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AFRICAN WOMEN STUDIES CENTREUNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

FOOD SECURITY FINAL REPORT

Implementation of Article 43 (1)(c) of the Kenya Constitution

FINAL REPORT

ZERO TOLERANCE TO HUNGER AND MALNUTRITION

Submitted to:FEB 2015.

African Women’s Studies Centre

University of Nairobi

P.O Box 30197- 00100

Tel: (+254-20) 318262 Ext: 28075; Mobile: (+254) 725 740 025

Email: [email protected]

Website: http://awsc.uonbi.ac.ke

http://awsc.uonbi.ac.ke/

mailto:[email protected]

TABLE OF CONTENTSTABLE OF CONTENTS

2

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

___________________________________________________________________________

ACSU Agricultural Sector Coordinating Unit

ASAL Arid and Semi-Arid Lands

AWSC African Women’s Studies Centre

CTP Cash Transfer Programme

EU European Union

FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GHI Global Health Index

GMO Genetically Modified Organisms

GoK Government of Kenya

HIV/AIDS Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

IDP Internally Displaced Persons

IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute

KNBS Kenya National Bureau of Statistics

MCI Members of County Assembly

MDG Millennium Development Goals

MTEF Medium Term Expenditure Framework

NCPB National Cereals and Produce Board

3

OVC Orphans and Vulnerable Children

PWD People with Disabilities

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

VAT Value Added Tax

WFP World Food Programme

4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The successful implementation of this project has been made possible by the

support, encouragement and goodwill of many individuals from the University

of Nairobi and other institutions. While we cannot mention all the persons that

were involved in this process, we acknowledge the support of the Vice

Chancellor, Prof George Magoha, the Deputy Vice-Chancellor Administration &

Finance, Prof Peter Mbithi, the Principal of the College of Humanities and

Social Sciences, Prof. Enos Njeru and the Principal of the College of

Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences, Prof. Agnes Mwang’ombe.

The African Women’s Studies Centre (AWSC) Standing Committee on Food

Security has led the way with great dedication, having put in a lot of time and

effort. The members of this Committee include: Prof. Tabitha Kiriti-Ng’ang’a,

School of Economics, Prof. Wanjiku Kabira, Director AWSC and Department of

Literature, Prof. Margaret Jesang Hutchinson, College of Agriculture and

Veterinary science, Dr. Gerrishon Ikiara, Institute of Development and

International Studies, Dr. Wanjiru Gichuhi, Population Studies Research

Institute and Dr. Mary Lucia Mbithi, School of Economics as well as Prof.

Elishiba Kimani, Gender and Development studies, Kenyatta University. The

AWSC is also grateful to the members of the University community and

representatives of civil society for their technical work, time and commitment

to this project.

5

Prof. Patricia Kameri- Mbote, Dean, School of Law UoN, Dr. Linda Musumba,

School of law Kenyatta University and Dr. Godfrey Musila, School of Law UoN

have been very vital in the development of the food security Bill 2014.

The Centre has had several partners in the different activities carried out

during the project period. The Kenya National Bureau of Statistics has been

vital in the baseline survey. The team was lead by the very able Director

General, Mr. Zachary Mwangi. Mr. James Gatungu, Director of Production

statistics directorate, Ms. Mary Wanyonyi, Senior manager, food monitoring

and environment statistics and Patrick Mwaniki the senior manager

agriculture and livestock were very helpful and insightful during the entire

process. Great support was received from Mr. Josiah Kaara and Mr. Benard

Obasi as well as Mr. John Bore and Mr. John Mburu for their analysis and

sampling skills respectively.

The AWSC is thankful to the Women Enterprise fund, Maendeleo ya

Wanawake representatives, KNBS statistical officers, Area chiefs and village

guides from the 21 Counties for the mobilisation of respondents during the

research surveys.

The field surveys would not have been successful if it were not for the hard

work and commitment shown by the lead researchers and enumerators. The

full list of the research teams is appended.

Policy and intervention proposals emanated from the research and desk

study that was carried out during the implementation of this project. The

6

proposals were then shared with policy makers and parliamentarians. The

AWSC would like to appreciate the opportunities granted to share these

proposals with the Majority Chief whip of the senate, Senator Beatrice Elachi,

Chairperson Senator Lenny Kivuti and committee members of the Lands and

Natural resources committee of the Senate, Chairperson of the Legal and

Human right committee of the Senate, Senator Amos Wako, Chairperson of

the Agriculture committee of the Senate, Senator Kiraitu Murungi, Director of

the Senate Committee services, Mr, Njenga Njuguna, Chairperson of the

budget and appropriation committee of the National Assembly Hon. Mutava

Musyimi and Officials from the National Assembly, Mr. Paul Ng’etich and Mr.

Kepha Omoti.

The AWSC is very grateful to the Members of the 21 County Governments

and Assemblies where research was conducted. These include Nairobi,

Makueni, Kajiado, Mombasa, Bomet, Baringo, Kisumu, Migori, Kisii, Kwale,

Taita Taveta, Elgeyo Marakwet, Kirinyaga, Laikipia, Turkana, Isiolo, Kiambu,

Nakuru, Bungoma and Trans Nzoia. These County Governments and

Assemblies were very receptive to receiving the findings on food security in

their counties and receiving recommendation and proposals to ensure that no

person goes to sleep in their counties.

The AWSC Secretariat consistently carried out research and ground work for

the implementation of this project. They have played a pivotal role in the

writing and compilation of reports as well as organizing the various technical

meetings and consultations. Appreciation goes to Mr Gabriel Mbugua, Mr

7

Gideon Muendo, Mr Gideon Ruto, Mr. Gideon Waweru, Mr Isaac Kibet Kiptoo,

Mr Joseph Owino, Mr Kennedy Mwangi, Ms. Minneh Nyambura, Ms. Priscilla

Nekipasi, Mrs. Rosalyn Otieno, Ms. Veronica Waeni Nzioki, Ms Wanjiku

Gacheche and Mr Wellington Waithaka who are very committed to the

success of this project.

Kenyans expect and deserve the promise of Article 43 (1)(c) of the Bill of

Rights to be translated into reality. This is a worthwhile journey that the

Centre has embarked on and we intend to walk this path with others until the

day when no Kenyan goes to bed hungry!

Prof. Wanjiku Mukabi Kabira, EBS

Director, African Women’s Studies Centre

University of Nairobi

8

EXECUTIVE SUMMARYEXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The African Women’s Studies Centre (AWSC) is based at the University of

Nairobi. The Centre is informed by the recognition that the experiences of

African women in almost all spheres of life have been invisible. The Centre

therefore aims to bring women’s experiences, knowledge, needs and world

view to mainstream knowledge and processes. The Centre recognizes the

efforts made by the Government of Kenya towards implementation of food

security. However, given the poverty situation in the country and the food

security vulnerability, more needs to be done towards enhancement of an all-

inclusive countrywide food security policy and programming. The AWSC has

therefore chosen to focus on working with parliament, county assemblies,

national and county governments and other policy makers in order to ensure

the implementation of article 43 (1)(c) that guarantees Kenyans the right to

food. The Centre also plans to complement and support the implementation

of the Food Security and Nutrition Policy as well as other initiatives such as

the National Social Protection Policy, Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Authority

Act among other policy documents aimed at ensuring food and nutrition

security. The project also takes cognizance of the many provisions in the new

constitution that offer new system of government where decentralization and

people’s participation in policies and programmes is entrenched as well as

schedule four of the constitution that devolves some of the activities related

to food security to the county governments.

9

The research findings and recommendations presented here are a follow up

of AWSC presentation of best practices report and recommendation on the

implementation of Article 43 (1)(c) to the 10th parliament in 2012 during the

budget hearings. With this financial support from treasury through the

Ministry of Education and UoN (AWSC), put together a team of experts to

work on this research. The team of researchers included economist, experts

in the fields of agriculture, social scientists and legal experts. University of

Nairobi also developed a Memorandum of Understanding with the Kenya

National Bureau of Statistics to work on the household baseline survey on

food security. AWSC conducted the research in collaboration with KNBS

during the calendar year 2013. The research was carried out in the six agro-

ecological zones and in 20 counties namely: Kisii, Nairobi, Kiambu,

Nakuru, Elgeyo-Marakwet, Kirinyaga, Kajiado, Bomet, Makueni,

Bungoma, Taita Taveta, Migori, Trans Nzoia, Turkana, Baringo, Isiolo,

Kwale, Mombasa, Nandi, Laikipia.

The objectives of the research were to: establish the status of food security

in the Country; review best practices in institutional, legal and policy

frameworks for implementation of Article 43 (1)(c) and make policy

recommendations at the national and county levels; involve citizens’

participation in development of food security initiatives; use evidence based

advocacy for greater allocation of resources for food security initiatives;

establish whether the economic, social and political pillars of Vision 2030 take

into consideration food security concerns. In addition, the team was to

10

evaluate vision 2030 pillars using the research findings for their capacity to

ensure food security; share the research findings with the food security

stakeholders (policy makers, civil society organizations and the general

public) at the county and national levels; generate proposals for ensuring full

implementation of Article 43 (1)(c) of the Kenya Constitution 2010 and to

document women’s experiences, knowledge and perceptions in relation to

food security and share the findings.

The methodologies used by the researchers included a household survey

where 4,200 households in the 20 counties were interviewed on their food

security status using a hunger module that assessed experiences in the last

10 months. The issues addressed included: availability, access, utilisation and

sustainability. In addition to this household survey, views of opinion leaders

were sough through: key informant questionnaire, Focus Group Discussions

and debriefing sessions. Institutional questionnaire were administered to get

the opinions of government officials on food security in each of the counties

visited.

Initial research findings were shared with county governments, members of

the county assemblies and members of the CSOs for further input. Research

findings from the 20 counties and desk review on institutional, policy and

legal frameworks were shared at a national workshop with the chairpersons of

the agriculture committees of the county assemblies.

Among the key research findings is that on average 18 percent of Kenyans

are either often or always hungry as indicated in the table below. The table 11

shows that the worst hit county in terms of hunger is Turkana County (54%)

while Kirinyaga is the least affected (3%).

Table1: Hunger module- with average of E07 and E08

County Name

E07. Was there a time when there was no food at all in your household because there were not enough resources to go around?

(Often and Always)

E08. Did you or any household member go to sleep at night hungry because there was not enough food?

(Often and always)

Average

1 Turkana 59.5% 48.1% 54%2 Kisii 47.0% 35.5% 41%3 Migori 35.9% 31.8% 34%4 Isiolo 32.5% 25.5% 29%5 Kwale 24.8% 16.7% 21%

12

6 Mombasa 24.3% 16.1% 20%7 Nairobi 19.6% 20.1% 20%8 Trans

Nzoia22.0% 17.2% 20%

9 Makueni 21.0% 17.9% 19%1

0Nandi 23.7% 12.6% 18%

11

Baringo 18.9% 15.6% 17%

12

Bungoma 20.2% 12.7% 16%

13

Taita Taveta

15.7% 15.1% 15%

14

E. Marakwet

13.8% 11.0% 12%

15

Laikipia 17.2% 7.5% 12%

16

Kajiado 11.0% 5.3% 8%

17

Kiambu 8.4% 6.0% 7%

18

Nakuru 7.2% 4.5% 6%

19

Bomet 6.1% 3.6% 5%

20

Kirinyaga 3.1% 2.1% 3%

Average 21.0% 15.7% 18%

Source: AWSC/KNBS Baseline Household Survey on Food Security June 2013.

