What is “Language-Mode Switching” and why does it happen?

Graduation Thesis

Presented to

the Faculty of the Department of

English Language and Literature

Notre Dame Seishin University

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirement for the Degree

Bachelor of Arts

by

Akiho Yoshimoto

2014

Contents

Contents 1

Abstract 4

Chapter One: Some factors in the second language acquisition

1.1 Introduction

1.2 The definition of bilingualism/a bilingual

1.3 Introduction to code-switching

1.3.1 The definition of code-switching

1.3.2 Types of code-switching

1.3.3 Functions of code-switching

1.3.4 The reasons why bilingual people switch languages.

1.4 Individual differences

1.4.1 Introduction

1.4.2 The definition of a learning strategy

1.4.3 The definition of a communication strategy

1.5 Communicative competence

1.5.1 Introduction

1.5.2 Language competence & language performance

1.5.3 Communicative competence

1.6 Research Questions

1

1.7 Summary

Chapter Two: The experiment

2.1 Introduction

2.2 The experiment

2.2.1 Introduction to the experiment

2.2.2 Method

2.2.2.1 Subjects

2.2.2.2 Test design

2.2.2.3 Procedure

2.2.3 Results

2.2.3.1 Introduction

2.3 Summary

Chapter Three: Discussion

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Summary of the results

3.3 Discussion of the results

3.3.1 Introduction

3.3.2 The results for Question 10 and 16

3.3.2.1 Reasons why they feel it easier – people who answered Yes or

Maybe Yes

2

3.3.2.2 Reasons why they feel it easier – people who answered Maybe

No or No

3.4 Research Questions

3.5 Implications

3.6 Limitations of the Experiments

3.7 Further research

3

Abstract

There are about 6,000 languages in the world today. More people

speak two or more languages compared to people who speak only one

language. But sometimes while speaking some bilinguals change the language

they use mid-sentence for some reasons. This thesis asks about the change of

the language, called code-switching and the reasons for it.

In Chapter One, we learnt about the definition of bilingualism/a bilingual,

code-switching, and individual differences such as learning strategies,

communication strategies, communicative competence and language

performance. In each section, we saw them in detail. For example, there were

many kinds of bilinguals and code-switching. Also we saw the reasons why

people code-switch in this Chapter.

In Chapter Two, the results of the experiment taught us that language-

mode switching happens depending on the interlocutor or the situation, and the

length of learning the second language does not really matter to peoples’

confidence with the second language abilities especially in speaking. We also

found out that it depends on whether individuals are conscious or unconscious

of when they switch language-mode.

In Chapter Three, we discussed the experiment in detail, answered the

two research questions, thought over the problems or limitations of the

experiment for further research. Regrettably, we could not find the clear answer

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to one of the research questions. However, we discovered that peoples’

speaking ability in the second language can be improved depending on the

interlocutor. If people have an interlocutor who is comfortable and they have no

worries making mistakes to talk with, their speaking ability can be improved

efficiently.

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Chapter One: Some factors in second language

acquisition

1.1 Introduction:

There are about 6,000 languages in the world today. The majority of the

world’s population is bilingual or multilingual, with monolingual speakers in the

minority. (Starks, Harlow, and Bell, 2005) When people know two or more

languages they often switch between the languages according to the context,

(for example, family, religion, education, employment and so on), the

interlocutor, the topic, and other factors. In this section we will talk about

bilingualism and the reasons why they use two languages.

Also we will look at about code-switchingwhichis one of the features of bilingual

communitiesandhappens particularly when learning a second language. We

will look at this later. First, let’s look at bilingual/bilingualism.

1.2 What is bilingualism/a bilingual?

There is no clear definition of bilingual or bilingualism yet but bilingualism is

complexand varies widely among individuals. Skutnabb-Kangas (1981) says

that there are almost as many definitions of bilingualism as there are scholars

investigating it, and the choice of definition is thus wholly dependent upon what

it is to be used for.

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There are many definitions of bilingual/bilingualism. Here are some definitions.

- Someone who speaks two languages.

People are bilingual when they achieve native-like fluency in each language.

(Crystal, 1987)

- People who command two languages at anative-like level. (Bloomfield, 1935)

- Speakers in the stage where they have started to acquire a second language.

(Diebold, 1964)

- Bilingual individuals also vary in significant ways with respect to age of

acquisition, language proficiency attained, participation in a bilingual speech

community, and the particular languages involved.

Bilinguals refer to people able to use two languages. Both languages don’t

need to be native level. It also means people who have various abilities,

possibilities and language level.Although we cannot just describe someone as

bilingual. We need to find out bilingual more about the person.Many bilingual

people have different skills in their two languages and use them for different

purposes. Therefore there are many kinds of bilinguals.

Many people believe bilinguals may use their languages equally, but as we

sawin the introduction, they often use it for particular contexts, for particular

purposes, and with particular people. Here we will look at some kinds of

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bilinguals.

