of other nutrients that promote health but are otherwise required less often.[2]Thirteen vitamins are

presently universally recognized.

Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity, not their structure. Thus, each "vitamin" refers to a number

ofvitamercompounds that all show the biological activity associated with a particular vitamin. Such a set of chemicals is grouped under an

alphabetized vitamin "generic descriptor" title, such as "vitamin A", which includes the compoundsretinal,retinol, and four

knowncarotenoids. Vitamers by definition are convertible to the active form of the vitamin in the body, and are sometimes inter-convertible

to one another, as well.

Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions. Some have hormone-like functions as regulators of mineral metabolism (e.g., vitamin D), or

regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation (e.g., some forms ofvitamin A). Others function asantioxidants (e.g., vitamin Eand

sometimes vitamin C).[3]The largest number of vitamins (e.g., B complexvitamins) function as precursors for enzymecofactors, that help

enzymes in their work ascatalystsinmetabolism. In this role, vitamins may be tightly bound toenzymesas part ofprosthetic groups: For

example,biotin is part of enzymes involved in makingfatty acids. Vitamins may also be less tightly bound to enzyme catalysts

ascoenzymes, detachable molecules that function to carry chemical groups or electrons between molecules. For example,folic acidcarries

various forms of carbon group methyl,formyl, and methylene in the cell. Although these roles in assisting enzyme-substrate reactions

are vitamins' best-known function, the other vitamin functions are equally important.[4]

Until the mid-1930s, when the first commercial yeast-extract and semi-synthetic vitamin C supplement tablets were sold, vitamins were

obtained solely through food intake, and changes in diet (which, for example, could occur during a particular growing season) can alter the

types and amounts of vitamins ingested. Vitamins have been produced as commoditychemicalsand made widely available as inexpensive

semisynthetic and synthetic-source multivitamindietary supplements, since the middle of the 20th century.

The chemical structure of retinol, the most common dietary form of vitamin A
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edia.org/wiki/Vitamerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotenoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioxidantshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Ehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Bender-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_complexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cofactor_(biochemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalysthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzymehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosthetic_grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coenzymehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formylhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methyleneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemicalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multivitamin


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The term vitamin was derived from "vitamine," a combination word made up by Polish scientist Casimir

Funkfrom vitaland amine, meaningamineof life, because it was suggested in 1912 that the organic micronutrient food factors that prevent

beriberi and perhaps other similar dietary-deficiency diseases might be chemicalamines. This proved incorrect for the micronutrient class,

and the word was shortened to vitamin.

Contents

[hide]

1 History

2 In humans

o 2.1 List of vitamins

3 In nutri tion and diseases

o 3.1 Deficiencies

o 3.2 Side-effects and overdose

4 Supplements

o 4.1 Governmental regulation of vitamin supplements

5 Names in current and previous nomenclatures

6 Anti-vitamins

7 See also

8 References

9 External links

[edit]History

The discovery dates of the vitamins and their sources

Year of discovery Vitamin Food source

1913 Vitamin A (Retinol) Cod liver oil

1910 Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Rice bran

1920 Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) Citrus, most fresh foods

1920 Vitamin D (Calciferol) Cod liver oil
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1920 Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Meat,eggs

1922 Vitamin E (Tocopherol) Wheat germ oil, unrefined vegetable oils

1926 Vitamin B12(Cobalamins) liver,eggs, animal products

1929 Vitamin K 1(Phylloquinone) Leafy green vegetables

1931 Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid)Meat,whole grains,

in many foods

1931 Vitamin B7 (Biotin) Meat,dairy products,eggs

1934 Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Meat,dairy products

1936 Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Meat,eggs,grains

1941 Vitamin B9 (Folic acid) Leafy green vegetables

The value of eating a certain food to maintain health was recognized long before vitamins were identified. The ancient Egyptiansknew that

feedingliverto a patient would help curenight blindness, an illness now known to be caused by avitamin Adeficiency.[5]The advancement

of ocean voyage during theRenaissanceresulted in prolonged periods without access to fresh fruits and vegetables, and made illnesses

from vitamin deficiency common among ships' crews.[6]

In 1749, theScottishsurgeonJames Linddiscovered thatcitrusfoods helped preventscurvy, a particularly deadly disease in

which collagen is not properly formed, causing poor wound healing, bleeding of thegums, severe pain, and death.[5] In 1753, Lind published

his Treatise on the Scurvy, which recommended usinglemonsandlimesto avoidscurvy, which was adopted by the BritishRoyal Navy.

