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Nina Maggio, Kate Kerkorian, Cristina Roide, Megan EdmondsP. 62/17/11

Chapter 5: States of Consciousness Outline

UNDERSTANDING CONSCIOUSNESS

o How Do We Define It? The Participant as the Inquirer

consciousness is being aware of ourselves and of our surroundings further studies and advanced technology like the EEG, PET, and fMRI

have contributed to studies on consciousness and more contributions to psychology

These machines study the brain activity called alternate states of consciousness (ASCs) – mental states, other than ordinary waking consciousness, found during sleep, dreaming, psychoactive drug use, hypnosis, etc

Conscious/Unconscious Continuum Subconscious

o Ignore, select, and reject incoming stimuli Preconscious

o Available memories Unconscious

o Repressed memories and dreams

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o How Do We Describe It? Flowing Stream with Varying Depths

William James, the first American psychologist, said that the consciousness constantly changes and that we use a process called selective attention to control what our conscious is giving it’s full attention to and what it’s not

The stream of consciousness exists along a continuum from high awareness to middle levels, to being completely unconscious

Controlled Versus Automatic Processes

the consciousness works in controlled and automatic processes controlled processes – mental activities requiring focused

attention that get in the way of other ongoing activities TIP:(like the focus needed to take a test since you would rather

be doing something else) automatic processes – Mental activities that don’t require a lot

of attention and don’t affect other activities TIP: (like driving a car… or an AUTOmobile)

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3 levels of awareness – High – involves controlled processes Middle – involves automatic processes and daydreaming Minimal or no awareness – involves being unconscious

(sleeping) Sleep and Dreams

o The Power of Circadian Rhythms: Sleep and the 24-hour Cycle

Human sleep pattern is based off of our circadian rhythms which spans over 24 hours each day

Humans are usually awake while it is light outside and asleep while it is dark

Our bodies can used the circadian rhythm as a clock because of our hypothalamus and pineal gland

The pineal gland helps regulate sleep and arousal by secreting a lot of the hormone melatonin during the night and little in the daytime

o Disrupted Circadian Rhythms

melatonin is used to treat “jet lag” studies show that sleep deprivation can decrease concentration and

productivity flying across several time zones can greatly affect one’s circadian cycle

which is what “jet lag” is

o Sleep Deprivation

Periods of “micro sleep” occur after a human being goes about 72 hours without sleep

Sleep deprivation is the cause of bad moods, decreased self-esteem, reduced concentration and motivation, reduced motor skills, and increased signs of stress

o Stages of Sleep: How Scientists Study Sleep

There are 4 to 5 cycles that can occur during sleep and each had its own rhythm and changes in brain activity

Scientist are able to use a tool called the electroencephalograph (EEG) to record a person’s brain waves

The EEG works by using small dislike electrodes on the scalps that can pick up electrical changes in the nerve cells of the cerebral cortex

Cycling Through the Stages of Sleep

Scientists have discovered the stages of sleep through devices like the EEG, the EMG, and the EOG

The EMG (electromyography) measures muscular activity

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o TIP: eMg—measures Muscle activity The EOG (electrooculography) measures eye movement

o TIP: eOg—measures your eye (Optics)

Early Stages of Sleep Beta waves show that you are in a normal wakefulness state Alpha waves shows that you are in a drowsy state of relaxation,

characterized by feelings of floating, visual images, or feelings of falling which is called the hypnogogic state

Stage 1 – breathing becomes regular, heart rate slows, blood pressure decreases. Can still be awoken easily; theta waves

Stage 2 – start going into sleep spindles, “occasional short bursts of rapid, high amplitude brain waves”. Become more relaxed and less responsive to the external environment

Stage 3 – high-amplitude delta waves. Very hard to be awaken Stage 4 – delta waves. Children wet their bed for sleep walk

people usually go through 4 to 5 cycles of light to deep sleep, each lasting about 90 minutes long

TIP: In remembering the order of the type of waves from wakefulness to state 4 of sleep remember… Boys (Beta) Are (Aplha) The (Theta) Dumbest (Delta).

REM Sleep

There is a point in your sleep where you almost get to stage 1 but not quite, and brain waves are of small-amplitude and fast-wave activity as if your awake

During this point the body is also showing signs of arousal Some say this is actually the deepest stage of sleep but also the

lightest in some ways giving REM sleep the name of “paradoxical sleep”

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REM (rapid eye movement) sleep–“ a stage of sleep marked by rapid eye movements, high-frequency brain waves, paralysis of large muscles, and dreaming”

NREM (non-rapid –eye-movement) – stages one through four REM sleep is important but NREM is even more important and

the bodies works to satisfy it first

Two Major Theories of Sleepo Repair/restoration theory- allowing sleep to act as a replenishing and

recuperative function, meanwhile allowing outside factors and or organisms to patch up or repair major factors.