The findings also show that the sources of livelihood for the respondents

in the 20 counties, is mainly: own production at 39.4percent, casual labour

(agriculture and non-agriculture related) 20.9 percent, regular monthly salary

16.9 percent, trade/small businesses 16 percent, sale of livestock 3.2 percent,

remittance from relatives 2.1 percent, while help from relatives and public

stood at 0.7 and 0.6 percent respectively. From the findings, it is important to

13

put emphasise on own production, employment as well as trade/small

businesses. Given these findings, we have made proposals on how to improve

food security in these three categories.

The research findings also show that a majority of the respondents have

nothing to store with 86.6% saying they have nothing perishable to store

while 51 percent said they have no non-perishable foods i.e. cereals and

pulses including beans, cow peas, maize, rice and rice, to store.

Some of the key policy and programme recommendations derived from the

participants and study findings include:

i. Family Support Programme

The study shows that at least 18% of the respondents are often or always

hungry. According to the Kenya National housing and Population Census of

2009 Kenyans numbered 38.4 million. The National Council for Population and

Development in their latest report on facts and figures (2012) puts the Kenya

population at 39.6 million and using this figure the number of those who are

often or always hungry in Kenya translates to 7.1 million. From this figure the

population.

It is clear from the findings that there is need to focus on the 18% and target

them directly and we propose the family support programme through the

national government through County governments should establish a family

support programme. Following the example of India and Brazil the Kenyan

government can directly focus on the households and ensure that they have

14

access to food through either increased production (40% who produce their

own food ), creation of employment for casual labourers (21%) and

opportunities for markets and trade (16% who engage in trade and small

business). The category of 7.1 million who are often and always had indicated

that this are their sources of their livelihood.

ii. Water for irrigation and domestic use

From our study, most of the respondents from the ASAL areas which included

Kwale, Isiolo, Elgeyo Marakwet, Laikipia, Taita Taveta, Makueni,

Kajiado, Turkana and Baringo proposed the introduction of or scaling up

of irrigation. The report proposes support for irrigation and water for domestic

use targeting the 18% of Kenyans who are always hungry.

iii. Economic Empowerment of youth and women

Enhancement of women enterprise fund, UWEZO fund and youth fund and

ensure targeting of 7.1 million Kenyans fir increased production and

enhancement of trade/small businesses.

iv. ICT and Business HUB

To foster sharing of information related to government activities that are

geared towards improving lives of women and youth as well as the general

public. This will support and promote digitization which will market youth and

women enterprise through advertising and sharing of available opportunities

as well as development of ICT products that will market goods and services.

v. Draft food security bill developed

15

A draft legislative framework that could enforce food security programmes

including family support programme, cash transfer and other initiatives aimed

at implementation of article 43 (1)(c) of the constitution has been developed

and submitted to the Senate for consideration. The following report covers

background and context to the research.

AWSC recognises the Kenya Government’s efforts to make the country a

food secure country. It has pursued achievement of food security at various

levels including at the global level by being a signatory to key global

declarations such as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and at the

regional level including being a signatory to the Maputo Declaration. At the

national level, Kenya has been implementing programmes to improve the

level of income and contribute to food security. Key among these

programmes is the Economic Stimulus Programme and the Kenya Vision

2030. The National Food and Nutrition Security (FNSP) Policy, The Kenya

Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Authority (AFFA) Act are some of the national

efforts by the government to enable people access food and of accessible

quality. In spite of all these initiatives, Kenya remains largely a food insecure

country. AWSC intends to complement these government efforts as well as

initiate measures for food security in the country.

16

1.1 Introduction

The study on food security in Kenya by the AWSC and the KNBS is part of a

process to meaningfully engage and contribute to the current national

discourse on the implementation of the Constitution of Kenya (2010) Article

43 (1)(c), which states that “every person has a right to be free from hunger,

and to have adequate food and of acceptable quality” (Republic of Kenya,

2010).

Food security has remained one of the global issues today and efforts to

achieve it have remained a challenge for many countries, more so in Sub-

Saharan countries. Kenya has about 80 percent of its population residing in

the rural areas where agriculture dominates (National Food and Nutrition

Policy, Republic of Kenya, 2011). The 2010 Economic Review of Agriculture

indicates that 51 percent of the Kenyan population lack access to adequate

food. Food security is closely linked to poverty, which is estimated at 42%

nationally (Economic Review, World Bank, 2013). About a third of Kenya’s

population is considered food insecure. Currently over 10 million people in

Kenya suffer from chronic food insecurity and between two and four million

people require emergency food assistance at any given time (National Food

and Nutrition Policy, Republic of Kenya, 2011). Nearly 30 percent of Kenya’s

children are classified as undernourished, and micronutrient deficiencies are

widespread.

17

In October 2012, the Centre embarked on this research project in October

2012 with the field work being carried out between April and July 2013. This

field work took place in twenty one counties in the six agro-ecological zones

of Kenya.

The objectives of the research were:

i. To establish the status of food security in the Country.

ii. To document women’s experiences, knowledge and perception in

relation to food security and share the findings.

iii. To review best practices in institutional, legal and policy frameworks

in selected food secure countries for implementation of Article 43 (1)

(c).

iv. To generate and use data to advocate and lobby for more responsive

institutional, legal and policy frameworks as well as greater allocation

of resources for implementation of food security initiatives

v. To share the research findings with the food security stakeholders

(policy makers, civil society organizations and the general public) at

the county and national levels.-

vi. To generate and disseminate the findings to the various food security

stakeholders.

The outcomes of the project were:

i. Status report - Proposals on programmes and interventions at the

national and county levels developed.

18

ii. Women’s experiences, knowledge and perceptions with food security

documented and recommendations shared.

iii. Proposals on policy and institutional frameworks for food security

developed and shared with relevant ministries, parliament and vision

2030 secretariat.

iv. Draft legal framework for implementation of Article 43 (1)(c)

established and shared;

v. Budget proposals for 2014/15FY on food security shared with policy

makers.

vi. Proposals on food security proposals shared with County Governments

and other stakeholders.

vii. Awareness on food security programmes and interventions created

among the public.

viii. Proposals emanating from the public developed at county level shared

with policy makers, parliament and county governments.

1.2 Study Methodology

Secondary data on various cross-cutting indicators of food security/insecurity

was collected. Information of the country on geography and climate;

touching on rainfall and agro-ecological zones was sought. Information was

also obtained on population and related parameters like household size,

urbanization, birth and death rate, life expectancy, child and maternal

mortality, orphans and vulnerable children, and child nutrition. Economic

indicators like country’s gross domestic product (GDP), agriculture and

19

economy, poverty index, HIV and Aids prevalence, and unemployment, were

also examined. Data was also obtained on school enrolment, food

consumption and malnutrition. Government expenditure allocation to line

ministries in food security i.e. agriculture, livestock and fisheries as well as

social safety and equalization Fiscal Year 2012/2013 was examined.

Data on best practices from selected countries which have achieved food

security was also examined.

The country was classified into six Agro-Ecological zones and the Counties

visited were selected based on these Agro-ecological Zones: Upper

Highlands, Upper Midlands, Lowland Highlands, Lowland Midlands, Inland

Lowlands and Coastal Lowlands. Agro-ecological Zoning (AEZ) refers to the

division of an area of land into smaller units, which have similar

characteristics related to land suitability, potential production and

environmental impact (FAO 1996). Since more than 80 per cent of Kenyans

derive their livelihood from agriculture, classification of counties according to

potential agricultural production and land use with the exception “urban

counties” has a direct bearing on food security in those counties and in the

entire country. Nairobi and Mombasa counties were purposefully selected as

they consist of 100 percent urban population according to the Kenya

National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS). The 20 counties sampled for the study

were; Kisii, Nairobi, Kiambu, Nakuru, Elgeyo-Marakwet, Kirinyaga,

Kajiado, Bomet, Makueni, Bungoma, Taita Taveta, Migori, Trans

Nzoia, Turkana, Baringo, Isiolo, Kwale, Mombasa, Nandi, Laikipia.20

The study methodologies included a household survey where in depth

interviews were conducted in 4,200 households in the 20 counties, Focus

Group Discussions, use of Key Informant Questionnaires to seek the opinion

of the leaders, Institutional Questionnaires to get the opinion of government

officials on food security and a debriefing meeting was held at each county

after the field work.

Initial research findings were shared with county governments, members of

the county assemblies and members of the CSOs for further input. Research

findings from the 20 counties and desk review n institutional, policy and legal

frameworks were shared at a national workshop with the chairpersons of the

agriculture committees of the county assemblies.

PART1: Food Security Household Baseline Survey.

Introduction

This section presents the results of the household baseline survey on food

security in Kenya. Food security exists when all people, at all times, have

physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food

21

that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy

life (FAO, 2001). Household food security means applying this concept to

individuals within the household. Conversely, food insecurity exists when

people do not have adequate physical, social or economic access to food

(FAO, 2001). Chronic hunger is also a sign of food insecurity and the hunger

module was used to determine the status of food security at the household

level in the twenty sampled counties. It assesses the status of food security at

the household level in the last ten months before the survey was conducted

in June 2013. The eight questions in the hunger module assess the four

dimensions of food security (availability, accessibility, utilization and

sustainability). Household heads were asked to rate the status of food

security in their households based on the eight questions. The hunger module

ranks the twenty counties from the least to the most food insecure based on

the average manifestation of food security findings derived from the

percentage of responses on each of the eight questions. A part from the

hunger module, food security was analyzed in terms of key determinants of

food security such as gender of the household head; marital status of the

household head; level education of the household head and household size.

Status of hunger

Table: Hunger module- with average of E07 and E08

County Name



Average

22

(Often and Always) (Often and always)

1 Turkana 59.5% 48.1% 54%2 Kisii 47.0% 35.5% 41%3 Migori 35.9% 31.8% 34%4 Isiolo 32.5% 25.5% 29%5 Kwale 24.8% 16.7% 21%6 Mombasa 24.3% 16.1% 20%7 Nairobi 19.6% 20.1% 20%8 Trans

Nzoia22.0% 17.2% 20%

9 Makueni 21.0% 17.9% 19%10 Nandi 23.7% 12.6% 18%11 Baringo 18.9% 15.6% 17%12 Bungoma 20.2% 12.7% 16%13 Taita

Taveta15.7% 15.1% 15%

14 E. Marakwet

13.8% 11.0% 12%

15 Laikipia 17.2% 7.5% 12%16 Kajiado 11.0% 5.3% 8%17 Kiambu 8.4% 6.0% 7%18 Nakuru 7.2% 4.5% 6%19 Bomet 6.1% 3.6% 5%20 Kirinyaga 3.1% 2.1% 3%

Average 21.0% 15.7% 18%


Other research findings also reveal similar causes of food insecurity in

Kenya. According to Nzomoi (2008), many households are food insecure not

only because of agricultural commodity price increases, but also because of

other non-price determinants. Commodity price increases are mainly caused

by supply constraints due to output fluctuations. Output fluctuations are

influenced by a number of factors including erratic rainfall, poor quality

23

seeds, high cost of inputs especially fertilizer, poor producer prices as well as

pests and diseases. From the international scene, increase in the prices of

foodstuffs is also attributed to the ever-rising crude oil prices. Similarly, in the

local economy higher commodity prices are also blamed on high international

crude oil prices which translate to increased cost of production of the

commodities.