This led to the nickname Limeyfor sailors of that organization. Lind's discovery, however, was not widely accepted by individuals in the

Royal Navy'sArcticexpeditions in the 19th century, where it was widely believed that scurvy could be prevented by practicing goodhygiene,

regular exercise, and maintaining the morale of the crew while on board, rather than by a diet of fresh food.[5]As a result, Arctic expeditions

continued to be plagued by scurvy and otherdeficiency diseases. In the early 20th century, when Robert Falcon Scottmade his two

expeditions to the Antarctic, the prevailing medical theory was that scurvy was caused by "tainted"canned food.[5]

During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the use of deprivation studies allowed scientists to isolate and identify a number of vitamins.

Lipid from fish oilwas used to curericketsinrats, and the fat-soluble nutrient was called "antirachitic A". Thus, the first "vitamin" bioactivity

ever isolated, which cured rickets, was initially called "vitamin A"; however, the bioactivity of this compound is now calledvitamin D.[7]In

1881,Russiansurgeon Nikolai Lunin studied the effects of scurvy while at theUniversity of Tartuin present-day Estonia.[8]He fedmicean
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artificial mixture of all the separate constituents ofmilkknown at that time, namely theproteins,fats,carbohydrates, andsalts. The mice that

received only the individual constituents died, while the mice fed by milk itself developed normally. He made a conclusion that "a natural

food such as milk must therefore contain, besides these known principal ingredients, small quantities of unknown substances essential to

life."[8]However, his conclusions were rejected by other researchers when they were unable to reproduce his results. One difference was

that he had used table sugar (sucrose), while other researchers had used milk sugar (lactose) that still contained small amounts ofvitamin

B.[citation needed]

TheAncient Egyptiansknew that feeding a patientliver(back, right) would help curenight blindness.

In east Asia, where polishedwhite rice was the common staple food of the middle class, beriberiresulting from lack of vitamin

B1 wasendemic. In 1884, Takaki Kanehiro, a British trained medical doctor of the Imperial Japanese Navy, observed

thatberiberi wasendemicamong low-ranking crew who often ate nothing but rice, but not among officers who consumed a Western-style

diet. With the support of the Japanese navy, he experimented using crews of twobattleships; one crew was fed only white rice, while the

other was fed a diet of meat, fish, barley, rice, and beans. The group that ate only white rice documented 161 crew members with beriberi

and 25 deaths, while the latter group had only 14 cases of beriberi and no deaths. This convinced Takaki and the Japanese Navy that diet

was the cause of beriberi, but mistakenly believed that sufficient amounts of protein prevented it.[9]That diseases could result from some

dietary deficiencies was further investigated by Christiaan Eijkman, who in 1897 discovered that feeding unpolished riceinstead of the

polished variety to chickens helped to prevent beriberi in the chickens. The following year, Frederick Hopkins postulated that some foods

contained "accessory factors" in addition to proteins, carbohydrates, fats, et cetera that are necessary for the functions of the human

body.[5]Hopkins and Eijkman were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1929 for their discovery of several vitamins.[10]

In 1910, the first vitamin complex was isolated by Japanese scientistUmetaro Suzuki, who succeeded in extracting a water-soluble

complex of micronutrients from rice bran and named itaberic acid (laterOrizanin). He published this discovery in a Japanese scientific

journal.[11]When the article was translated into German, the translation failed to state that it was a newly discovered nutrient, a claim made

in the original Japanese article, and hence his discovery failed to gain publicity. In 1912 Polish biochemistCasimir Funkisolated the same

complex of micronutrients and proposed the complex be named "vitamine" (aportmanteauof "vital amine").[12]The name soon became