TIP: Our bodies always feel better after we have had a nice long sleep.o Evolutionary/circadian theory- sleep came about to save energy and also to

serve as a safekeeping from outside predators animals and humans need to save up there energy when they were not

serving as predators also helps explain variations in sleep patterns TIP: If we lived in Africa, we would get eaten by the wild animals

because we could not see them in the dark, so we sleep as protection.

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o Both theories have pros and cons; conserving energy is vital in this dangerous environment

Three Major Theories of Dreamso Freud’s Psychodynamic view (wish fulfillment theory)-specific desires that lay

in the unconscious come about to the conscious state while dreaming. Main purpose of dreams may be wish fulfillment. Manifest content- surface content of a dream which holds that certain

dream signs or symbols may contort the dreams actual meaning. Also known as the story line

TIP: think of “Manifest Destiny” achieving something so perfect and out there it can distort what we are actually doing

Latent content- the actual, real and true unconscious interpretation or meaning of a dream, stated by the Freudian dream theory.

Freud’s ideas are backed up with little or no support Highly subjective

o Biological View Activation-synthesis hypothesis- dreams are products of unplanned

stimulation of particular brain cells whereby the brain undertakes activity to make reasoned patterns. (Hobson Theory)

Amygdala is a particular brain region connected to powerful emotions, for example fear.

TIP: think of a girl named Amy being really emotional However, dreams are specific to the individual (i.e. motivations,

memories, personality and life experiences) o Cognitive View

Dreams are a growth continuation of normal every day life. Can be known as another example of information processing. dreams in the cognitive view can be seen as mental

housecleaning REM sleep deepens after periods of high stress. For example,

“examination-anxiety dreams” are often experienced by college students

Dream Variations and Similarities o Men and women tend to dream about different things due to their gender. o women often dream about children and families, houses, and household

objects. o men often dream of violence, weapons, sex and personal achievement. o a common similarity about dreams that can be found through all cultures- basic

and standard needs such as sex aggression and death o Dreams across the globe tend to have an unhappy ending rather than a pleasant

one, many dreamers dream of being the personal victim.

Sleep Disorders

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o Separated into 2 major categories: dyssomnias (problems in amount and quality of sleep) and parasomnias (unusual disturbances while sleeping).

o Dyssomnias Insomnia- having little or no sleep. People that have insomnia have

difficulty and trouble falling asleep, or perhaps may wake up too soon or too early.

Often people with insomnia may also experience other psychological and medical disorders.

Most used method to treat insomnia is drugs such as tranquilizers and barbiturates

Sleeping pills can be helpful for short-term sleep, but in the long run, the user may end up with more problems than they started with.

Sleep Apnea Literally not being able to breathe. People that have sleep apnea may not be able to breathe for a

minute or longer during sleep. They wake up gasping for air. Most times, people with sleep apnea snore Effects of sleep apnea-the person may have trouble staying

awake during the day and appear to be tired and sleepy. Where does sleep apnea originate? The answer is simple:

blocked airway passages or due to the brain not being able to send signals to the diaphragm which will ultimately cause the breathing to stop.

Another downside of sleep apnea: kills neurons in the brain which are important and vital for memory

How to solve sleep apnea: dieting, surgery, dental procedures or breathing machines

Narcolepsy Sudden outbursts of sleeping when awake during the day. REM sleep will kick in when person with narcolepsy is in state of

consciousness. Weakening of muscles How to reduce narcolepsy attacks: daily naps, antidepressant

drugs. Research has been conduction on specially bred dogs with

narcolepsy. The causes and cures are still yet to be found.

o ParasomniasTIP: think of Paranormal Activity and what a NIGHTMARE that would be

unusual sleep disturbances, for example nightmares and night terrors. Nightmares- bad dreams that arise during REM sleep Night terrors- less common than nightmares but more scary and

horrifying. Occur during Stage 3 or 4 of NREM sleep. Examples of night terrors: panicking, hallucinations, screaming.

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Sleepwalking- literally walking in sleep also arises during NREM sleep. Sleeptalking-equal amount or probability in REM and NREM sleep.

Includes long sentences, or unrecognizable or hazy words Sleeptalking, sleepwalking, night terrors and nightmare are mostly

found in young children, but can also arise in adults.