Food insecurity, one of the main problems facing Kenya, involves a great

number of factors such as poverty, high food price volatility, poor

infrastructure, underfunding of the agricultural sector, fragile political

stability, changing climatic conditions and dwindling natural resources

needed for the production of food. Also influencing food security is the

structure of agricultural production and a focus on growing export crops such

as tea and coffee, an area in which Kenya has concentrated due to its

comparative advantages in international trade. However, since the country

exports unprocessed agricultural commodities without value addition, the

profits from this type of trade are minimal for the small-scale food producers

(Prague Global Policy Institute, 2013).

In general, the research findings in the hunger module indicate that

Kirinyaga County is the least food insecure with an average manifestation of

food insecurity rated at 6.1 percent and Turkana County is the most food

insecure rated at 67.3 percent.

As already discussed, food insecurity in Kenya involves many factors such as

poverty, high food price volatility, underdeveloped infrastructure, 24

underfunding of the agricultural sector, changing climatic conditions and

declining natural resources required for food production. The top priority of

the Government therefore should be the implementation of the right to food

as stipulated in article 43 (1)(c) of the Constitution. In this case, the

Government should allocate more resources to the agricultural sector;

support the status of small-scale food producers (farmers and herdsmen

alike); encourage local rural agricultural associations; ensure a stable political

environment and introduce adaptation and alleviation measures in reaction to

climate change.

1.2 Hunger indicators by selected demographic characteristics

Table 3: Hunger Indicators by gender of the household head

Question Gender of Household Head

Never

Sometimes

Often

Always

% % % %

E01: Did you worry that your household would not have enough food?

Male Female

28.522.6

44.442.6

16.318.4

10.816.4

E02. Were you or any household member not able to eat the kinds of foods you preferred because of lack of resources?

Male Female

23.118.1

46.943.0

19.623.0

10.415.9

E03. Did you or any household member eat a limited variety of foods due to lack of choices in the market?

Male Female

40.235.5

37.838.0

14.315.9

7.710.6

E04. Did you or any household Male 24.0 46.8 19.6 9.6

25

member eat food that you preferred not to eat because of a lack of resources to obtain other types of food?

Female 18.8 45.3 21.9 14.0

E05. Did you or any other household member eat smaller meals in a day because of lack of resources to obtain enough?

MaleFemale

27.721.4

45.243.9

18.520.9

8.613.8

E06. Did you or any other household member eat fewer meals in a day because there was not enough Food?

MaleFemale

31.222.6

43.344.5

16.919.3

8.613.6


Male Female

44.836.6

36.737.2

13.117.7

5.48.5


Male Female

55.645.1

30.935.1

9.213.0

4.26.7


Table 3 shows that female headed households were more food insecure than

the male headedhouseholds. This situation is attributed to various forms of

discrimination, which make female-headed households more vulnerable to

food insecurity and poverty. Although the position of women in agricultural

food chains is critical, they encounter many obstacles due to restricted land

rights, inadequate education and outdated social traditions which usually limit

their ability to improve food security status for their households and

communities at large. Women also face different forms of discrimination, such

as greater reluctance on the part of input providers to provide credit for

fertilizer purchases for female headed households than for male headed

26

households and less scope to borrow money or to buy food on credit.

Consequently, food security experts affirm the need to support the

contribution of women to food security by guaranteeing equal constitutional

rights to land and property, involvement in the marketplace, and

opportunities for education. Therefore, whether in terms of labour input,

decision-making, access to or control of production resources, gender issues

should be mainstreamed in food security programmes aimed at resolving

food insecurity.

The analysis that follows takes into consideration appendix 4 which takes

into account all the information generated from the 8 questions taking into

consideration the responses to the four possible answer to each of the

questions which were: never, sometimes, often and always (see appendix 4).

27

Table 4: Hunger Indicators by marital status of the household head -

with often and always scale combined

Marital

Status of

Household

Head

E1: Did

you

worry

that

your

househo

ld would

not

have

enough

food?

E2.

Were

you or

any

househol

d

member

not able

to eat

the kinds

of foods

you

preferred

because

of lack of

resource

s?

E3. Did

you or

any

househol

d

member

eat a

limited

variety

of foods

due to

lack of

choices

in the

market?

E4. Did

you or

any

househol

d

member

eat food

that you

preferred

not to

eat

because

of a lack

of

resource

s to

obtain

other

types of

food?

E05.

Did you

or any

other

househo

ld

member

eat

smaller

meals in

a day

because

of lack

of

resourc

es to

obtain

enough

E06.

Did you

or any

other

househo

ld

member

eat

fewer

meals in

a day

because

there

was not

enough

Food?

E07.

Was

there a

time

when

there

was no

food at

all in

your

househol

d

because

there

were not

enough

resource

s to go

around?

E08.

Did you

or any

househo

ld

member

go to

sleep at

night

hungry

because

there

was not

enough

food?

28

Monogam

ous

married

26.5 29.2 21.4 28.3 26.4 25.1 17.9 12.7

Polygamo

us married

45.1 51.6 33 43.4 44.8 42.5 31 24.4

Living

together

54.8 61.7 53.4 60.2 57.5 52.1 50.7 50.7

Separated 35.5 42.4 28.6 38.6 36.1 31.6 26.1 18.4

Divorced 22.8 28 19.3 33.4 26.3 28.1 15.8 14.1

Widow/

Widower

22.8 43.9 29.6 40.2 39 37.9 33.4 21.9

Never

married

18.4 22 15.1 23 19.4 16.3 11.6 10.3

average 16.1 19.9 14.3 19.1 17.8 16.7 13.3 10.9


The relationship between marital status of respondents and status of

household food security seems to follow the expected pattern. Table 4 shows

that households headed by unmarried people are more likely to be food

secure than those headed by married people.

The findings reveal that households heads in polygamous marriages are

more food insecure than those in the monogamous marriages. This could be

attributed to the fact that household heads in polygamous marriages require

29

more resources to buy enough food and other basic household needs because

they often have larger household sizes compared to those in monogamous

families. Large household sizes in polygamous families also require a lot of

land for food production, which might not be available due to the high rate of

population in the country. Although households headed by divorced,

separated and widowed household heads are expected to be more food

insecure, households headed by those in a living together type of relationship

registered high levels of food insecurity. The possible explanation for this

finding is that “living together” could be a food security coping strategy by

some household heads compelled to enter into relationships due to financial

constraints.

Table 5: Hunger Indicators by level of education of household head-

with often and always scale combined

Highest Education Level



E3.Did you or any household member eat a limited variety of foods due to lack of choices in the market?

E4. Did you or any household member eat food that you preferred not to eat because of a lack of resources to obtain other types of food?

E05. Did you or any other household member eat smaller meals in a day because of lack of resources to obtain enough




% % % % % % % %

30

None 36.8 39.7 25.5 39.2 37.9 35.2 27.4 19CPE/

KCPE27.3 30.2 21.3 29.8 28 24.8 16.8 11.2

KCE/ KCSE

17.6 22.5 14.9 19.5 16.7 16.1 11.8 7.7

KJSE 8 20 24 12 8 16 4 4KACE/

EAACE11.1 11.1 7.47 11.1 18.5 18.5 14.8 11.1

Certificate

11.3 16.5 10.5 13.9 8.7 8.9 7 1.8

Non-University Diploma

7.5 10.8 6.6 12.5 8.4 9.1 5.8 5.9

University Diploma

4.8 8.1 8.2 6.4 6.5 8.1 4.8 3.3

Degree-Post Graduate

7.2 9 10.7 9 10.8 6.3 4.5 3.6

Total 7.3 9.3 7.2 8.5 8 7.9 5.4 3.6

Source: AWSC/KNBS Baseline Household Survey on Food Security June 2013

Education was found to have a significant and positive relationship with

household food security as shown in table 5. The findings indicate that

households with relatively better educated household heads are more likely

to be food secure than those headed by uneducated household heads. The

table shows that of those who are always and often hungry 19% have never

gone to school, 11.2 % are CPE/ KCPE holders and those who are least hungry

3.6% are university graduates.

31

Table 7: Hunger Indicators by age group of the household head-with

often and always scale combined

Age group of household head


E2. Were you or any household member not able to eat the kinds of foods

E3. Did you or any household member eat a limited variety of foods due to lack of

E4. Did you or any household member eat food that you preferred not to eat because

E05. Did you or any other household member eat smaller meals in a day because

E06. Did you or any other household member eat fewer meals in a day because there

E07. Was there a time when there was no food at all in your household

E08. Did you or any household member go to sleep at night hungry because there

32

you preferred because of lack of resources?

choices in the market?

of a lack of resources to obtain other types of food?

of lack of resources to obtain enough?

was not enough Food?

because there were not enough resources to go around?

was not enough food?

% % % % % % % %Below

14 Years

33.3 33.3 33.3 33.3 22.2 22.2 33.3 22.2

15-24 Years

25.3 23.8 18.4 25.6 23.1 23.4 16.9 12.1

25-34 Years

25.9 29.8 19.3 26.6 24.6 23 16.5 12.8

35-44 Years

25.1 29.2 20.6 27.9 26.2 23.7 17.7 12

45-54 Years

30.4 33 24.7 31.6 31.3 28.6 21.4 15.6

55-64 Years

34.5 39.6 27.5 36.9 35.4 33.8 28 20.6

Above 64 yrs

37.7 40.7 31 40.2 37.6 36.5 27.6 21.2

Total 15.2 16.4 12.5 15.9 14.3 13.7 11.5 8.3


As shown in table7, household heads in the age group of below14 years are

more food insecure than those in the age brackets of 15-24 and 25-34 years.

Some children aged between 12-14 years were household heads due to early

marriages and some became household heads after the death of their

parents; hence, they were more vulnerable to food security because they had

little capacity to produce or access enough food. On the other hand,

household heads in the age group of 15 -34 years are stronger (youthful) and

probably have better education which enables them to engage in various

33

productive activities. Hence, they are more food secure than those in the age

bracket of below 14 years. The age of the household head has a negative sign

showing an inverse relationship between the age of household head and food

security. It indicates that an increase of age year in the age of household

head decreases the chances food security. For instance, the household heads

in the age groups of 35-44, 45-54 and 55-64 years and more than 64 years

are more food insecure than those in the age brackets of 15-24 and 25-34

years. This could be attributed to the fact that the youth have a greater

productivity potential than the elderly. Household heads in the age bracket of

55-64 and those more than 64 years are the most food insecure and their

vulnerability to food insecurity is not surprising when considered in the

context of life for older adults. For instance, their income is often limited with

many depending on pension and Social Security benefits, with the majority of

seniors not working or retired. Further, older adults often experience disability

or other functional limitations. In addition to lacking money to purchase food

products, older adults face unique barriers less often experienced by other

age groups in accessing enough food and adequate nutrition. Research has

shown that food insecurity in older adults may result from one or more of the

following: functional impairments, health problems, and/or limitations in the

availability, affordability, and accessibility of food (Lee & Frongillo, 2001).

Additional contributing factors to food insecurity among the elderly include

lack of mobility due to a lack of transportation and an inability to use food

because of health problems or disability.

34

Table 6: Hunger Indicators by household size

Household size 1-3 House Hold members

4-3 House Hold members

More than 6 House Hold members

% % %


Never 34.6 25.7 15.6

Some times 41.6 45.3 43.8

often 13.5 16.4 24.1

always 10.2 12.6 16.6


Never 28.6 19.6 13.8

Some times 44.2 47.3 43.3

often 17.9 20.4 27.2

always 9.3 12.7 15.7

E3. Did you or any household member eat a limited variety of foods due to lack of choices in the market?