Balanced bilinguals

Balanced bilinguals are people whose both languages are nearly native-like

level. They are fluent in both languages in various situations.

Dominant Bilinguals

People whose have one language stronger than the other language are called

Dominant bilinguals.

Simultaneous Bilinguals

People who have learnt their two languages at the same time, usually in early

childhood are called simultaneous bilinguals. Usually, simultaneous bilinguals

have a more ‘native-like’ accent in both languages.

Sequential/Consecutive Bilinguals

Sequential bilinguals have learnt one language after the other. Sequential

bilinguals may have greater knowledge about one language than the other.

Double limited bilingual

The ability of both languages is not enoughas neither languages are native

level. Those people are called Double limited bilinguals.

Productive Bilinguals

Productive bilinguals can not only listen and read but also speak and write in

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their second language.

Receptive Bilinguals

People who can understand and read their second language, but they cannot

speak or write are called receptive bilinguals.

When we say the single word “bilingual”, we should know that there are many

kinds of bilinguals. The background of learning a language is one of the keys to

be one of above-mentioned bilinguals.

1.3 Introduction to code-switching

Most people who speak more than two languages, may have experienced

code-switching. Those people might switch language especially when they are

talking with the other people who can speak both languages. Here is an

example of code-switching. For example, when I talk to Mr. Williams who is a

native speaker of English and speaks Japanese at about native level, we switch

languages many times and so does he.

Mr. Williams: Have you finished making Shiori for our gasshuku in Hiruzen?

Me : No, ma da. I’m still ganbatteru.

Mr. Williams: Oh okay. Keep working on it but otsukaresama for today.

Why do people switch languages while creating discourse? In what

situations does code-switching happen? Are people conscious or unconscious

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when they switch language? How much experience do people need to switch

language? We will talk about these things in the next section.

1.3.1 What is code-switching?

It is common for bilinguals to switch between two languages. Some

researchers have investigated code-switching and it is now established as a

world-widephenomenonas code-switching is one of the features of bilingual

communities. However, code-switching has only begun to get serious scholarly

attention in the last few decades. Here are some definitions of code-switching.

- Code-switching is the practice of shifting the languages you use or the way you

express yourself in your conversations. (Thompson, 2013)

- Code-switching, the use of two or more languages in discourse, is the norm in

many bilingual and multilingual communities.

- People alternate between two languages smoothly and frequently at various

points, even within a sentence boundary. (Nishimura, 1997)

- Code-switching refers to the mixing, by bilinguals (or multi-linguals), of two or

more languages in discourse, often with no change of interlocutor or topic.

Such mixing may take place at any level of linguistic structure, but its

occurrence within the confines of a single sentence, constituent or even word,

has attracted most linguistic attention. (Poplack, 2010)

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- The movement back and forth between two languages or dialects within the

same sentence or discourse. (Fromkin. V., Hayes. N. & Rodman. R. (2003)

p.577)

- Change of linguistic style depending on situation, interlocutor, setting, etc. For

bilingual speakers, this may mean using both languages at the word, phrase,

clause, or sentence level. (Goldstein, 2000)

- The use of more than one language in the course of a single communicative

episode. (Heller. M. (1999) p.1)

- To use two or more languages in the same discourse. (Myers-Scotton& Jake

(1995))

There are various kinds of definitions of code-switching and each differs

depending on the researchers. From the above definitions, it could be said that

code-switching generally means to switch between two languages mid-

sentence.

1.3.2 Types of code-switching

Nishimura (1997) investigated the types of code-switching and functions

of code-switching. We will first look at types of code-switching and types of

code-switching.

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(1) Situational code-switching (Bloom &Gumperz 1972)

Situational code-switching is sensitive to changes in contextual features.

The idea goes back to Weinreich (1953, p.73): an ideal bilingual switches from

one language to the other according to appropriate changes in the speech

situation (interlocutor, topic, etc.), but not in an unchanged speech situation, and

certainly not within a single sentence.

E.g. Telephone conversation with friends. (Italian is in Italic)

Akiho: How’s everything?

Christina: It’s great. Actually, our friend is visiting from Italy.

Akiho: What? Really? Silvia? I miss her!

Christina: Yes! She wants to talk to you.

Silvia: Ciao, Akiho!

Akiho: Ciao, Silvia! Mimanchi! Come stai?

(2) Metaphorical code-switching (Bloom &Gumperz)

Metaphorical code-switching is external features such as topics and

interlocutors do not account for all language switches. Some researchers have

found switches between languages even when contextual features remain the

same.

E.g. Akiho is talking about her experience in London. (English is in Italic)

“London niaruSt. Paul’s Cathedralniittatoki, otokonokankoukyakuga“She’s going

to fall off the building.” to watashiniitta.

She uses English when quoting the guy. The switch from Japanese to English

expresses how the guy made fun of me and emphasizes the trauma of the

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experience.