How to prevent Sleep Problems o Exercise- physical activity can ease away the tensions that can often lead to

sleeping problemso Avoiding stimulants- i.e. caffeine, chocolate, or nicotineo Avoiding later meals and constant drinkingo DON’T WORRY! Be stress free! o Rituals before sleep-same routine every night before you go to bedo Muscle relaxationo Yoga positionso Deep breathingo Relaxing, warm bath

Psychoactive Drugs: Misconceptions and Confusing Terminologyo The terms “drug abuse” and “addiction” are commonly misused

Drug abuse: drugs that cause damage (whether emotional or physical) to the individual using them or to others

Addiction: a condition where a person is compelled to use a drug in order to function “normally”

o Psychological dependence and physical dependence have replaced these terms because of the common misuse of the words

Psychological dependency: the mental craving for the effects produced by a drug

TIP: I really want to feel like I am floating on a cloud. Can sometimes be more dangerous than physical dependence

o The user may ingest the drug so frequently that they are rarely not in a drug induced state

Physical dependence: when a person physically changes to where drugs are necessary in order to function properly

TIP: I can’t think straight or do my homework without marijuana.

Withdrawal, when a drug is withheld from someone with a physical dependency, can cause severe cravings and even pain

After a prolonged use of a specific drug, more of a drug may be needed in order to produce the same effect that was once received with a smaller dosage. This is called tolerance.

Cross tolerance occurs when the use of one drug increases the tolerance of another drug

Four Major Categories of Psychoactive Drugs: Depressants, Stimulants, Opiates, and Hallucinogens

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TIP: mnemonic Device: Deprived Stanley Operates Hungovero Depressants

Depress the central nervous system and results in: Relaxation Sedation Loss of consciousness (sometimes) death

is the most used and abused type of drug voluntary action can be impaired if the drug is over-used men’s bodies break down alcohol quicker and more efficiently than

women’s bodies barbiturate-and-alcohol mixture: extremely dangerous because it

causes the diaphragm to relax to a point where it stops functioning all together. The person actually suffocates because of this

o Stimulants Increase activity in the central nervous system and therefore for create

a “high” Stimulants produce:

Alertness Excitement Elevated mood Decreased fatigue (sometimes) increased motor activity

Nicotine: A legal stimulant that is widely used Cigarette smoking is considered the number one single most

preventable cause of death Cocaine:

A very powerful stimulant Extracted from the leaves of the coca plant Can cause severe physical damage as well as psychological

dependence Interferes with the electrical system of the heart Smokeable cocaine is the most attainable and the cheapest Cocaine is so dangerous because its extreme potency makes it

much more addictiveo Opiates (Narcotics)

Numbs the senses and are used medically to reduce pain Derived from the opium poppy (plant) Create feelings of euphoria and relax the user It copies the body’s natural endorphins, creating a dangerous pathway

to drug abuse The brain will resort to discontinuing the production of its own

opiates if artificial ones are introduced into the body Withdrawal is extremely painful once this happens

When used medically, addictions are rarely formed but when used for recreation, there is a high chance of addiction

o Hallucinogens

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TIP: Luci loves to smoke marijuana, a hallucinogen with her friend Mari. Change a person’s view of their consciousness Produce sensory or perceptual distortions Have been used in the past for religions

To experience “other realities” Experiences can be good but “bad trips” can also occur when the user

has a bad experience on the drug Include mescaline, psilocybin, phencyclidine, and LSD LSD

Dramatically alters sensation and perception LSD experiences are very extreme and powerful and therefore

users don’t find it necessary to use it on a regular basis “bad trips” on LSD can be extremely frightening TIP: Like Sudden Death

Marijuana Is commonly classified as a Hallucinogen BUT also has some

characteristics of a Depressant Produces mild euphoria One of the most popular of illegal drugs THC (tetrahydracannabinol) is the active ingredient in marijuana Attaches to the receptors throughout the brain

o There are already receptors in the brain which means that the brain produces some sort of THC on its own

There is no full understanding of this Is highly debated and many doctors argue that it can be

beneficial in that it is therapeutic Some users report impaired memory, attention, and learning Marijuana’s effects on the brain are somewhat similar to those

produced by drugs like heroin, cocaine, alcohol, and nicotine on the brain

Is not as habit-forming as other drugs that are abusedo Club Drugs

MDMA (ecstasy) causes increased blood temperature and blood pressure and can lead to seizures and heart attacks

Chronic use can affect the neurons that release serotonin Purchasing these drugs can be extremely dangerous because there can

be no buyer protection (the buyer cannot know exactly what they are buying)

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Explaining Drug Use: Psychoactive Drugs and ASCso How Drugs Work

Psychoactive Drugs affect the nervous system in different ways depending on the drug.

Most drug action occurs in one of the four steps of neural transmission. Step 1: Production or synthesis

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o Psychoactive and therapeutic drugs can alter the production or synthesis of neurotransmitters.