synonymous with Hopkins' "accessory factors", and, by the time it was shown that not all vitamins areamines, the word was already
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-nobel-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-nobel-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-nobel-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sucrosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sucrosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Bhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Bhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Bhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Bhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver_(food)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver_(food)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver_(food)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyctalopiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyctalopiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyctalopiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_ricehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_ricehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beriberihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beriberihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takaki_Kanehirohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takaki_Kanehirohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beriberihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beriberihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battleshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battleshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Rosenfeld-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Rosenfeld-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Rosenfeld-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_Eijkmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Hopkinshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Challem-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Challem-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Challem-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Physiology_or_Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Carpenter-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Carpenter-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umetaro_Suzukihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umetaro_Suzukihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umetaro_Suzukihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casimir_Funkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casimir_Funkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casimir_Funkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portmanteauhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portmanteauhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portmanteauhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aminehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aminehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aminehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ARS_copper_rich_foods.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ARS_copper_rich_foods.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-nobel-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sucrosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Bhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Bhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver_(food)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyctalopiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_ricehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beriberihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takaki_Kanehirohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beriberihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battleshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Rosenfeld-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_Eijkmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Hopkinshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Challem-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Physiology_or_Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Carpenter-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umetaro_Suzukihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casimir_Funkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portmanteauhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amine


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ubiquitous. In 1920,Jack Cecil Drummondproposed that the final "e" be dropped to deemphasize the "amine" reference, after researchers

began to suspect that not all "vitamines" (in particular,vitamin A) has an amine component.[9]

In 1931,Albert Szent-Gyrgyiand a fellow researcher Joseph Svirbely suspected that "hexuronic acid" was actuallyvitamin C, and gave a

sample toCharles Glen King, who proved its anti-scorbuticactivity in his long-establishedguinea pigscorbutic assay. In 1937, Szent-

Gyrgyi was awarded theNobel Prize in Physiology or Medicinefor his discovery. In 1943,Edward Adelbert DoisyandHenrik Damwere

awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery ofvitamin Kand its chemical structure. In 1967,George Waldwas

awarded the Nobel Prize (along withRagnar GranitandHaldan Keffer Hartline) for his discovery that vitamin A could participate directly in

a physiological process.[10]

[edit]In humans

Vitamins are classified as eitherwater-soluble or fat-soluble. In humans there are 13 vitamins: 4 fat-soluble (A, D, E, and K) and 9 water-

soluble (8 B vitamins and vitamin C). Water-soluble vitamins dissolve easily in water and, in general, are readily excreted from the body, to

the degree that urinary output is a strong predictor of vitamin consumption.[13]Because they are not readily stored, consistent daily intake is

important.[14]Many types of water-soluble vitamins are synthesized by bacteria.[15]Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed through theintestinal

tractwith the help oflipids(fats). Because they are more likely to accumulate in the body, they are more likely to lead

to hypervitaminosis than are water-soluble vitamins. Fat-soluble vitamin regulation is of particular significance incystic fibrosis.[16]

[edit]List of vitamins

Each vitamin is typically used in multiple reactions, and, therefore, most have multiple functions.[17]

Vitamin

generic

descripto

r nameVitamer chemical name(s) (list not complete) Solubility

Recommended

dietary

allowances

(male, age 19

70)[18]

Deficiency disease

Upper

Intake

Level

(UL/day) [18]

Overdose disease

Vitamin

A

Retinol,retinal, and

fourcarotenoids

includingbeta carotene

Fat 900 g

Night-blindness,Hyperke

ratosis,

andKeratomalacia[19]3,000 g Hypervitaminosis A

Vitamin

B1Thiamine Water 1.2 mg

Beriberi,Wernicke-

Korsakoff syndromeN/D[20]

Drowsiness or

muscle relaxation

with large doses.[21]

Vitamin

B2Riboflavin Water 1.3 mg Ariboflavinosis N/D

Vitamin

B3Niacin,niacinamide Water 16.0 mg Pellagra 35.0 mg

Liverdamage

(doses > 2g/day)[22]andother

problems

Vitamin

B5Pantothenic acid Water 5.0 mg[23] Paresthesia N/D

Diarrhea; possibly

nausea and

heartburn.[24]

VitaminB6

Pyridoxine,pyridoxamine,pyridoxal Water 1.31.7 mgAnemia[25]peripheral

neuropathy.100 mg

Impairment

ofproprioception,

nerve damage

(doses >

100 mg/day)