(3) Conversational code-switching (Gumperz 1982)

Metaphorical code-switching (Bloom &Gumperz 1972; Gumperz& Hernandez-

Chavez 1972) requires a distinction between an unmarked language and a

marked language. One language is the norm in certain speech situations (the

unmarked language) but another language is also used in these situations (the

marked language). Some researchers question the validity of this distinction: Is

it possible to distinguish between an unmarked language and a marked

language in all code-switching cases? Sankoff (1972), studying multilingualism

in New Guinea, first raised this question. Gumperz (1982) later developed the

term “conversational code-switching” to refer to cases of two languages used

without this distinction.

(4) Rapid code-switching including many instances of intra-sentential code-

switching as in Poplack (1980).

(5) The markedness model (Myers-Scotton 1993a)

“Markedness” here means whether particular instance of language choice is

unmarked(expected) or marked(unexpected). When code-switching is

common, it is called “unmarked choice”. On the other hand, places where

people code-switch in consideration for social, political or economical purposes,

it is called the“marked” choice, i.e. the one that is unusual or different.

Code-switching generally means to switch between two languages.

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Furthermore, we can divide code-switching into some types. They may look

similar and complicated.

1.3.3 Functions of code-switching

Nishimuradefinedthree functions of code-switching.

(1) Symbolic functions

Studies dealing with the symbolic functions assume that the two

languages or varieties in a given community represent the two separate

groups and identities (Bloom &Gumperz 1972; Gumperz 1982; Heller

1988b; Myers-Scotton 1993a; Wooland 1988). The two identities carry

their own, usually contrasting, values and attitudes.

(2) Instrumental functions

“Instrumental functions” refers to what bilingual speakers do when

they interact with each other using the two languages. These functions

have no direct connection with the symbolic values of languages.

(3) Children’s code-switching

Bilingual children use code-switching just as bilingual adults do.

Bilingual children use both symbolic and instrumental functions.

Code-switching does not just refer to switching between two languages. It has

functions, and bilingual children use both symbolic functions and instrumental

functions.

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1.3.4 The reasons why bilingual people switch languages.

Bilinguals are known to switch between two languages for some reasons.

Code-switching has some purposes and it differs depend on the situation, the

interlocutors, age and it changes as we get older and have more experiences.

So, why do bilinguals switch languages? Let’s look at some reasons.

(1) They want to say something in secret.

When bilingual people don’t want other people to know what they are talking

about, they switch languages that other people don’t understand.

E.g.: A conversation with a friend who speaks Japanese on the train in

London.

Akiho: Wow look at the guy over there!

Marion: Who? The guy standing there?

Akiho: Yeah! He’s so Ikemen.

Marion: Wow! He’s kakkoii!

(2) To make up for what they don’t know.

It is natural process in language learning that there are words they don’t

know yet. Therefore, they substitute words from their first language to make

up for what they don’t know.

E.g.: A conversation with a friend.

Akiho: I feel sick.

Evan: You look pale. Are you alright?

Akiho: Yeah but I think I need some medicine. I hakisou…

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Evan: Wait, wait, wait! I’ll get you some medicine immediately!

(3) It helps conveya thought.

They switch languages to express a concept that does not have a direct

translation or equivalent in other language. Here are some examples. Here

is an actual example. This is an example I experienced when I visited my

friends in America. They’re twins and both of them studied Japanese when

they were in high school. Their Japanese language levels are quite high.

Erik: Good morning, Akiho!

Me : Good morning, Erik!

Evan: Did you sleep well? You sleep on futon in Japan and I was worried

that you might not be able to sleep well on a bed.

Me: I slept very well. I usually sleep on futon on tatami but sleeping on a

bed was actually comfortable.

Erik: That’s good! I liked sleeping on a futon when I was in Japan.

Here they understand the concept of futon and tatami, I don’t need to

explain anything about it. Also, not translating those words into English, which

doesn’t have the concept of these words, Erik and Evan understand the

meaning properly.

Thus, code-switching has a connection with something more than the

features of the language (Hoffman, 1991). From those examples, we can see

that there are some important aspects or a power relationship in code-switching

such as relationship with friends. It is the same case as we switch dialects or

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the areas where we use them. In the next section, we will look at differences

among individuals.

1.4 Individual Differences

1.4.1Introduction

Generally, it is said that the language proficiency in the second language differs

among individuals. Several factors influence language acquisition: at what age

they learn second language, their cognitive styles, motivation, attitude,

character and so on. Ellis (1985) says situational factors - who, to whom, about

what, where, when, talking –have a remarkably great influence on progress with

the second language proficiency. We will look at those factors in this section.

First, let’s look at learning strategies.

1.4.2 What is a learning strategy?

Ultimately, language learners learn in their own way. For example, some listen

to the language every day, others read a textbook again and again. Those

strategies related to the way people learn things and are called “learning

strategies”. How and what kind of strategy language learners use differs among

individuals. There are various definitions about learning strategy defined by

researchers. Oxford (R. Oxford) classifies learning strategies into six.

(1) Memory Strategies

This is the strategy that advances learning by memorizing using various

methods. Memory strategies are things such as pattern practice, pun and to

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practice using word cards.