Never 45.1 37.5 29.4

Some times 35.3 38.9 40.2

often 12.5 14.4 20.4

always 7.1 9.2 10

E4. Did you or any household member eat food that you preferred not to eat because of a lack of resources to obtain other types of food?

Never 29.7 20.6 14.3

Some times 43.7 47.4 46.7

often 18.3 20.4 25.5

always 8.3 11.6 13.5

E05. Did you or any other household member eat smaller meals in a day because of lack of resources to obtain enough?

Never 34.5 24.4 14.1

Some times 41.2 46.4 46

often 16.5 19 25.5

always 7.7 10.2 14.4


Never 36.9 27.6 17

Some times 40.4 44.3 46.2

often 15.7 17.8 21.2

always 7 10.3 15.5


Never 51.6 40.9 30.1

Some times 30.6 38.8 42.5

often 12.5 14.1 18.8

always 5.3 6.2 8.6

35


Never 58.3 52.7 41.1

Some times 28.8 32.1 37.5

often 9.1 10 13.9

always 3.8 5.2 7.4


The results in table 6 show that the incidence, depth and severity of food

insecurity were high among families with large household sizes than among

those with small household sizes. This is because the larger the household

size, the greater the responsibilities, especially, in a situation where many of

the household members do not generate any income, but only depend on the

household head. As family size increases, the amount of food for consumption

in one’s household increases thereby that additional household member

shares the limited food resources. An increase in household size also

indirectly reduces income per head, expenditure per head and per capita food

consumption. In areas where households depend on less productive

agricultural land, increasing household size results in increased demand for

food. This demand, however, cannot be matched with the existing food

supply from own production and this ultimately leads to household food

insecurity.

3.2 Food Storage and preservation

Food storage and preservation is a key factor in determining household food

security as it ensures availability of food for later use, reduced wastage,

preparedness for catastrophes, emergencies and periods of scarcity as well as

36

protection from animals or theft among others. Figure 1 shows the participant’s

response to the question of storage for perishable food.

Figure 1: Storage of perishable foods

Hanging in own

house; 460.0%

Nothing to store;

86.6%

Granary; 3.9% Others -3.7%

Source: AWSC/KNBS Baseline Survey on Food Security Baseline June 2013

Most of the respondents (86.6 percent) said that they did not have food to store.

13.4% who had something to store used old-fashioned and unreliable which include;

granaries 3, hanging in the house and other methods as shown in figure 1. These

methods of storing perishable food stuffs are old-fashioned and unreliable and often

lead to expiry of food before consumption. Since most perishable foodstuffs

especially vegetables and fruits are produced seasonally, proper storage of

perishable foodstuffs should be adopted to prevent food wastage. The high

37

percentage of households that do not have perishable food to store is to some

extent caused by serious losses due to lack of good storage equipment.

Storage of perishable foods also poses a challenge to the women respondents in a

similar study. Findings on perishable foods as shown in chart 4 below showed that

about 56 percent of women did not have anything to store in this category of

perishable foods. Those who stored in boxes and crates were only 8.8 percent,

putting in cupboards was 7.6 percent, stored in open air 6.7 percent and drying in

the sun 5.9 percent.

Figure 2 shows the participant’s response to the question of storage for non-

perishable food

Figure 2: Storage of non- perishable food

Nothing to store;

50.5%

Granary; 26.0%

Hanging in the own

house; 10.7%

Other(specify), 12.7%

Source: AWSC/KNBS Baseline Survey on Food Security June 2013

Figure 2 shows that majority of people 26 percent use granaries to store non-

perishable food, 10.7 percent hang foodstuffs inside their houses and 12.7

38

percent use other methods. These findings reveal that many people use

traditional methods of food storage that are unreliable because they are

either ignorant of the contemporary food storage mechanisms and/or cannot

afford modern food storage equipment or facilities. It also shows that many

people have not adopted post-harvest technologies in food storage.

Moreover, the research findings reveal that 50.5percent of the respondents

did not have food to store. This implies that most households only had little

food for immediate consumption and nothing to store for future use.

Therefore, there is a high level of food un-sustainability in the country, which

is a manifestation of food insecurity. This situation is partly attributed to poor

crop production and limited capacity to buy and store enough food for future

consumption. Lack of food to store is also caused by post-harvest losses

before storage among other constraints.

Figure 3 shows the participant’s response to the question of preservation of

perishable food

Figure 3: Preservation of perishable food

39

has something to preserve;

23.9%

has nothing to preserve; 76.1%


Those who had perishable food to preserve accounted to 23.9 percent while

majority of respondents 76.1 percent reported that they did not have perishable food

to store. The high percentage of people not having perishable food to store is also

attributed to the fact that many individuals avoid preserving perishable foodstuffs

because they lack effective preservatives as was noted by some participants. For

instance, in Mombasa and Kwale Counties, the respondents stated that due to lack of

preservatives and value addition for perishable foodstuffs they often abandon fruits

such as mangoes and tomatoes to rot in the farms. Thus, farmers incur heavy losses

during harvesting seasons for fruits and middlemen exploit them by buying their

produce at very low prices. Therefore, value addition techniques should be

encouraged at the village level to prevent wastage of perishable food and to create

employment opportunities. Moreover, value addition will enable farmers to get

better returns from their produce.

Figure 4 shows the participant’s response to the question of preservation for

perishable food

Figure 4: Preservation of non-perishable food

40

has some-

thing to preserve;

49.1%has nothing to preserve; 50.9%


Almost half of the respondents had non-perishable food to preserve at 49.1

percent while 50.9 percent had no food to preserve. Despite many challenges

faced in food preservation majority had no problem on how to preserve food

since they don’t have and hence preservation is not a challenge to them.

However in contrast those who had food to preserve did so with traditional

methods including use of ash which when coupled with poor storage method

led to huge loses directly and indirectly. As also reported during the survey

food stored using these methods also lost quality due to gradual attack by

pest and disease e.g. Afflatoxin producing organisms.

3.3 Main Sources of Livelihood

Households have sustainable livelihoods when they can cope with and

recover from shocks and stress and can maintain their capabilities and assets

without undermining their natural environment. Sustainable livelihood refers

41

to people’s capacity to generate and maintain their means of living, enhance

their well-being and that of future generations (International Federation of

Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2006).

Figure 5 below shows the participant’s response to the question of the main

source of livelihood

Figure 5: Main source of livelihood

0.0%10.0%20.0%30.0%40.0%

39.4%

20.9% 16.9% 16.0%

3.2% 2.1% 0.7% 0.6%


The findings of this study shown in figure 5, indicates that the sources of livelihood

in the counties are own production at 39.4 percent casual labour (agriculture and

non-agriculture related) 20.9%, regular monthly salary 16.9%, trade/small

businesess16%, sale of livestock 3.2%, remittance from relatives 2.1%, while help

from relatives and public stood at 0.7 and 0.6 percent respectively. These findings

shows that there are various sources of livelihood, but agriculture (own production

39.4 percent) is dominant countrywide. Nonetheless, trade and monthly salary is the

main source of income in urban counties such as Nairobi and Mombasa County.

42

1.3 Gender perspectives

Figure 1: What do people do when they don’t have adequate food

Borrowed

Food

Helped

by rela

tives

Purchase

d Food on cr

edit

Adults at

e less/

skipped

mea

ls

Sent ch

ildren

to liv

e with

relati

ves

Sold Househ

old items

Sold an

imals

(goats

, shee

p, cows)

Receive

d relie

f food

Casual

labour

Steali

ng

Plant sh

ort term

crops

Engag

ed in

prostitution

Bought fo

od

Ate wild

fruits

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Female Male

Source: AWSC/KNBS Baseline Survey on Food Security, June 2013

The findings reveal that, during periods of food shortages, men and women

adopt different coping strategies. The main strategies adopted by women at

100 percent each include engaging in prostitution, and eating wild fruits while

a similar proportion of the men said they plant short term crops, sell

household items and, send their children to live with relatives. Other main

strategies adopted by men included purchasing food on credit at

approximately 82 percent while another 74 percent sold animals and over 50

44

per cent, borrowed food as a coping strategy. The proportion of women and

men that engaged in casual labour so as to get food was 53.5 and 46.5

percent respectively. About sixty percent of women compared to 40 percent

of men were helped by relatives. The other major strategy for the women was

stealing at about 56 percent compared to 44 percent among their male

counterparts.

Figure 2: Perceptions of land use by male and female respondents

Farming

Livest

ock ke

eping

Building R

ental

houses

Constructi

on of home/h

ouse

Leasin

g out

Use as

loan se

curity

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

MaleFemale


While an equal proportion of men and women cited using land as loan

security, the proportions for the two genders were diverse on all the other

variables. For example 100 percent of men used land for construction of

home/house compared to 0 percent of women using the land for the same

purpose. The findings show more men than women, use land for the other 45

three variables, which included livestock keeping, farming and, leasing out.

The only variable, where more women (60 per cent) than men (40 per cent)

utilized land differently is in the building rental houses.

Figure 3: Access to Government food support programmes as

perceived by men and women respondents

Farm in

puts

Foodstu

ffs

Loans/fi

nancia

l support

Capaci

ty build

ing in fa

rming m

ethods

Value a

ddition to ag

ricultu

ral produce

Through

relev

ant m

inistries

Through

provincia

l Adminsitr

ation

School fe

eding p

rogra

mme0

20406080

100120

MaleFemale


The most conspicuous finding, in figure 17, is the proportion of women, at

100 percent compared to 0 percent of men, who said they received

Government support in the form of value addition to agricultural produce. The

largest proportion of men said they received support in the form of foodstuffs

and provision of farm inputs at approximately 75 percent and 70 percent,

respectively. Loans/financial support at about 63 percent and capacity

building in farming methods were the other main forms of support mainly

cited by the men. On the other hand, it is only under school feeding

46

programme where more women than men at 57.1 percent and 42.9 percent,

respectively, received government support.

Suggestions to Improve Government Food Support Programmes

The study sought recommendations of the male and female participants on

how the government food support programmes could be improved. The

findings on the recommendations are presented in Figure 18.

Figure 4: Suggestions on how government food programmes can be

improved

Provid

e finan

cial su

pport

Increase

Agric. E

xtensio

n servi

ces

Sensiti

ze Community

Lead

ers

Provis

ion of farm

inputs/

implem

ents

Making p

rogrammes

access

ible to all

Provis

ion of storag

e faci

lities

Transpare

ncy in id

entificati

on of ben

eficia

ries

Increasi

ng the s

upport0

20

40

60

80

100

120

MaleFemale


The largest proportion of men at 100 percent compared to 0 percent among

the women, recommended the provision of storage facilities. The largest

number of women at 62.5 percent compared to men at 37.5 percent

47

recommended the programmes be made accessible to all. While an equal

proportion of men and women recommended provision of farm

inputs/implements, the lowest proportion of women at approximately 26

percent recommended increase of extension services while the lowest

proportion of men, at about 37.5 percent recommended the programmes be

made accessible to all.

Economic Activities that Hinder the Achievement of Food Security

Men and women normally engage in different economic activities that have a

bearing on Household (HH) food security. The study, thus gathered views on

the views from the male and female respondents on the economic factors

that hinder achievement of food security, the findings are presented in Figure

20.