Vitamin

B7Biotin Water 30.0 g Dermatitis,enteritis N/D

Vitamin

B9

Folic acid,folinic acid Water 400 g Megaloblastand

Deficiency during

pregnancy is associated

withbirth defects, such

1,000 g May mask

symptoms of

vitamin

B12deficiency;other
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Cecil_Drummondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Cecil_Drummondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Cecil_Drummondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Rosenfeld-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Rosenfeld-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Szent-Gy%C3%B6rgyihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Szent-Gy%C3%B6rgyihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Szent-Gy%C3%B6rgyihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Glen_Kinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Glen_Kinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scurvyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scurvyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinea_pighttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinea_pighttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinea_pighttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Adelbert_Doisyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Adelbert_Doisyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Adelbert_Doisyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrik_Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrik_Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrik_Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Khttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Khttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Waldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Waldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Waldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ragnar_Granithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ragnar_Granithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ragnar_Granithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haldan_Keffer_Hartlinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haldan_Keffer_Hartlinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Carpenter-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Carpenter-9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-pmid18635909-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-pmid18635909-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-urlWater-Soluble_Vitamins-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-urlWater-Soluble_Vitamins-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-urlWater-Soluble_Vitamins-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-pmid16462170-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-pmid16462170-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intestinal_tracthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intestinal_tracthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intestinal_tracthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypervitaminosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cystic_fibrosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cystic_fibrosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-pmid18812835-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-pmid18812835-15http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Kutsky-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Kutsky-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_Daily_Intakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_Daily_Intakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_Daily_Intakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-RDA-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-RDA-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotenoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotenoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_carotenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_carotenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night-blindnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night-blindnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperkeratosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperkeratosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperkeratosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperkeratosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keratomalaciahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keratomalaciahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keratomalaciahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-GOVa-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypervitaminosis_Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiaminehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiaminehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiaminehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiaminehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beriberihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beriberihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wernicke-Korsakoff_syndromehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wernicke-Korsakoff_syndromehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wernicke-Korsakoff_syndromehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riboflavinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riboflavinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riboflavinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riboflavinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariboflavinosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacinamidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacinamidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pellagrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacin#Toxicityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacin#Toxicityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantothenic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantothenic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantothenic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantothenic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paresthesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyridoxinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyridoxinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyridoxaminehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyridoxalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyridoxalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anemiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anemiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-GOVb6-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-GOVb6-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_neuropathyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_neuropathyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_neuropathyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprioceptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprioceptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dermatitishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dermatitishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enteritishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folinic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folinic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaloblasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaloblasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_defectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_defectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_defectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folic_acid#Overdose_Riskshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folic_acid#Overdose_Riskshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitaminhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitaminhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitaminhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Cecil_Drummondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Rosenfeld-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Szent-Gy%C3%B6rgyihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Glen_Kinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scurvyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinea_pighttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Adelbert_Doisyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrik_Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Khttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Waldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ragnar_Granithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haldan_Keffer_Hartlinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Carpenter-9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-pmid18635909-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-urlWater-Soluble_Vitamins-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-pmid16462170-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intestinal_tracthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intestinal_tracthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypervitaminosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cystic_fibrosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-pmid18812835-15http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Kutsky-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_Daily_Intakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_Daily_Intakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_Daily_Intakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-RDA-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-RDA-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotenoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_carotenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night-blindnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperkeratosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperkeratosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keratomalaciahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-GOVa-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypervitaminosis_Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiaminehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiaminehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiaminehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beriberihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wernicke-Korsakoff_syndromehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wernicke-Korsakoff_syndromehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riboflavinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riboflavinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riboflavinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariboflavinosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacinamidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pellagrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacin#Toxicityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacin#Toxicityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantothenic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantothenic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantothenic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paresthesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyridoxinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyridoxaminehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyridoxalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anemiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-GOVb6-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_neuropathyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_neuropathyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprioceptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dermatitishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enteritishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folinic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaloblasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_defectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folic_acid#Overdose_Risks


6/59

asneural tubedefects effects.

Vitamin

B12

Cyanocobalamin,hydroxycobalamin,methylcobala

minWater 2.4 g Megaloblastic anemia[26] N/D

Acne-like rash

[causality is not

conclusively

established].