Step 2: Storage and Releaseo The drugs can change the amount of neurotransmitter

stored or released by a neuron. Step 3: Reception

o Drugs can change the effect of the neurotransmitters on the receiving site of the receptor neuron.

Agonists: mimic neurotransmitters Antagonists: block the real neurotransmitter TIP: In novels, the antagonist is the enemy who

BLOCKS the hero of the story with obstacles. Step 4: Deactivation

o After the neurotransmitter’s message is carried across the synapse, the neuron will deactivate the leftover neurotransmitter in 2 ways: reabsorption or enzymatic breakdown.

o Drugs may prohibit the leftover neurotransmitter to be deactivated so the receiving neurons will continue to respond.

TIP: this may be gross but to help remember the steps in neural transmission, think of a baby and the birth of a baby. Step 1: The baby is produced in the mother’s womb. Step 2: The baby is released out of the mother’s body. Step 3: The doctor or mother receives the baby in his or her arms. Step 4: The umbilical cord is “deactivated.”

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Research Highlight: Addictive Drugs as the Brain’s “Evil Tutor”o People may continue to take harmful drugs because the brain learns to be

addicted.o The addictive drugs manipulate the brain to want more of the drugs.o Both dopamine and glutamate are neurotransmitters that may be involved in

this. Dopamine is known to have an effect on the brain’s reward system. Glutamate “tells” the brain to want more of the harmful drugs.

Glutamate’s message causes addiction and this message is not easily forgotten.

o The addicted brain has cravings at the sight of drug-related items because glutamate is released. This explains drug relapse.

Healthier Ways to Alter Consciousness o Bio-feedback: a training program to develop the ability to control the

autonomic nervous system; can learn to relax muscles, control body temperature and heart rate

o Getting “High” on Meditation: A Positive Route to Altered Consciousness? Meditation is used to refocus attention, eliminate distractions, and

produce an alternate state of consciousness. Meditative techniques can include body movements or stances such as

in t’ai chi and hatha yoga. In other meditations the body is motionless and breathing is observed.

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Meditation is said to lead to a higher and more enlightened form of consciousness and allows the person to have control over their bodies.

Meditation can produce changes in brain waves, heart rate, oxygen consumption, and sweat gland activity

o The Mystery of Hypnosis: Recreational and Therapeutic Uses Hypnosis is a state of intense relaxation, increased suggestibility, and

keen focus. 5 characteristics:

Highly focused attention Increased imagination Receptive attitude Less responsiveness to pain Increased suggestibility

Therapeutic Uses Hypnosis has been used and abused for years Franz Anton Mesmer used hypnosis by moving a magnet over

the relaxed patient and told them that their problems would be gone

o Origin of the term “mesmerized” James Braid put his patients into this deep relaxed state before

surgery and founded the term “hypnosis” Hypnosis is still used today in surgery and involving pain but the

best use is with patients with anxiety, fear, and misinformation. Hypnosis has had most success in psychotherapy in treating

weight loss, phobias, smoking, and study habits Athletes use self-hypnosis

5 Common Myths and Controversies 1. Forced Hypnosis

o People cannot be hypnotized against their will. The participant must be willing and even if they are willing they still may not be able to be hypnotized

2. Unethical behavioro People will not go against their will or their strong

beliefs while being hypnotized. Participants are aware of their surroundings and can say no to the hypnotist—dissociation theory

3. Exceptional memoryo Being hypnotized does not allow people to recall certain

things they could not before being hypnotized. Relaxation may allow the participant to remember something. However, hypnosis can also create errors in

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memory because the participant cannot separate fact from fiction.

4. Superhuman strengtho Hypnotized people are not any stronger than non-

hypnotized people. 5. Fakery

o Are participants just playing along and pretending to be hypnotized?

They are not consciously faking but some results are from conformity, relaxation, suggestion, and role-playing.

o Are they actually in a special state of consciousness? Relaxation/role-playing theory

Hypnosis is a normal mental state and the participants allow the hypnotist to direct their behavior and thoughts

Altered State Theory Hypnosis results in a special state of

consciousness Unified Theory

Believes both of the above theories TIP: You saw your boyfriend kissing another girl. He tries to explain and

here are his excuses. He was sitting in the park and a hypnotist FORCED him and another girl to be hypnotized. The hypnotist told him to kiss the other girl and he went against his strong beliefs and kissed her because he was hypnotized. The girl suddenly remembered that she saw him when they were 2 years old and therefore are meant to be together. She was so strong from being hypnotized so he could not push her away from him. He is lying about all of this. Dump him.

*All pictures were obtained from:

Huffman, Karen. Psychology In Action. 8th ed. Danvers: John Wiley & Sons, 2007.