Figure 5: Economic issues that hinder achievement of food security

in the region

48

High Cost o

f seed

s

High Cost o

f fertl

izers

High co

st of m

achinery

Low yield

ing lives

tock bree

ds

Lack o

f storag

e faci

lities

Lack o

f mark

et

Lack o

f exte

nsion se

rvices

Poor infra

nstructu

re

Lack o

f cred

it faci

lities

Small

/Uneco

nomical p

ieces

of land

Unsecure

land te

nure

Unemploym

ent

Income issu

es/litt

le income

Presen

ce of m

iddlemen

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

MaleFemale


The findings illustrate there are differences in magnitude of responses

between men and women. The largest proportion of women respondents said

presence of middlemen and also lack of storage facilities, at 100 percent

each, were major hindrances to food security. The other major challenges

cited by women included high costs of seeds at 66.7 percent and unsecure

land tenure and lack of market at 60 percent each. The largest proportion of

male respondents cited small/uneconomical pieces of land and lack of

extension services at about 78 percent each. An equal proportion of men and

49

women cited lack of credit facilities, low yielding breeds of livestock and, high

cost of farm machinery as hindrances to food security.

Options that could be used to Ensure Attainment of Food Security

The study gathered views on ensuring food security, in an effort to gauge

whether there were different recommendations from the male and female

informants. The findings are presented in Figure 21.

Figure 6: Options that could be used to make sure that they have

adequate food

Water h

arvesti

ng

High yie

lding crop va

rieties

Improve

d infra

nstuctu

re

Provis

ion of irrig

ation

Access

to cred

it/finan

ce

Affordable s

eeds

Affordable f

ertlize

rs

Access

to exten

sion se

rvices

Improve

d securit

y

Capaci

ty build

ing in Agri

culture

Creation of e

mploymen

t

Provis

ion/acces

s to la

nd

Provis

ion of educati

on

Form

ation of co

-operative

s

Value a

ddition0

20

40

60

80

100

120

MaleFemale


50

The largest proportion of female respondents at 100 percent compared to 0

percent among their male counterparts recommended improvement of

security. The other major recommendations among the women were creation

of employment at 75 percent, provision of education and formation of co-

operatives at 66.7 percent each and provision/access to land at 57.1 percent.

The major recommendations among the men included improvement of

infrastructure and provision of affordable fertilizers at 80 percent each, water

harvesting at about 68 percent and, provision of affordable seeds at about 65

percent.

51

PART 2: DOCUMENTING WOMEN’S EXPERIENCES WITH FOOD

SECURITY

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Food security remains a serious challenge to many communities in Kenya

particularly the women. Although they are responsible for more than half of

the Kenya’s food production, they continue to be regarded as home

producers or assistants on the farm, and not as farmers and economic

agents on their own right. Their role in securing food security has mainly

remained invisible to many policy-makers. Moreover, literature shows that

women receive a small fraction of assistance for agricultural investments. In

Africa for example, women receive less than 10% of small farm credit and

only 1% of total credit to the agricultural sector, (IFPRI, 2001).

Gender-based inequalities along the food production chain “from farm to

plate” hinder the attainment of food and nutritional security. Empowering

women farmers is vital to lifting rural communities out of poverty, especially

as many developing nations face economic crisis, food insecurity, HIV/AIDS,

environmental degradation and climate change and increased urbanization.

Thus, maximizing the impact of agricultural development on food security

entails enhancing women’s roles as agricultural producers as well as the

primary caretakers of their families. To this end, research findings on food

52

security reveal that countries have taken decisive steps towards eliminating

food insecurity in the endeavor to create hunger free nations and restore

dignity to their citizens (Rebuilding the Broken African Pot, 2012).

No doubt, food security is a primary goal of sustainable agricultural

development and a cornerstone for economic and social development.

Kenya’s Constitution (2010) for instance, with its devolved governance

system, offers a great opportunity for counties (which are mandated to

coordinate agricultural activities) to develop policies and programmes that

ensure food security. While about a third of Kenya’s population is considered

to be food insecure, the government has made several commitments to

eradicate food insecurity. These efforts include the Millennium Development

Goals (MDG), the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme

(CAADP); Maputo Declaration, 2003) and Vision 2030 among other policy

pronouncements. Thus, the Kenya Constitution (2010) and the National Food

and Nutrition Security Policy (Sessional Paper 1 of 2012) provide great

opportunities for all stakeholders to engage and ensure zero tolerance to

hunger among all Kenyans.

FAO states that, food security is when one has a household's physical and

economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that fulfils the

nutritional needs and food preferences of that household for living an active

and healthy life. It is realized when all people, at all times, have physical,

social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet

their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.

53

Further, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), view food security

at the household level as access by all members at all times to enough food

for an active, healthy life which includes at a minimum: ready availability of

nutritionally adequate and safe foods, and an assured ability to acquire

acceptable foods in socially acceptable ways (that is, without resorting to

emergency food supplies, scavenging, stealing, or other coping strategies).

Towards efforts to achieve zero tolerance to hunger in Kenya, the African

Women’s Study Centre (AWSC) undertook the project: Towards Food and

Nutrition Security - Implementation of Article 43 (1)(c) which aimed to

promote and advocate for the implementation of Article 43 (1)(c) of the Bill

of Rights in the Kenya Constitution (2010) which states that “Every person

has the right to be free from hunger, and to have adequate food of

acceptable quality,” (Constitution of Kenya, 2010).

The AWSC which is based at the University of Nairobi is a policy, research,

training and advocacy Centre that works to bring women’s experiences into

mainstream knowledge. It is a multi-disciplinary Centre with expertise from

all the Colleges of the University including: Colleges of Humanities and Social

Sciences, Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences, Education and External

Studies, Health Sciences, Architecture and Engineering and Biological and

Physical Sciences. The main objective of the research was to document and

share with the stakeholders, government agencies and concerned

organizations nationally and internationally the findings, challenges and

recommendations on women’s experiences in food security. Key research

54

areas of interest include women livelihood strategies, access and use of land,

food storage, livestock assets and ownership, food access and coping

strategies.

2.2 METHODOLOGY

This research was conducted by first examining both published and

unpublished secondary sources of data such as thesis, dissertations,

newspapers, books and journal articles on food security. A desk review of

countries with best food security policies and programmes was also

conducted to draw lessons that can be used to improve food security in

Kenya.

The sampling methodology for the study sites was based on Kenyan

Ecological Zones (AEZs) which classified into six Agro-ecological Zones. The

AEZs include: Upper Highlands, Upper Midlands, Lowland Highlands, Lowland

Midlands, Inland Lowlands and Coastal Lowlands and out of the 47 counties

in Kenya, 13 counties were randomly selected for the study while Nairobi and

Mombasa counties were purposefully added as they consist 100% urban

population according to the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS). The

15 counties sampled for the survey were; Kisii Nairobi, Kiambu, Nakuru,

Elgeyo-Marakwet, Kirinyaga, Kajiado, Bomet, Makueni, Bungoma, Taita

Taveta, Migori, Samburu, Turkana, Baringo, Isiolo, Kwale, Mombasa, Nandi,

Laikipia. Among these counties, nine of them were selected for the Phase

One of the study.

55

Five constituencies were further sampled from each county for the survey

(except Laikipia County which has only three constituencies. Thus, all were

selected). From the selected constituencies, five wards were picked for the

study. Where the constituencies were less, the five Wards were picked from

the pool of what was available. In each County, four wards out of the five

represented the rural population while one ward represented the urban

population in an 80:20 national ratio of rural to urban population (see the

list of selected counties and wards for phase I and phase II of the

study in appendix 1).

Fieldwork took place in two phases: Phase I and Phase II. Phase I took place

between 16th and 19th of April 2013 and covered the following counties:

Baringo, Bomet, Kajiado, Kiambu, Laikipia, Makueni, Mombasa, Nairobi and

Nakuru. Phase II took place between 14th and 18th of June 2013 in Elgeyo-

Marakwet, Kirinyaga, Kisii, Kwale, Kisumu and Bungoma counties. Figure 2

reflects the commissioning of the study in one of the phases.

The methods (techniques) used for gathering data in the field to capture

women’s experiences were face-to-face, in-depth interviews, focus group

discussions (FGDs), oral testimonies and debriefing as shown in table 1. All

of these methods were organized according to age groups. In the face-to-

face, in-depth interviews, the women were grouped into age categories

as: 15-24 years, 25-34 years, 35-49 years and 50 and above years. They

were to be interviewed from the five selected constituencies or wards of the

56

counties making a total of at least 40 respondents. In every age group, one

of the respondents had to be a leader.

The FGDs were organized into two age groups which included less than 40

years and 40 and above years. A total of 3 FGDs were planned for each

county where two FGDs were planned to take place in the rural areas of the

counties and one in an urban area of the county. Using the results from the

FGDs, the study anticipated to capture women’s knowledge, perceptions,

perspectives and experiences of both younger and older women in food

security. Four oral testimonies were planned for in each county. They

included two age categories of women aged between 50-65 years and those

aged 66 and above years. The expectations were to capture the historical

perspective on food security among these older women. It was deemed

necessary that at least one of these oral testimonies would take place in an

urban area of the county.

The method of debriefing was in the form of a meeting planned in each of

the counties with the representatives of the county management (Governor,

County Assembly, other development officers and selected representatives

of the participants in all the interviewed areas in the county). These

representatives constituted about twenty to twenty five people. This was

part of data collection process and took place in an agreed upon venue. The

participants were purposively selected based on the cited age groups and

Wards.

57

Table 1: Types of Study Instruments and the Number of Respondents per County

No CountyTool

In-depth/ face-to-face

Oral interviews

FGDs Debriefing

1. Nairobi 36 4 3 12. Mombasa 45 4 3 13. Kiambu 40 4 3 14. Bomet 40 4 3 15. Makueni 40 4 4 16. Baringo 40 4 3 17. Kajiado 36 5 5 18. Nakuru 40 4 3 19. Laikipia 43 4 3 110. Elgeyo

Marakwet40 4 3 1

11. Bungoma 41 4 3 112. Kisumu 40 4 3 113. Kwale 40 4 3 114. Kirinyaga 44 4 3 115. Kisii 32 4 3 1

Figure1: Commissioning of the Study

58

Figure2: Field Data Collection.

2.3 RESEARCH FINDINGS

2.3.1 Livelihood Activities

a. Source of IncomeAs indicated in figure3, it was evident that majority of women derived their livelihoods from the sale of

agricultural products (27 percent) and petty trading/business (26 percent). Temporary work was made up

of 14 percent while 13 percent managed their livelihood from sale of animals. It was clear that majority

women had resorted to agriculture and business as the only means of livelihood. This may mean that with

low educational attainment it may be difficult to get employment in the formal sector or that formal job

may be scarce in the rural areas where 80 percent of the study focused.

59

Figure3: Percentage Livelihood Activities of Respondents (Source of Income)

Sale of agricul-

tural prod-ucts29%

Sale of animals13%

Sale of fish1%

Rural temporary work14%

Monthly salary

7%

Remittance8%

Business/ trade26%

Renting houses1%

Pension1%

From women group/ social group contribution

1%

Source: AWSC/KNBS women experiences on Food Security, 2014

b. Income ExpenditureAccording to the results on the figure4, the highest expenditure (26.9 percent) on the income earned was

spent on buying food, 24.1% on paying school fees and 16.3% on medical bills. Other areas where the

income was spent included buying clothes, saving, investment and paying rent. The expenditure reflects a

woman’s strained budget and thus less is used on food which implies that the food bought may be

insufficient as women struggled to meet the various needs. Also, it may explain why they save little

money with the financial institutions, buy assets or make other types of investments.