Vitamin

CAscorbic acid Water 90.0 mg Scurvy 2,000 mg

Vitamin C

megadosage

VitaminD

Ergocalciferol,cholecalciferol Fat 5.0 g10 g[27] RicketsandOsteomalacia 50 g Hypervitaminosis D

Vitamin

ETocopherols,tocotrienols Fat 15.0 mg

Deficiency is very rare;

mildhemolytic anemiain

newborn infants.[28]1,000 mg

Increased

congestive heart

failure seen in one

large randomized

study.[29]

Vitamin

Kphylloquinone,menaquinones Fat 120 g Bleeding diathesis N/D

Increases

coagulation in

patients

takingwarfarin.[30]

[edit]In nutrition and diseases

Vitamins are essential for the normal growth and development of a multicellular organism. Using the genetic blueprint inherited from its

parents, afetusbegins to develop, at the moment of conception, from the nutrients it absorbs. It requires certain vitamins and minerals to

be present at certain times. These nutrients facilitate the chemical reactions that produce among other things,skin,bone, and muscle. If

there is serious deficiency in one or more of these nutrients, a child may develop a deficiency disease. Even minor deficiencies may cause

permanent damage.[31]

For the most part, vitamins are obtained with food, but a few are obtained by other means. For example, microorganisms in the intestine

commonly known as "gut flora" produce vitamin K and biotin, while one form of vitamin D is synthesized in theskinwith the help of the

naturalultravioletwavelength ofsunlight. Humans can produce some vitamins from precursors they consume. Examples include vitamin A,

produced frombeta carotene, andniacin, from theamino acidtryptophan.[18]

Once growth and development are completed, vitamins remain essential nutrients for the healthy maintenance of the cells, tissues, and

organs that make up a multicellular organism; they also enable a multicellular life form to efficiently use chemical energy provided by food it

eats, and to help process the proteins, carbohydrates, and fats required for respiration.[3]

[edit]Deficiencies

It was suggested that, when plants and animals began to transfer from the sea to rivers and land about 500 million years ago,

environmental deficiency of marine mineral antioxidants was a challenge to the evolution of terrestrial life. Terrestrial plants slowly

optimized the production of new endogenous antioxidants such as ascorbic acid (Vitamin C), polyphenols, flavonoids, tocopherols, etc.

Since this age, dietary vitamin deficiencies appeared in terrestrial animals.[32]Humans must consume vitamins periodically but with differing

schedules, to avoid deficiency. Human bodily stores for different vitamins vary widely; vitamins A, D, and B12 are stored in significant

amounts in the human body, mainly in theliver,[28] and an adult human's diet may be deficient in vitamins A and D for many months and

B12 in some cases for years, before developing a deficiency condition. However, vitamin B3 (niacin and niacinamide) is not stored in the

human body in significant amounts, so stores may last only a couple of weeks.[19][28]For vitamin C, the first symptoms ofscurvyin

experimental studies of complete vitamin C deprivation in humans have varied widely, from a month to more than six months, depending on

previous dietary history that determined body stores.[33]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_tubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_tubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_tubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folic_acid#Overdose_Riskshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folic_acid#Overdose_Riskshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanocobalaminhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanocobalaminhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxycobalaminhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxycobalaminhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylcobalaminhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylcobalaminhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaloblastic_anemiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaloblastic_anemiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-GOVb12-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascorbic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scurvyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_C_megadosagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_C_megadosagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Dhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Dhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergocalciferolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergocalciferolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholecalciferolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricketshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricketshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteomalaciahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteomalaciahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypervitaminosis_Dhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Ehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Ehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocopherolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocopherolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocotrienolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemolytic_anemiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemolytic_anemiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Merck-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Khttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Khttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylloquinonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylloquinonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menaquinonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleeding_diathesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warfarinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warfarinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gut_florahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gut_florahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunlighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunlighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunlighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_carotenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_carotenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_carotenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tryptophanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tryptophanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-RDA-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-RDA-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Bender-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Bender-2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Merck-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-GOVa-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Merck-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Merck-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scurvyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scurvyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scurvyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_tubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folic_acid#Overdose_Riskshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanocobalaminhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxycobalaminhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylcobalaminhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylcobalaminhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaloblastic_anemiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-GOVb12-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascorbic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scurvyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_C_megadosagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_C_megadosagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Dhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Dhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergocalciferolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholecalciferolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricketshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteomalaciahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypervitaminosis_Dhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Ehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Ehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocopherolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocotrienolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemolytic_anemiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Merck-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Khttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Khttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylloquinonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menaquinonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleeding_diathesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warfarinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gut_florahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunlighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_carotenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tryptophanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-RDA-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Bender-2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Merck-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-GOVa-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Merck-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scurvyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-32