(2) Cognitive Strategies

Cognitive strategiespractice what learners have learnt by using actually, to write

down in a notebook, to underline the important items are. Cognitive strategies

are things such as translating into the mother language and shadowing.

(3) Compensation Strategies

This is the strategy that language learners use to comprehend the language

and to make up for what they don’t know when they speak. It could be

communication strategy, which we will look later, if it is in a communicative

situation. To use non-verbal language such as body language is also included

in compensation strategies.

(4) Meta-Cognitive Strategies

Meta-cognitive strategy is the strategy used further above cognitive strategies.

It means that various strategies which learners use to adjust to recognize their

cognitive process. For example, meta-cognitive strategies are planning how

they learn, self-checking what they have learnt.

(5) Affective Strategies

This strategy is related to feelings and attitudes. Affective strategiesendeavor to

make situations where learners can learn relaxed and without anxiety. Affective

strategies include strategies toencourage themselves and advance learning by

playing music they like, making jokes to relax.

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(6) Social Strategies

This is the strategy that advances learning by interacting with other people. The

most basic thing is to ask questions. Having their mistakes corrected, making

friends with people who speak the target language and communicate with them,

helping each other and practice such as group work, pair-practice are also

included in social strategies.

Learning strategies are techniques or devices that language learners use to

acquire knowledge, and specific behavior that they assume to make learning

easier, faster, more fun, more subjective, more effective and to receive new

situations quickly. (Oxford, 1994; 8-9)

1.4.3 What is a communication strategy?

You may have had a difficulty when you are speaking a foreign language. For

example, you don’t know or you can’t remember the words or phrases you want

to say in the foreign language. You use communication strategy to deal with the

problem. The behavior or attitudes in such situations are called “communication

strategy”. The classification of communication strategies differ depend on

researchers, however, there are some kinds of communication strategies.

(Tarone 1977, Tarone 1980, Færch & Kasper 1983, Cook 1991)

(1) Avoidance: to avoid or ignore what the interlocutor says when they don’t

understand.

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a. Avoidance

Not to use words or phrases they don’t know. They avoid topics which sounds

difficult in advance.

b. Change of topics

Tochange the topic into something they can talk about.

E.g. A conversation with a friend

Joel: “A new law was accepted recently. What do you think about that?

Akiho: Well, speaking of law, you’re going to law school soon, right? Are you

excited? Have you finished packing?

c. Abandonment of communication

To give up telling what they want to say.

(2) Paraphrase: to use other phrases.

a. Parallel phrases

To substitute parallel words for words what they want to say.

E.g.: Japanese restaurant restaurant

b. Coinage

To create new words.

E.g.: Japanese restaurantJapares

c. Euphemism/Explanation

To describe concepts or words indirectly or to explain in detail what they want to

tell.

E.g.: A restaurant which has Japanese food.

(3) Mother language use(conscious transfer): to borrow their mother tongue.

a. Code-switching

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To use their mother tongue to make up for what they don’t know.

E.g.: I’m on kyuukeinow.

b. Literal translation

To translate a sentence literally into their mother tongue.

E.g.: They say “Noah to sugoshitajikangawatashiwoshiawasenishita.”Instead of

“Noah to sugoshitajikangashiawasedata.”

(4) Appeal for assistance: to appeal for assistance to the interlocutor .

a. Ask the interlocutor again.

To ask for help directly.

E.g.: “What does that mean?Can you say it again?”

b. Mime

To appeal for assistance using non-verbal means such as gestures or body

language.

E.g.: They use gestures or body languages to tell the message.

c. Repair

To ask the interlocutor to give a supplementary explanation about what they

don’t understand.

E.g.: In a conversation with a friend;

Rob: “It’s unrequited love.”

Akiho: “Un…unre… unrequited?”

There are various kinds of views how those communication strategies are

related to second language learning. The positive view is that strategies that

language learners manage to use with words they have to achieve

communication such as paraphrases encourage acquisition. On the other

hand, it is considered that if language learners can achieve communication just

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by using limited words they have, it could be impossible to improve their second

language skills. The reasons are that they don’t feel necessity to learn new

words or phrases, and they use communication strategies frequently to make

up for their lack of language competence.

1.5 Communicative competence

1.5.1 Introduction

In actual communication, we just cannot have language knowledge but we have

to use proper words or phrases depending on the interlocutor or scene. For

example, when we ask a teacher for help, we should use polite words or

phrases. However, when we want our friends to cooperate, we don’t really be

polite. It’s more casual. Therefore, the concept of communicative competence

has been presented as a necessary competence when we use language.

(Hymes, 1971) What we call communicative competence includes competence

related to the appropriateness of language use such as when, to whom, how

they tell, which is called language competence.Before we talk about

communicative competence, let’s look at language competence and language

performance stated by Chomsky (1965, 1975, 1980).