60

Figure4: Percentage Income Expenditure among the Respondents

Paying s

chool fees

Buying f

ood

Buying c

loths

Medica

l bills

Saving u

nder socia

l groups

Saving i

n financia

l institutions

Buying A

ssets

Investm

ent

Helping n

eighbours

and re

latives

Other basi

c nee

ds

paying r

ent

repay

ing loan

other0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

24.126.9

8.0

16.3

2.5 1.5 1.02.5 1.8

7.6

3.11.6

3.1

Income Expenditure

Expenses categories

Perc

enta

ge

Source: AWSC/KNBS women experiences on Food Security, 2014

2.3.2 Coping Strategies

Figure 5 presents an analysis that was done by Dr. Wanjiru Gichuhi

(Population Studies and Research Institute, U.O.N) in comparing the

Strategies that men and women adopt to confront food shortages. Results

show that during times of food shortages men and women adopted different

coping strategies. It was observed that some strategies like prostitution and

eating wild fruits were almost exclusively reserved for women while none of

the men said they were engaged in such activities for survival. The data

showed that women resorted to theft more often than men (52 percent for

women versus 42 percent for men, respectively. Whereas almost all of the

men, said that they sent their children away to live with relatives, sold

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household items, and planted short-term crops while none of the women

identified these strategies.

Figure5: Strategies adopted to confront Food shortages

020406080

100120

Fe-male

Source: AWSC/KNBS Baseline Survey on Food Security, 2014

2.3.5 Women’s Knowledge and Experiences in Food Security

This section presents an analysis that was done by Prof.Wanjiku Mukabi

Kabira focusing on oral testimonies and Key Information from women

experiences study.

a. Climate Change

Women explained that they could recall major climatic changes over their

lifetimes. They looked nostalgically to the past when they had bumper

harvests and produced abundant supplies of food without using pesticides.

Irene from Mombasa County noted that there had been environmental

changes; the land distribution had grown smaller and people could no longer

practice shift cultivation. Drought was identified as a persistent problem.1

1

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Women pointed out that climate change had affected food production, with

granaries remaining empty. Climate change was a major hindrance to food

security. According to Eugene Wangui from Laikipia: “… soil here does not

retain water any more so most crops fail during the dry spells. The crops

experience frost and dry up”. Moraa also from Laikipia County says that they

“used to prevent floods but not anymore”. In Kibwezi it rains after three

years says Ndito Muasya, they say they used to cultivate more frequently

than they do now. There are times when they go for years without rain and

drought destroys the crops, says Alice Mulmasai of Bomet. For them the

climate in the past was better, rain was more reliable so they had two

distinct seasons, says Waithima from Kirinyaga. They knew when the rains

would come and would prepare for the planting and later for harvest. They

knew when they would get short rains and would plant those crops that

would be appropriate for the short rains. They knew when the long rains

would come too and would prepare for it. This however as Waithima says, is

not the case anymore. The women also noted that the soils are now “infertile

and unproductive”. The soil used to be fertile and productive says Lucy Njoki

of Nakuru “Women have knowledge about what is happening around them

and they also have answers that are discussed later in this paper.

Women clearly see changes in climate that lead to dry spells and shortage of

rainfall as well as its unpredictability as a major contribution to food

insecurity in the country.

Food Storage and Preservation

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According to Syombua Ndito Muasya of Mombasa, “...traditionally, perishable

foods such as kales, cabbages and peas could be dried” She adds that “fruits

such as mangoes could be sliced and then dried and preserved, when you

want to eat them, you just soak them in water and eat.” Women note that

“in the past, they used to put cooked food in the pots in traditional baskets

made of cow dung. Priscah from Baringo notes that, “they used to heat meat

on open fire and store after drying completely, in storing perishable

vegetables, they shredded and dried them. I learnt that from my

grandmother who used to dry vegetables too but they have stopped storing

for the future – if they don’t keep for the future what will they eat when

drought comes – if they have nothing in store what will they do if traders do

not bring anything – it will be a tragedy” she says. One can feel the urgency

from Priscah of the need to utilize technology for storing food, the desire to

think of the future, to plan for it and not to wait for famine. She knows as she

says how devastating it can be to wait for a harvest that may not come.

Women discussed issues of value addition for milk, making fat, butter and

yeast. Peninnah of Kisumu in telling her story says that they used ash for the

preservation of non-perishable foods. This concept was discussed by many

participants; food preservation and value addition were major concerns for

women. They have the knowledge. They talk about milk processing factories

where they have daily cattle. Evelyn Webukhulu of Bungoma says they need

juice processing factories in areas where fruits are grown to avoid wastage

and facilities for harvesting the grains before they are infected with pests.

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Evelyn again says that they could “make juices from kale and other

traditional vegetables or dry them under shade and store them in clean bags

for future use. Then when one wants to cook they just need to soak them in

water to soften them. She also says they could keep cooked food by making

it dry first.

In order to address the problem of afflatoxin, Syombua Ndito of Mombasa

notes that the Government should “…put in place a food drier so that if you

want to dry your food you pay a little money to sustain the service instead of

allowing food to have afflatoxin and cause deadly diseases among people.”

This is a creative way of addressing the issue of food preservation. As Ndito

pointed out, there is need to create the opportunity for women to have a

common place where they can dry their cereals such as maize and even pay

for it. This is not rocket science and does not require a lot of investment and

yet it is a very crucial process that can protect people from cancer and other

diseases. Moreover, it will enhance both food security and food safety.

Irene Randu of Mombasa was among many women that recommended that

the Government should build modern silos that are home based for “there is

no use of farming so hard then losing produce due to lack of storage space”.

“If you apply ash and the store room is damp it won’t help” she adds.

Clearly, women’s knowledge on traditional technology for food preservation

has not been tapped. Nothing prevents them from using knowledge and basic

technology that is familiar to them in order to deal with food security.

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Diseases that Affect Crops and Animals

Evelyn Mebukhulu of Bungoma says: “There are persistent pests called

Osama, a kind of weevil that is difficult to get rid of”. The name is symbolic

as we can guess, the illusive nature of Osama Bin Laden is well known. It

took the most powerful nation in the world to get to Osama Bin Laden and

even for that to happen it took them years to plan. That is how difficult it is

to get rid of the pest called Osama. The women call this pest which is very

difficult to get rid of, Osama. Waithima from Kirinyaga adds, “The shambas

have turned yellow a symbol of dryness and non-productivity instead of

green. Even coffee needs pesticides because lack of it encourages attack by

weevils which make the yield go down”. Clearly the women have the

knowledge they need to use in growing their crops and protecting them if

they have the resources Extension services providers should go to learn from

the women.

PART3: Review of best practices in institutional, legal and policy

frameworks in select food secure countries for implementation of

Article 43 (1)(c).

66

Countries with best food security policy legislative and institutional

frameworks were identified using the Global Hunger Index, which

indicates that Brazil and South Africa, India, Ghana, and Malawi are some of

the third world countries that have put in place adequate measures to

eradicate food insecurity. (Golden & Thompson, 2010).

The choice of countries with best food policy practices was also identified

using policy analysis tools developed by the AWSC (African Women's

Studies Center, 2012).

On Best Practices in Policy and Programmes, AWSC noted that Brazil

implemented the Fome Zero (Zero hunger) programme from 2003 with aim

of addressing Brazil’s food insecurity.

It was also noted that the government of Malawi has formed;

i. The Agricultural Development and Marketing Corporation or ADMARC

as a government-owned corporation or parastatal to promote the

Malawian economy by increasing the volume and quality of agricultural

exports.

ii. Integrated Nutrition and Food Security Surveillance (INFSS) system was

set up with technical assistance from Action Against Hunger and the

support of the Malawi government

iii. The Malawi Vulnerability Assessment Committee (MVAC) which

comprises Government, inter-governmental organizations; academic

67

and non-profit member organizations that seek to provide information

to inform public action.

iv. The Humanitarian Food Assistance Stocks, which ensures that food

insecure households receive food assistance.

v. Malawi food Security Programmes which constitutes the following

programmes;

a. Winter cropping & the African Adaptation Programme

Winter cropping is a practice of cultivating crops in the dry season

taking advantage of the residual moisture within the lowland areas.

b. The Farm Input Subsidy Programme (FISP)

In 2006, in response to disastrously low agricultural harvests, Malawi

under the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security began a program

of fertilizer subsidies that were designed to re-energize the land and

boost crop production. It has been reported that this program,

championed by the country's then president was radically improving

Malawi's agriculture, and causing Malawi to become a net exporter of

food to nearby countries.

c. Malawi Dairy Development Project

The Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security is implementing the dairy

development project. The project is being implemented in collaboration

with Heifer international.

d. Integrated Food Security Programme (IFSP)

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The Integrated Food Security Programme (IFSP) in Malawi was a complex,

multi-sector activity that sought to improve food security and nutrition in one

of Malawi’s most vulnerable, least-performing regions.

e. Millennium Development Villages

The Millennium Development Villages is an initiative of the United Nations

Millennium Project. The millennium villages are based the idea – that villages

can transform themselves and meet the millennium development goals if

they are empowered with proven, powerful, practical technologies. The

initiative is investing in health, food production, education, access to clean

water and essential infrastructure. All these will be community led

interventions which will enable impoverished villages escape extreme

poverty.

f. National Plan of Action for Nutrition

The National Plan of Action for Nutrition was an initiative of the government

of Malawi and was a key food security policy instrument of 1995. It identified

priority intervention areas including: improved household food security;

measures to address micronutrient deficiencies; targeted assistance for

nutritionally vulnerable groups; improved child feeding practices; and the

incorporation of nutritional objectives into all national food security

programming. There was a growing recognition in Malawi’s government, and

among its development partners, of the need for a combined focus on food

security and nutrition, and that carefully coordinated multisectoral actions

were needed to address both.69

g. Agricultural Market Information System (AMIS)

Under the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security, the government of

Malawi has the Agricultural Market Information System (AMIS). For

2010/2011 AMIS collected and compiled the nominal average retail maize

prices, an exercise that showed that prices have steadily remained lower

than the prices for the last three years. Nationally, the 2011/12 nominal

average retail maize prices collected by the Agricultural Market Information

System (AMIS) under the MoAFS shows that the prices have remained lower

than the prices for the last three years ( under the MoAFS).

h. Economic Recovery Plan (ERP)

The government of Malawi has launched an 18 month Economic Recovery

Plan (ERP) that focuses on a few priorities that are “pro-growth, represent

quick wins, and are highly effective.” This plan stresses the need for

social protection programmes (Farmer Input Support Program (FISP) and

other assistance to small farmers, public works, school feeding,

scholarships for girls, cash transfers; and identifies diversified commercial

agriculture, tourism, energy, mining and infrastructure/Information

Technology and Communications (ITC) as sectors that can help turn

around the economy and provide the initial building blocks towards

70

structural transformation, needed to successfully implement the Second

Malawi Growth and Development Strategy (MDGSII.)

g .Budgetary allocation

Malawi has rightly been heralded as a success, proving that committed

budgetary spending on agriculture can halve hunger and dramatically reduce

child malnutrition rates

h. Agricultural Development Programme (ADP)

Malawi intends to implement an Agricultural Development Programme (ADP)

to accelerate agricultural growth. While significant analysis has gone into the

design phase of the ADP, Malawi still faces many numerous challenges and

questions in formulating a strategy to implement it.

i.Support to women farmers

In Malawi women have been greatly strengthened by legally-enforced land

rights and proper tools, and education. Malawi also can no longer afford to

ignore what women farmers could accomplish in meeting the country’s food

needs, as women make up 70 per cent of the agricultural labour force and

yet have little resources. Households headed by women however have fewer

assets, limited access to productive inputs and land, a greater burden of

dependants, limited opportunities for off-farm employment and longer

periods of food insecurity.

j. Agricultural Technology Adoption in Malawi

71

Malawi realizes that crop yields like in most developing countries are

often many times lower than those that could be achieved using

readily available technologies and farming techniques, and food

security can be a serious problem. Agricultural incomes and food

security can depend on farmer adoption of these tools and techniques.

vi. Malawi legislative framework

Currently Malawi has a right to food legislation in progress.