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Deficiencies of vitamins are classified as either primary or secondary. A primary deficiency occurs when an organism does not get

enough of the vitamin in its food. A secondary deficiency may be due to an underlying disorder that prevents or limits the absorption or

use of the vitamin, due to a lifestyle factor, such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, or the use of medications that interfere with

the absorption or use of the vitamin.[28] People who eat a varied diet are unlikely to develop a severe primary vitamin deficiency. In contrast,

restrictive diets have the potential to cause prolonged vitamin deficits, which may result in often painful and potentially deadlydiseases.

Well-known human vitamin deficiencies involve thiamine (beriberi), niacin (pellagra), vitamin C (scurvy), and vitamin D (rickets). In much of

the developed world, such deficiencies are rare; this is due to (1) an adequate supply of food and (2) the addition of vitamins and minerals

to common foods, often called fortification.[18][28]In addition to these classical vitamin deficiency diseases, some evidence has also

suggested links between vitamin deficiency and a number of different disorders.[34][35]

[edit]Side-effects and overdose

In large doses, some vitamins have documentedside-effectsthat tend to be more severe with a larger dosage. The likelihood of consuming

too much of any vitamin from food is remote, but overdosing (vitamin poisoning) from vitamin supplementation does occur. At high enough

dosages, some vitamins cause side-effects such asnausea,diarrhea, andvomiting.[19][36]When side-effects emerge, recovery is often

accomplished by reducing the dosage. The doses of vitamins different individual can tolerate varies widely, and appear to be related to age

and state of health.[37]

In 2008, overdose exposure to all formulations of vitamins and multivitamin-mineral formulations was reported by 68,911 individuals to

the American Association of Poison Control Centers(nearly 80% of these exposures were in children under the age of 6), leading to 8

"major" life-threatening outcomes and 0 deaths.[38]

[edit]Supplements

Dietary supplements, often containing vitamins, are used to ensure that adequate amounts of nutrients are obtained on a daily basis, if

optimal amounts of the nutrients cannot be obtained through a varied diet. Scientific evidence supporting the benefits of some vitamin

supplements is well established for certain health conditions, but others need further study. [39]In some cases, vitamin supplements may

have unwanted effects, especially if taken before surgery, with other dietary supplements or medicines, or if the person taking them has

certain health conditions.[39] Dietary supplements may also contain levels of vitamins many times higher, and in different forms, than one

may ingest through food.[40]

There have been mixed studies on the importance and safety of dietary supplementation. Ameta-analysispublished in 2006 suggested

that Vitamin A and E supplements not only provide no tangible health benefits for generally healthy individuals but may actually increase

mortality, although two large studies included in the analysis involvedsmokers, for which it was already known thatbeta-

carotenesupplements can be harmful.[41]Another study published in May 2009 found that antioxidants such as vitamins C and E may

actually curb some benefits of exercise.[42]While others findings suggest that evidence of Vitamin E toxicity is limited to specific form taken

in excess.[43]

[edit]Governmental regulation of vitamin supplements
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Merck-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Merck-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beriberihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beriberihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pellagrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pellagrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scurvyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scurvyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scurvyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricketshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-RDA-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-RDA-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Merck-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Merck-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypervitaminosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypervitaminosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypervitaminosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_poisoninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_poisoninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_poisoninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauseahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauseahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauseahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarrheahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarrheahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vomithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vomithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vomithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-GOVa-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Healthier-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Healthier-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Association_of_Poison_Control_Centershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_supplementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_supplementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Sup-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Sup-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Sup-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Sup-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Higdon-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Higdon-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_smokinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_smokinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta-carotenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta-carotenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta-carotenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta-carotenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Tocotrienols:_Vitamin_E_beyond_tocopherols.-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Tocotrienols:_Vitamin_E_beyond_tocopherols.-42http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Merck-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beriberihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pellagrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scurvyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricketshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-RDA-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Merck-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypervitaminosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_poisoninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauseahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarrheahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vomithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-GOVa-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Healthier-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Association_of_Poison_Control_Centershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_supplementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Sup-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Sup-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Higdon-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_smokinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta-carotenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta-carotenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Tocotrienols:_Vitamin_E_beyond_tocopherols.-42http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=8