1.5.2 Language competence & language performance

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Language competence is language knowledge related to a mother language. It

is in mother language speakers’ brains. Chomsky thinks human can produce

an infinite number ofsentenceswhich they never heard of before due to

language competence.

In contrast, language performance means that a language is actually used in a

specific scene. This is how Chomsky divides language competence and

language performance. The reason is that language performance includes

some expressions which are deviated from rules or slips of the tongue. Also,

complicated factors are involved with language performance. Therefore, we

cannot say that language competence is directly related to language

performance.

1.5.3 Communicative competence

The concept of communicative competence was first presented by Hymes

(1971). There arefour types of communicative competence and each one has

different competence. Let’s look at the table.

Table 1: The communicative competence (Hymes, 1972) (Canale& Swain,

1980; Canale, 1983)

Grammatical

competence

Linguistic knowledge of grammar, sentence structures,

vocabulary, spelling of words, pronunciation and so on.

Sociolinguistic

competence

The ability to use a language properly according to

various kinds of situations.

Discourse The ability to comprehend things like articles, pronouns,

conjunctions how they are used in a conversation and

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competence use them.

The ability to start/finish a conversation and to change a

subject.

Strategic

competence

The ability to navigate communication smoothly.

Those are communicative competence and people have different

abilities with each competence.Communicative competence can be one of the

reasons why some people good at English cannot speak English well.

1.6 Research Questions

Almost all bilinguals use code-switching instinctively and we have found out

that code-switching happens for some reasons. Also, there are of course

differences among individuals such as language competence, their learning

style, learning strategies and things like that. The following are three research

questions

1. Are people conscious or unconscious when they switch language-mode?

2. Does it depend on the interlocutor and the situation?

1.7 Summary

We have seen bilinguals/bilingualism, difference among individuals, and

some other things related to them. Speaking has complicated process and one

of the most important skills in language learning. Sometimes people switch

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between languages on purpose for some reason. In Chapter Two, the

questionnaire about language-mode switching will be presented. Also, we will

find out how language-mode switching happens.

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Chapter Two: The experiment

2.1 Introduction

In Chapter One, we saw that there were some kinds of bilinguals and

how code-switching related to it. Also, we found out that differences among

individuals affect language learning. In this chapter, we will look at language-

mode switching in detail.

2.2 The experiment (questionnaire)

2.2.1 Introduction to the experiment

The aim of this questionnaire is to find out the relation between

language skills of individuals and language-mode switching, where/when/in

what kind of situation it happens.

2.2.2 Method

2.2.2.1Subjects

There were 21 random subjects who are learning a second language or

have learnt it. The subjects were students, immigrants, teachers, office workers

and so on. They took the questionnaire regardless of gender, age,

backgrounds or nationalities. Some of the subjects have studied abroad for a

short/long time.

2.2.2.2 Test design

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The aim of the experiment was to find out if people were conscious or

unconscious when they switch language-mode and to check if it depends on the

interlocutor or the situation when people code-switch. There were 17 questions

in total and all of them were thought by the author of this thesis. The first 9

questions were about language skills. Those were about what they think about

their language abilities, how confident they are with the second language, how

much experience of the learning the second language they have and so on.

There was one question about their emotion in speaking second language

which is the 10th question. The other 6 questions were about language-mode

switching, which were about when/in what kind of situation code-switching

happens, if people have experience of code-switching and realize the moment

when it happens and things like that.

2.2.2.3 Procedure

The questionnaire was put on the Internet. The data was randomly

collected and was taken from people regardless of gender, age, backgrounds or

nationalities. Anyone on the internet could take the questionnaire as long as

they knew the link. Some of the subjects were students and some of them were

inhabitants in the second language speaking countries. The data was

automatically analyzed by Google drive. It is in the appendix.

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2.2.3 Results

(1) Introduction

First, let’s look at results of the questions about language skills. Then

we will find out what it is like and what the subjects think about their language

skills. Second, we will see the results of the questions about language-mode

switching, and then we will find out how and where it happens. The results for

question 10 and 16 will be presented in Chapter Three.

Table 2: The length of learning second language

Almost half of the subjects have studied second language for 10-15 years, and

all of the subjects have studied a second language for at least a year.

Table 3: The data of self-appraisal of second language ability

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1- Very low 5- very high

Even though about half of the subjects have studied a second language for 10-

15 years, more than 50% ranked their second language skills as normal. None

of them ranked very high.

Table 4: The ranking of four skills – listening, speaking, reading and writing-

which the subjects are good at.

Rank those 4 skills with you’re good at.

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The result shows that the subjects are good at listening and reading. On the

other hand, it seems that the subjects are not so confident with speaking and

writing, which are “productive skills”.

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Table 5: The data for confidence with speaking ability in the second language.

None of the subjects are very confident with a second language, on the

contrary, one fourth of the subjects are not confident at all.

Table 6: Difficulties in communicating in the second language.

Can you communicate with people in the second language without any

difficulties?

1- Strongly No 5- Strongly Yes

The interesting thing is that one fourth of the subjects answered yes or strongly

yes to Question 9 in spite of the fact that they are not very confident in the

second language.