However on nutrition, the constitution of Malawi stipulates that The State

shall actively promote the welfare and development of the people of Malawi

by progressively adopting and implementing policies and legislation aimed at

achieving the certain goals. On nutrition; that the government of Malawi

strives to achieve adequate nutrition for all in order to promote good health

and self-sufficiency.in

In India the following was reviewed as best practice:

i. Employment as a Guarantee to Food Security

India has managed to make many of its poor people food secure by

guaranteeing them a hundred days of employment per year in green jobs.

The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA)

was enacted on 7 September 2005 as “An Act to provide for the

enhancement of livelihood security of the households in rural areas of the

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country by providing at least one hundred days of guaranteed wage

employment in every financial year to every household”.

In Cuba the following was identified:

Cuba Institutional Food Security Mechanisms which includes the

following;

i. Land

Agriculture in Cuba is still recovering from three decades of the "green revolution"

characterized by a centralist policy that kept most of the 6.6 million hectares

of arable land in state hands. The Green revolution was an intensive farming

system that left a legacy of one million hectares of land affected by

salinization, as well as eroded, compacted and infertile soils, and an

"invasion" of weeds like marabu or aroma (Dichrostachys species) in the

fields. Only 24 percent of the Cuban population lives in the countryside. The

rural exodus was one of the consequences of the "green revolution".

ii. Organic farming

There is support to extend a system combining agriculture, livestock and

forestry, which has had excellent results on several farms on the island. The

method incorporates agro-ecology, is largely independent of inputs like

chemical fertilizers and insecticides, boosts self-sufficiency and respects the

environment.

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iii. Boosting decentralization in the countryside

The project is called “support for new decentralization initiatives and

production stimulation in Cuba”. It includes seven million dollars in aid to

bolster the participation of the small private sector as a dynamic agent in

local development. Individual producers and cooperatives from five

municipalities in five different provinces are the beneficiaries.

This programme is aimed at promoting decentralization in agriculture, in line

with the government’s new policy of promoting economic activities that

contribute to import substitution. Small farmers involved in the programme

will be provided with tools, credits and facilities for repairing tractors, among

other services.

The initiative is partly financed by the MDG Achievement Fund (MDG-F),

whose main donor is Spain

iv. Diversification of agriculture

The programme involved 20 million dollars in aid from the European

Commission, channeled through the UNDP, up to Sept. 30, 2011, with the

aim of diversifying agriculture.

The plan was to strengthen local food production capacity, while improving

farm management and the availability of local produce in 27 selected

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municipalities. In addition, efforts were made to improve quality and quantity

of skilled farmers in another 10 municipalities.

v. U.N. cooperation

The United Nations cooperation in Cuba covers programmes and projects in

areas of local human development, natural disasters and risks, the

environment and energy, health and food security, all of which are in line

with priorities identified by the government.

vi. Innovations to Boost Small Farmers

Cuban small farmers are strengthening their traditional ties with the land

through a farming project that links scientific know-how with ancestral

techniques and encourages greater local autonomy in decision-making on

food production.

vii. Foreign investment

There are calls for the agricultural industry, as well as other sectors of the

Cuban economy, to open up to foreign capital, in order to gain capital,

technology and markets.

viii. Farm inputs

In Cuba there are calls for the creation of a market for agricultural inputs,

equipment and tools for farmers to directly purchase what they need,

75

something that does not currently exist. In addition to that, there is

emphasis for greater participation and a stronger sense of belonging for

members of cooperatives.

ix. Local Agricultural Innovation Programme (PIAL)

The Local Agricultural Innovation Programme (PIAL), initially led by a

multidisciplinary scientific team from the National Institute of Agricultural

Sciences (INCA), is aimed at revitalizing the agricultural sector and

promoting greater participation by campesino (small farmer) communities in

Cuba’s food

From Ghana the following literature was reviewed and best practices

identified.

Ghana produces 51% of its cereal needs, 60% of fish requirements, 50% of

meat, and less than 30% of the raw materials needed for agro-based

industries. Agriculture continues to contribute the largest share to the Gross

Domestic Product (GDP), even though the share of the sector in national

output declined from 44% in 1990 to 37% in 2005. Since 2000, the

contribution of agriculture to total GDP has varied between 35.8% and 37%.

Agricultural growth increased from about 4% in 2000 to 6% in 2005, but

much of the recent growth has been stimulated by the cocoa industry.

Food and Agriculture Sector Development Policy (FASDEP II)

Vision for Food and Agriculture Sector

76

The national vision for the food and agriculture sector is a modernized

agriculture culminating in a structurally transformed economy and evident in

food security, employment opportunities and reduced poverty.

Institutional Framework

Roles of Key Stakeholders/ Institutions

Government of Ghana policy and all Government agencies have important

roles to play in its implementation to ensure its success. However, MoFA has

the lead responsibility within the context of a coordinated Government

Programme.

Framework for Engagement and Coordination

MoFA requires favorable response from all MDAs, as well as

stakeholders in civil society, in the implementation of FASDEP. MoFA

engages partners through a platform on which all parties specify:

Shared objectives;

Common prioritization of objectives and, where necessary, joint

planning;

Roles to leverage skills and build on synergies of parties

The Coordination Function of Ministry of Food and Agriculture

The implementation of the policy rests with both the public sector (led

by MoFA) and the private sector.

77

MoFA is responsible for the coordination and development of the

implementation framework for FASDEP II.

Decentralization Policy

The decentralization policy, backed by the Local Government Act (Act 462),

devolves central administration authority to the district level, fuses

government agencies in any given region, district or local area into one

administrative unit, through the process of institutional integration,

manpower absorption, composite budgeting and provision of funds for the

decentralized services; and devolves implementation responsibilities to the

districts.

The following literature was reviewed from Mauritius:

The agricultural sector in Mauritius is dominated by the sugar plantation

industry which has long been the backbone of the Mauritian economy. In the

1970s, the Mauritian economy underwent structural changes characterized

by the rapid expansion of the industrialization process that concentrated

mainly in the textile production in the Export Processing Zones and the

development of tourism. These, together with the agricultural sector also

form the pillars of the Mauritian economy.

The agricultural sector in Mauritius employs 7.4% of the total working

population and is one of the primary sources of foreign currency for the

country. It also has the responsibility of addressing food security and self-

sufficiency in certain crops for the population.

78

The foreign currency derived from the sale of sugar to the EU has so far been

adequate to pay for the food imports. However, with the recent proposal of

the EU, there is no certainty of the level of income from sugar and therefore,

food imports are at a risk. The Government decided to diversify the

agricultural sector to enhance the production of crops and livestock but not

at the expense of sugarcane through the crop diversification policy.

The Government also offered a number of incentives to farmers to ensure

the success of the diversification program including:

i. Agricultural credit. This included financial loans from banks and

subsidy on the price of certain commodities.

ii. A guaranteed price offered for some commodities and facilities for

livestock breeders.

The Government also recognized the vulnerability of the country to low self-

sufficiency in food and therefore decided to come up policies to build

resilience through food security. So the government in the 2008-2009

budgets provided a five pronged strategy for food self sufficiency as follows:

i. Boosting up investment in agriculture by providing facilities through

various policies to attain self-sufficiency;

ii. Exploiting opportunity of Cross border Initiative (CBI) set by the FAO

with Madagascar, Mozambique, Tanzania and other countries to

increase production for domestic consumption as well as for regional

markets;

79

iii. Encouraging surpluses in food production for export so as to capture

maximum gains that can benefit local consumers and farmers by

generating more income;

iv. Seeking the support of regional blocks and development partners and

promote joint ventures with countries such as China and India;

v. Sensitizing campaigns to promote healthy eating though promotion of

island food thus reducing dependency on rice and flour.

In addition, best practices from Egypt were also reviewed and AWSC

identified the following from Egypt.

Situation of Food Security in Egypt

Egypt has managed to move from a global rating moderate hunger to that of

insignificant hunger. It has particularly achieved good results with regard to

food supply and consumption. Per capita calories reached 3228 calorie/day

in Egypt. It exceeds that recommended by FAO estimated at 2540

calorie/day. Egypt has attained full self-sufficiency in rice, vegetables, fruits,

dairy, white meat, eggs and fish, with some surplus for export. In 2001/2002,

Egypt’s exports of rice amounted to about 750 thousand tons, compared

with 298 thousand tons in 99/2000.

Exports of potatoes increased from 147 thousand tons in 99/2000 to about

237 thousand tons in 2001/2002. Exports of citrus amounted to about 300

thousand tons, compared with 194 thousand tons in 99/2000. Exports of

onions amounted to about 175 thousand tons, compared with 42 thousand

80

tons in 99/2000. Exports, of peanuts amounted to about 10.0 thousand tons

compared with 6.60 thousand tons in 99/2000. In addition, exports of grapes,

strawberry, green bean reach about 10 thousand, 6 thousand, and 20

thousand tons respectively in 2000/2001. Self-sufficiency ratio of wheat

increased to about 56% at present. It is planned to be raised to 75% by

means of high productive varieties, mixing 20% of corn with 80% of wheat

and improving bread making technologies As a result of that, Egypt was

selected for the first time to chair the International Wheat Council during

1994/1995 session.

Egypt current Agricultural Strategy (up to 2017)

The strategy for agricultural development in Egypt up to year 2017 aims at

increasing the annual rate of growth of agricultural production to 4. 1 %

through the optimum allocation and utilization of resources, achieving food

security through utilization of comparative and competitive advantages,

creating new opportunities for gainful employment in rural areas, and

improving incomes and standards of living of agricultural and rural

population.

Lessons learnt from best practices

Based on the study of best practices above on enhancing food security

undertaken by the AWSC, the centre identified Brazil, South Africa, Malaysia,

Egypt, India, Colombia, Ghana, Cuba, Malawi, as some of the countries with

the best food practices. These countries were chosen because they have

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managed to achieve food security both at household and national levels or

have made commendable efforts towards the realization of the same.

These are some of the lessons that Kenya could learn from the above

countries.

There is some strength in the programmes implemented by the above

countries towards achievement of food security. Among the key strengths

that should be looked at in relation to Article 43, (1) (c) of the Kenyan

Constitution include:

1. Development and deliberate implementation of a comprehensive food

programme or strategy

2. Legal enforcement of a right based approach to food security anchored

in law

3. Decentralized implementation of the programmes

4. Innovative institutional mechanisms for implementation

5. Citizens participation

6. Development of cost-effective programmes

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PART4

a. Generation and use of data to advocate and lobby for more

responsive institutional, legal and policy frameworks.