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Most countries placedietary supplementsin a special category under the general umbrella offoods, not drugs. This necessitates that the

manufacturer, and not the government, be responsible for ensuring that its dietary supplement products are safe before they are marketed.

Regulation of supplements varies widely by country. In theUnited States, a dietary supplement is defined under the Dietary Supplement

Health and Education Act of 1994.[44] In addition, the Food and Drug Administrationuses the Adverse Event Reporting System to monitor

adverse events that occur with supplements.[45]In the European Union, theFood Supplements Directiverequires that only those

supplements that have been proven safe can be sold without a prescription[46]

[edit]Names in current and previous nomenclatures

Nomenclature of reclassified vitamins

Previous name Chemical name Reason for name change[47]

Vitamin B4 Adenine DNA metabolite; synthesized in body

Vitamin B8 Adenylic acid DNA metabolite; synthesized in body

Vitamin F Essential fatty acidsNeeded in large quantities (does

not fit the definition of a vitamin).

Vitamin G Riboflavin Reclassified asVitamin B2

Vitamin H Biotin Reclassified asVitamin B7

Vitamin J Catechol,Flavin Catechol nonessential; flavin reclassified as B2

Vitamin L1[48] Anthranilic acid Non essential

Vitamin L2[48] Adenylthiomethylpentose RNA metabolite; synthesized in body

Vitamin M Folic acid Reclassified asVitamin B9

Vitamin O Carnitine Synthesized in body

Vitamin P Flavonoids No longer classified as a vitamin
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_supplementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_supplementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_supplementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_Supplement_Health_and_Education_Acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_Supplement_Health_and_Education_Acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_Supplements_Directivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_Supplements_Directivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_Supplements_Directivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-45http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Bennett-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_vitaminshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_vitaminshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adeninehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_vitaminshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_vitaminshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenylic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_fatty_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riboflavinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_vitaminshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_vitaminshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_vitaminshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_vitaminshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_vitaminshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_vitaminshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catecholhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catecholhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavin_grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavin_grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-VitaminL-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-VitaminL-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthranilic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-VitaminL-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-VitaminL-47http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adenylthiomethylpentose&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_vitaminshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_vitaminshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_vitaminshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnitinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavonoidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_supplementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_Supplement_Health_and_Education_Acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_Supplement_Health_and_Education_Acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_Supplements_Directivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-45http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Bennett-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_vitaminshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adeninehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_vitaminshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenylic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_fatty_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riboflavinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_vitaminshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_vitaminshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catecholhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavin_grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-VitaminL-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthranilic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-VitaminL-47http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adenylthiomethylpentose&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_vitaminshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnitinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavonoids


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Vitamin PP Niacin Reclassified asVitamin B3

Vitamin S Salicylic acid Proposed inclusion[49]of salicylate as an essential micronutrient

Vitamin U S-Methylmethionine Protein metabolite; synthesized in body

The reason that the set of vitamins skips directly from E to K is that the vitamins corresponding to letters F-J were either reclassified over

time, discarded as false leads, or renamed because of their relationship to vitamin B, which became a complex of vitamins.

The German-speaking scientists who isolated and described vitamin K (in addition to naming it as such) did so because the vitamin is

intimately involved in the Koagulation of blood following wounding. At the time, most (but not all) of the letters from F through to J were

already designated, so the use of the letter K was considered quite reasonable.[47][50]The table on the right lists chemicals that had

previously been classified as vitamins, as well as the earlier names of vitamins that later became part of the B-complex.