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Table 7: Experience of language-mode switching.

Half of the subjects have experienced language-mode switching, whereas 30%

of them have not.

Table 8: The consciousness of language-mode switching.

About 30% of the subjects realize both times, and other 30% of the subjects

don’t realize the moment neither times when their language-mode changes.

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Table 9: The situations that language-mode switching happens.

The results show that even though we don’t go to the country where the second

language is spoken, language-mode switching happens. The frequency is

almost the same as the situation that language-mode switching happens in the

second language speaking country. Also, it seems that language-mode

switching rarely happens in the second language class.

Table 10: The moment when language-mode switching happens

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It seems that language-mode switching tends to happen when the subjects are

emotionally active in a positive way. It could be captured as follows. When the

subjects want to tell something but don’t know the way or don’t have enough

language, they try very hard to find the way to tell the message. Consequently,

language-mode switching frequently tends to happen.

2.3 Summary

We saw that more than 80% of the subjects are not confident with their

second language skills, particularly in speaking. However, more than one fourth

of the subjects answered that they could communicate with people in the

second language without any difficulties. Also, we found out that the number of

the subjects who are conscious or unconscious of language-mode switching is

the same. In Chapter Three, we will talk about the results for the question 5

and 16. Also, we will have further expand discussions about relevance of the

situations, the interlocutors and language-mode switching.

34

Chapter Three: Discussion

3.1 Introduction

In Chapter One, we looked at bilinguals, bilingualism, code-switching

and the differences among individuals. Code-switching is a highly sophisticated

linguistic tool and there is nearly always a reason for code-switching.Chapter

Two shows the subjects don’t think their second language skills are very high

regardless of the length of learning the second language.

In this chapter, we will talk about the results for Questions 10 and 16,

then the responses to research questions will be discussed.

3.2 Summary of the results

Twenty-one subjects took the questionnaire. Even though about half of

the subjects have studied the second language for 10-15 years, more than 50%

of them think their second language skill is normal. Furthermore, none of the

subjects are confident with their speaking ability in the second language. Half

of the subjects have experienced language-mode switching, and it seems that

language-mode switching tends to happen when the subjects want to express

feelings which are positive.

3.3 Discussion of the results

35

3.3.1 Introduction

The results of Questions 10 and 16, which are about their emotions

when speaking the second language and the interlocutor, are discussed here.

The data for Question 10 and 16 are also presented in this section.

3.3.2 The results for Questions 10 and 16

More than 50% of the subjects answered Yes or Maybe Yes to Question 10. It

means that more than half of the subjects feel it is easier to use the second

language when they talk to people whose first language is not their second

language compared to people whose first language is their second language.

On the other hand, about one fourth of the subjects answered Maybe No or No.

Also, more than 60% of the subjects answered that language-mode switching

happens depends on who they are talking to. Let’s look at the reasons.

3.3.2.1 Reasons why they feel it easier – who answered Yes

or Maybe Yes

36

Five subjects gave shyness or nervousness as reason. Here are the

reasons.

- I feel kind of embarrassed and too shy to speak Japanese to Japanese people if

I know they can speak English to me. If it’s someone whose native language

isn’t Japanese than I have no worries at all. (L1: English, L2: Japanese)

- If the interlocutor doesn’t speak my second language, it could be difficult for the

person if theyrealize how low my second language level is. (L1: Japanese, L2:

English)

- When I talk to foreign people, I become nervous. (L1: Japanese, L2: English)

- I feel less embarrassed and less worried to make a mistake because I know

that this isn’t their first language either and they are probably studying it and will

be able to sympathize if I make mistakes. (L1: English, L2: Japanese)

- As fellow foreign learners of the language, they are not going to speak it

perfectly either, so I feel less self-conscious. (L1: English, L2: Japanese)

3.3.2.2 Reasons why they feel it easier – who answered

Maybe No or No

Some of the subjects who answered Maybe No or No gave reasons

related to accents, understanding or their second language skills. Let’s look at

the reasons.

- It is not easy to catch what the interlocutor says because the person has his/her

mother language accents. (L1: Japanese, L2: English)

37

- If the interlocutor’s mother language is English, I expect the person to

understand what I want to say just by telling a few words. On the other hand, if

the interlocutor’s mother language is not English, it can be difficult to

communicate properly as long as I don’t use clear words or phrases. (L1:

Japanese, L2: English)

- It is not easy to catch what the interlocutor says because the English that the

person speak interfered with his/her mother language. (L1: Japanese, L2:

English)

- Even if the interlocutor’s mother language is not English, I still don’t feel

confident with my English skills. (L1: Japanese, L2: English)

As we have seen above, the subjects who answered Yes or Maybe Yes tend to

feel embarrassed or worry about making mistakes in speaking the second

language. On the other hand, the subjects who answered Maybe No or No

think communication can be easier and happen more smoothly if the

interlocutor’s mother language is their second language since the interlocutor

knows the language perfectly.