[edit]Anti-vitamins

Main article:Antinutrient

Anti-vitamins are chemical compounds that inhibit the absorption or actions of vitamins. For example,avidinis a protein in egg whites that

inhibits the absorption of biotin.[51]Pyrithiamine is similar to thiaminevitamin B1and inhibits the enzymesthat use thiamine.[52]

[edit]See also

Food portal

Antioxidant

Dietary supplement

Dietetics

Health freedom movement

Illnesses related to poor nutrition

Megavitamin therapy

Nutrition

Vitamin deficiency

Dietary minerals

Essential amino acids

Essential nutrients

Nootropics

Nutrients
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_vitaminshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_vitaminshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_vitaminshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salicylic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-Methylmethioninehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Bennett-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Bennett-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-quiz-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-quiz-49http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antinutrienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avidinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avidinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avidinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzymehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzymehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Foodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioxidanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_supplementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dieteticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_freedom_movementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illnesses_related_to_poor_nutritionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megavitamin_therapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutritionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avitaminosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_mineralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_amino_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_nutrienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nootropicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Foods.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_vitaminshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salicylic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-Methylmethioninehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-Bennett-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-quiz-49http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antinutrienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avidinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzymehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin#cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin&action=edit&section=11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Foodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioxidanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_supplementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dieteticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_freedom_movementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illnesses_related_to_poor_nutritionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megavitamin_therapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutritionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avitaminosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_mineralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_amino_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_nutrienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nootropicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrient


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Orthomolecular medicine

Pharmacology

Vitamin poisoning (overdose)

Whole food supplements

[edit]References

1. ^Lieberman, S, Bruning, N (1990). The Real Vitamin & Mineral Book. NY: Avery Group, 3,ISBN 0895297698

2. ^Maton, Anthea; Jean Hopkins, Charles William McLaughlin, Susan Johnson, Maryanna Quon Warner, David LaHart, Jill D.

Wright (1993). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall.ISBN0-13-981176-1.OCLC32308337.

3. âb Bender, David A. (2003). Nutritional biochemistry of the vitamins. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University

Press. ISBN978-0-521-80388-5.

4. ^Bolander FF (2006). "Vitamins: not just for enzymes". Curr Opin Investig Drugs7 (10): 9125.PMID17086936.

5. âbcde Jack Challem (1997)."The Past, Present and Future of Vitamins"

6. ^Jacob, RA. (1996). "Three eras of vitamin C discovery.". Subcell Biochem25: 116.PMID8821966.

7. ^Bellis, Mary.Vitamins Production Methods The History of the Vitamins. Retrieved 1 February 2005.

8. âb1929 Nobel lecture

9. âb Rosenfeld, L. (1997). "Vitaminevitamin. The early years of discovery.". Clin Chem43(4): 6805.PMID9105273.

10. âb Carpenter, Kenneth (22 June 2004)."The Nobel Prize and the Discovery of Vitamins". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 5

October 2009.

11. ^Tokyo Kagaku Kaishi: (1911)

12. ^Funk, C. and H. E. Dubin. The Vitamines. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins Company, 1922.

13. ^Fukuwatari T, Shibata K (2008). "Urinary water-soluble vitamins and their metabolite contents as nutritional markers for

evaluating vitamin intakes in young Japanese women".J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol.54 (3): 2239.doi:10.3177/jnsv.54.223.PMID18635909.

14. ^"Water-Soluble Vitamins". Retrieved 2008-12-07.

15. ^Said HM, Mohammed ZM (2006)."Intestinal absorption of water-soluble vitamins: an update".Curr. Opin.

Gastroenterol.22 (2): 1406.doi:10.1097/01.mog.0000203870.22706.52.PMID16462170.

16. ^Maqbool A, Stallings VA (2008)."Update on fat-soluble vitamins in cystic fibrosis". Curr Opin Pulm Med14 (6): 574

81.doi:10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283136787.PMID18812835.

17. ^Kutsky, R.J. (1973). Handbook of Vitamins and Hormones. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold,ISBN 0442245491

18. âbcdDietary Reference Intakes: VitaminsThe National Academies, 2001.

19. âbcVitamin and Mineral Supplement Fact Sheets Vitamin A
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