3.4 Research questions

The research questions in Chapter One are answered here. We had

two research questions;

38

1. Are people conscious or unconscious when they switch language-mode?

According to the results of the questionnaire, more than half of the subjects are

conscious when they switch language-mode. Subject 1 who speaks English as

his mother language, and French, Spanish and Japanese at native-like level

says he is especially conscious of language-mode changes when he switches

from one non-native language to another non-native language. Subject 2

whose mother language is English and second language is Japanese says that

he tends to answer in Japanese without thinking if he gets asked a question in

Japanese. Subject 3 whose first language is Japanese and second language is

English says he realizes the moment when language-mode switches from

Japanese to English when he gets spoken to in English. The interesting thing is

that Subject 2 doesn’t realize the moment when language-mode switches but

Subject 3 does. Subject 4 says he doesn’t realize language-mode switching

when the communication is happening quickly. Therefore, we can say that

there is no clear answer to the question. Some people are conscious and

others are unconscious when they switch language-mode. It depends on

individuals.

2. Does it depend on the interlocutor or the situation?

39

Since more than 60% of the subjects answered that it depends on who they are

talking to, we can nearly say that it depends on the interlocutor. Some subjects

tend to feel less shy when the interlocutor’s language is not their second

language. Further questions were asked personally to some subjects after they

took the questionnaire. If they are in the second language speaking country,

they know they have to speak the second language to survive and use it.

However, if they know they don’t have to use the second language, such as the

situation when the interlocutor understands their mother language, they don’t

dare to use the second language. It is because they don’t have to worry about

making mistakes or feel embarrassed. Therefore, it almost all the time depends

on the interlocutor and the situation.

3.5 implications

According to the results of questionnaire, the subjects’speaking skill can

be improved depending on the interlocutor. It means that if people speak with

the interlocutor who is comfortable and they have no worries making mistakes

to talk with, their speaking ability can be improved efficiently. Also, if people

know the key to when language-mode switching occurs, it can be easier to

speak in the second language since they know how to switch their language-

mode.

3.6 Limitations of the Experiments

We have found out that language-mode switching happens depending

on the interlocutor. However, expand questions, for example the reason and

what kind of interlocutor he/she is should have been also asked so that we

40

would be able to know why it depends on who the subjects talking to. Also,

there were 21 subjects, which is a small number. We could have asked many

more people to get much more interesting results from individuals.

3.7 Further research

As further research, we can find out some more detailed answers

related to the interlocutor or language-mode switching. For example, “Does it

depend on the interlocutor’s character?” or “How long does the switch last once

your language-mode has switched?”. Also, it would be good to divide the

subjects depending on how much experience of the second language they have

and take the questionnaire. We might get different results and investigate

further.

3.8 Conclusion

We found out that people tend to feel less shy or embarrassed in

speaking the second language depends on the interlocutor and how long they

have studied the second language doesn’t really matter with confidence in the

second language. Even though people have studied the second language for a

long time, they still tend to feel shy or lack confidence. Also, it depends on

individuals whether they are conscious or unconscious when language-mode

switches. Therefore, talking to the interlocutor whom they feel comfortable or

they don’t need to worry about making mistakes can help them improve their

speaking ability and be confident with it.

41

42

References

Crystal, David. 1997. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge

University Press

コリン・ベーカー著　岡秀夫訳・編 (1999). 『バイリンガル教育と第二言語習

得』東京：大修館書店

小池生夫, 寺内正典, 木下耕児, 成田真澄 (2004). 『第二言語習得研究の現在: こ

れからの外国語教育への視点』東京：くろしお出版

Nishimura, Miwa. 1997. Japanese/English code-switching: syntax and

pragmatics. New York. Peter Lang Publishing

迫田久美子 (2002) 『日本語教育に生かす第二言語習得研究』東京：アルク

Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove. 1981. Bilingualism or not, The Education of Minorities.

Clevedon. Language Matters

Wei, Li, ed. 2010. Bilingualism and Multilingualism: Critical Concepts in

Linguistics. New York. Routledge

43

Websites

Why do bilinguals ‘switch’ languages?. TKI. Ministry of Education. LEAP. 1 May.

2013

http://leap.tki.org.nz/Why-do-bilinguals-switch-languages

Hakuta, K. Bilingualism. Science Direct. Encyclopedia of Neuroscience. 2009:

173-178 Academic Press. 9 May. 2013

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080450469018775

Thompson, Matt. 2013. Five Reasons Why People Code-Switch. npr. 1 May.

2013 http://www.npr.org/blogs/codeswitch/2013/04/13/177126294/five-reasons-

why-people-code-switch

44

Appendix

Language mode questionnaire

Your name ― 名前

What is your first (mother) language? ― 母語は何ですか？ *

How long have you studied the second language? ― どのくらい

第二言語を学習していますか？ *

What do you think of your second language skills? ― 自分の第二

言語能力についてどう思いますか？ *

1 2 3 4 5

Very low （とても

低い）

Very high （とても

高い）

Rank those 4 skills with you're good at. ― 次の４技能を得意な順に

並べてください。 *Listening, Reading, Writing, Speaking ― 聞くこと, 読

むこと, 書くこと, 話すこと

45

Rank 1

(best)

Rank 2 (2nd

best)

Rank 3 (3rd

best)

Rank 4

(least best)

Listeni

ng

Readin

g

Speaki

ng

Writing

How confident are you with your speaking ability in the

second language? ― 第二言語においてのスピーキング能力にどのくらい

自信がありますか？ *

1 2 3 4 5

Not confident at all （全く

自信がない）

Very confident （とても自

信がある）

Have you studied abroad? (working holiday is included) ― 留学

経験はありますか？（ワーキング・ホリデイも含む） *If your answer is

YES, please go to the next question. ― 答えが「はい」であれば次の質問

へ進んでください。

46

 Yes （はい）

 No （いいえ）

If you add all the time overseas together, how long was it? ―

今までの海外にいた期間を合計すると、それはどのくらいの期間ですか？

（旅行期間・留学期間等を合わせて）

 Can you communicate with people in the second language

without any difficulties? ― 何の困難もなく、第二言語で、人とコミュ

ニケーションをとれますか？ *

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly No （強く否

定）

Strongly Yes （強く肯

定）

In speaking, do you feel it is easier to use the second

language when you talk to people whose first language is not

your second language compared to people whose first

language is your second language? ― 人と第二言語で話す際、話し

相手の母語が自分の学習している第二言語ではない時、第二言語を使用するこ

とがより容易に感じますか？ *Example; Your first language is Japanese

and the second language is English. You talk to people in English

47

whose first language is French. In this situation, do you feel it is easier

to use the second language? ― 例：あなたの母語は日本語で、英語を第二

言語として学習しているとします。あなたはフランス語を母語とする人々と

英語で話をします。この時、英語を母語とする人々と話をする時と比べて、第

二言語を使用することがより容易に感じますか。

 Yes （はい）

 Maybe Yes （たぶん、はい）

 I don't know. （わからない）

 Maybe No （たぶん、いいえ）

 No （いいえ）

 I don't care. （気にしない・気にならない）

 Other: 

Why is that? *

 Has Language-Mode Switching ever happened to you? ―

Language-Mode Switching　が今までに起こったことはあります

か？ *If your answer is YES, please answer the following questions. If

your answer is NOT Yes, the questionnaire is finished here. ― 質問の答

48

えが「はい」であれば先の質問へ進んでください。答えが「いいえ」あるい

は「わからない」であれば、ここで質問は終了です。ありがとうございまし

た。

 Yes （はい）

 No （いいえ）

 I don't know. （わからない）

 Other: 

Did you ever realize the moment when your language-mode

changes? ― 言語モードが変わる瞬間に気づいたことがありますか？For

example, you study English as a second language and go to Australia

on vacation. Then you realize that you speak English fluently at some

point, which means your language-mode changes from your first

language mode to the second language mode. Do you realize the

moment when it changes? ― 例：あなたは英語を第二言語として学習して

いるとします。ある時、休暇でオーストラリアに行くことになりました。滞

在中、すらすらと英語を話している自分に気づきました。言語モードが母語

モードから第二言語モードへ変わっていたのです。その変わる瞬間に、今ま

で気づいたことがありますか？

49

 Yes - when it switches from your first language to the second

language. （母語モードから第二言語モードに変わるときは気づく）

 Yes - when it switches off from the second language to your first

language. （第二言語モードから母語モードに変わるときは気づく）

 I realize both times. （どちらとも気づく）

 I don't realize neither times. （どちらとも気づかない）

 Other: 

Where does Language-Mode Switching happen? ― Language-

Mode Switching　はどこで起こりますか？

 In the second language class. （第二言語を学習する授業中）

 When I go to the country where the second language is spoken.

（学習している第二言語が話されている国に行ったとき）

 When I talk to your friends in the second language. （友人と第二言

語で話すとき）

 Other: 

When does Language-Mode Switching happen? ― Language-

Mode Switching はいつ起こりますか？

50

 When I don't have enough language. （十分に言語を備えていないと

き）

 When I want to express a concept that does not have a direct

translation or equivalent in other language. （概念を表現するのに、他の

言語では直訳や価値を表現できないとき）

 When I want to say something in secret. （何かを秘密に伝えたいと

き）

 When I'm excited. （興奮しているとき）

 When I'm happy （幸せなとき）

 When I'm sad. （悲しいとき）

 When I'm angry. （怒っているとき）

 Other: 

Does it depend on who you are talking to? ― 話し相手によって決

まりますか？

 Yes （はい）

 No （いいえ）

51

 I don't know. （わからない）

 Other: 

Is there anything else you wish to tell me about your

Language-Mode Switching experience? ― Language-Mode

Switching について何か意見・伝えたいことなどありましたら、よろしく

お願いします。

52