The centre aimed at generating data to advocate and lobby for more

responsive institutional, legal and policy frameworks and greater allocation of

resources for implementation of food security initiatives.

In this regard, the centre consolidated all the research findings from the

twenty counties into one report; Status Report on the Kenya National Food

Security which presented key research findings from the twenty counties and

gave recommendations that can help the country to achieve food security.

The centre was also able to analyse data for each county and the research

findings were put into different county specific reports with recommendations

that the county government can use to improve the food security status in

their countries.

In addition to the national report, women’s’ experiences with food security

was documented which incorporated the research findings from the women’s

experiences study, proposals and recommendations. From the same study,

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the centre was able to derive fifteen county policy briefs which have both

recommendations from the county residents and from AWSC.

The centre in collaboration with the school of law has also developed budget

proposals for 2014/2015FY and submitted to the budget committee for

consideration. The centre has held various meetings with policy makers to try

to lobby and influence more responsive institutional, legal and policy

frameworks.

photos)

b sharing the research findings with the food security stakeholders at

the county and national levels .

The centre has been able to share the research findings with the food

security stakeholders at both county and national levels.

One of the food security stakeholders meeting was held on 21st November

2014 at the council’s chamber, UoN to launch the national food security

status report. The forum was attended by stakeholders from different

government institutions, Ministries, Academia and Civil Societies. . Among

them were Ms.Mary Kamau ,Ministry of Agriculture ,Livestock and

Fisheries ,Dr .James Nyoro, Presidential advisor on Food Security ,Senator

Kiraitu Murungi ,chairman Agricultural committee in the senate, Mr. Zachary

Mwangi ,the Director General KNBS, Col.(Rtd) Nathan Kagotho, Ministry of

Interior(NDOC), Franklin Mutani, Ministry of Education Science and

Technology ,Samson Wangusi and Emily Opati from the Ministry of Devolution

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and planning. Each of these government representatives gave a brief speech

regarding their participation in food security while doctor Nyoro made a

presentation. In his speech the representative from the ministry of Education

said that the ministry of education gave food to vulnerable children together

with the Ministry of Health and WHO. He also said that they deworm children.

He also pointed out that food insecurity affects the children concentration

thus affecting the overall performance of a child. He therefore encouraged

kitchen gardening to ensure food supply in homes even where the land is not

enough.

In responding to insecurity which was one of the key issues contributing to

food insecurity, the representative from the Ministry of Interior said that

insecurity was everybody’s concern and responsibility. He therefore said he

fully supported the Nyumba Kumi iniatiave as a way of curbing insecurity and

urged everyone who was present to embrace it.

From the ministry of Devolution and planning, the representative said that

gender irregularities and roles can lead to food insecurity. She pointed out

that the historical background does not favor women since they left to do too

much domestic work. She added that there was need for gender

mainstreaming in land availability, accessibility, and access to technology,

training, finance and infrastructure.

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Mr. Zachary Mwangi, Director KNBS He started by thanking everyone for the

effort that had made this successful. He added that the bureau was too

proud and happy to be associated with the report.

He added that statistics were important in decision making and it was within

the mandate of the KNBS to collaborate with other institution to generate

data that would inform policy and budgeting.

He expressed confidence in the research and added that there was the need

to look for resources to conduct research in the other 27 counties. He said

the data would help both the county and the national government to come

up with policies that would ensure zero tolerance to hunger.

Moreover, Senator Kiraitu Murungi, Chair of the Agriculture Committee in the

Senate thanked the AWSC for conducting the research and inviting the

senate. He gave apologies from the speaker of the senate Hon Ekwe Ethuro.

He said that the senate welcomed the report and promised to do their very

best to implement and would assist in finding the resources to carry out

research in the rest of the counties.

He stated that food security requires some level of good allocation, security,

road education, health and energy; it was cross-cutting and pointed out that

the farmers needed to re-organize themselves to raise the 4% budget

allocation for agriculture to around 20%.

He added that there was the need to mobilize board to raise support for the

agricultural sector and stated that graduates need to be encouraged to

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participate in agriculture without feeling intimidated. He also added that the

government needed to come up with better mechanisms of cash transfers

and food program support

He concluded by saying that the Food Security Bill, 2014 had gone through

the first reading and public hearing and the second reading was due. There

was the need to consult with the MOALF, the office of the president. He

hoped that the bill will be passed to law.

Other than the speeches, the following presentations related to food security

were made by different presenters:

i. Research Objectives and the context of the study by Prof. Hutchinson

Jesang (CAVS, UoN)

ii. Research Methodology and Process by Josiah Kaara (Kenya National

Bureau of Statistics)

iii. Research Findings by Prof .Tabitha Kiriti Nganga(School of Economics)

iv. Aflatoxins and Food Security by Prof. Erastus Kangethe (UoN).

v. Sustainable Food Security in Kenya: A Synopsis by Agnes Kyalo

(MOALF)

vi. Crop Health and Food Security by Dr. Faith J. Toroitich (Egerton

University)

vii. Food Security in Kenya: Way Forward by James Nyoro (Presidential

Food Security Advisor)

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The report was launched by Ms. Mary Kamau who read the speech on behalf

of the Principal Secretary Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries and

Mrs.Anna P. Mwangi gave the vote of thanks.

photographs

PART5: POLICY/PROGRAMME RECOMMENDATIONS AND BUDGET POLICY/PROGRAMME RECOMMENDATIONS AND BUDGET

PROPOSALSPROPOSALS

5.1Introduction

The recommendations in this section are derived from both the baseline

survey and the qualitative data from women experiences. Most of these

proposals came from the participants themselves while others are derived

from the study findings. The recommendations are divided into 2 sections.

Part one deals with policy and programme recommendations and part two

deals with legal and institutional frameworks for the implementation of article

43 (1) (c).

5.2 Policy and programme recommendations

a) Water for irrigation and domestic use: If Kenya is to achieve food

security, then it needs to rely heavily on irrigation rather than rain-fed

agriculture. In Kenya, rain fed agriculture leaves 3.5 million people annually in

need of food relief with most of them in arid and semi-arid areas where rains

have largely failed. Respondents from most of the Counties including

Makueni, Baringo, Isiolo and Turkana amongst others attest to this. Many of

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the respondents who grow their own food and who are food insecure (40%)

recommended irrigation as a solution to food insecurity. In addition, the high

cost of water harvesting equipment and technologies be made available to

harvest, avail and utilize water in farms for domestic use and irrigation. The

government shown commendable efforts towards irrigation theses include the

largest irrigation scheme in the history of Kenya, the one million acre Galana-

Kulalu in Coast. To fully exploit alternative sources of water, there is urgent

need by the Government to carry out a raft of measures which will help

counties like Turkana, Baringo, Isiolo, Kwale, Makueni, Kajiado achieve food

security. These measures include:

i) Subsidization of equipment/materials for water harvesting such as

tanks, pipes, water pumps, borehole drilling machinery, gutters etc.

ii) Construction of dams and water pans: As highlighted in

Agriculture Sector Development Strategy 2010-2020, Kenya has about 4100

small dams and water pans which provide only 5.3m3 per capita per year

which is among the lowest water storage rates in the world equivalent to only

3 months use (ASDS, 2010). Thus, construction of dams and water pans to

store water, harvest flash floods for irrigation, livestock and domestic use is

key to Kenya’s food security.

iii) Tapping into aquifers/Drilling of boreholes and other existing

water sources: The recent discovery of several billion cubic meters of water

in Turkana County offers a window of opportunity to alleviate high food

insecurity in Turkana and the region at large. The Government should take 89

this initiative and bear the initial cost of drilling to make the entire community

benefit from this important discovery.

b) Family Support programmes: Given the level of food insecurity in

all the counties and the fact that on average at least 18% of the population

which translates to 7.1million are often or always hungry (Table 2). The

national government through County governments should establish a family

support programme for those severely affected by hunger following the

example of India and Brazil. The Kenyan government can directly focus on the

households and ensure that they have access to food through either

increased production (40% who produce their own food) as well as providing

markets for their produce at fair prices. In addition to creating a linkage

between the farmers and the market, the county government should also buy

from the farmers produce at the market price, creation of employment for

casual labourers who are (21%) and opportunities for markets and trade (16%

who practice trade/small business).Both the national and county government

should create/build standard markets in counties and sub-counties, promote

inter-county free markets as well as improving infrastructure including

construction of all-weather roads to promote access. The subsidized fertilizer

allocation structure and identification of the beneficiaries should be emulated.

In India identification of priority households follows a clear and transparent

legal framework which Kenya could emulate in order to ensure efficient,

transparent and targeting of the food poor household we recommend that a

clear legal framework to ensure implementation of family support programme

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that will address this category of Kenyans from this dehumanizing situation

and address article 43 (1) (c). This will demonstrate that Kenya is truly

committed to zero tolerance to hunger and will set the pace for the region.

The research proposes that the government develops a clear legal framework

that will ensure that the family support programme, cash transfer programme

as well as other food security innovations particularly those that address 6.4

million Kenya’s is implemented and monitored and that citizens have redress.

These manual jobs at the county should target the hungry households.

c) Institutional mechanism for implementation of the family

support programme. AWSC proposes that the county governments

establish a food security committee at the sub-county level that would

oversee the establishment and implementation of family support programme.

The food security committee will work closely with the governor, the

programme will be coordinated from the office of the President, and the office

will therefore be responsible ensuring efficient monitoring and evaluation of

the programme and collecting the data. The food security committee will

work closely with the county government to establish the mechanisms for

identifying the needy households, family representatives, their contacts etc,

negotiates with private sector, business community, farmers among others to

ensure that this programme works. India’s National Food Security Act leaves

this function to the state (county) governments which identifies and ‘display

prominently’ the names of the beneficiaries. This promotes transparency. In

addition the county governments will develop a data bank of the most food

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insecure families in the counties, keep monitoring progress and giving

feedback to the authority. Our research findings clearly indicated the people’s

dissatisfaction on the distribution of the cash transfer and its inadequacy.

d) Creation of employment: Provision of employment both at the

national and county level especially to the youth and the women should be

promoted as well as sensitizing the youth to take farming as a source of

livelihood. In India, the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment

Guarantee Act (NREGA) is the main poverty alleviation programme. Through

this Act, India has managed to make many of its poor people food secure by

guaranteeing them a hundred days of employment for every household per

year in green jobs every financial year. Hence, the National and County

Governments should explore ways of creating employment. According to

Agricultural Sector Development Strategy irrigation for example can create

jobs at the rate 15 persons per acre directly and indirectly. The government

has shown commendable efforts in provision of employment to the youth and

women through availing funds. The Uwezo and the Women Fund are clear

testimony to this. However the government should ensure that it incorporates

and supports the use of ICT to enable women and youth fully utilize the fund.

ICT will create a platform for the women and youth to make their goods and

service to be visible and hence widen their markets. The fund will go an extra

mile to support the 21% engaging in casual labour as well as well increase

the capacity of those engaged in own production. The government contract

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tendering should in addition to others target the 16% involved in trade/small

business.

e) Cash Transfers: For the vulnerable children, vulnerable elderly,

people with disability, hunger safety net support and HIV/AIDS support

programme is not sufficient and from the research findings only 2.4% of the

respondents were receiving the support the beneficiaries and almost all of the

respondents stated that it was inadequate. From the proposals, 86.6% of the

respondents recommended that accountability and transparency in the

implementation of the cash transfer programme be improved. Mauritius’

social security system contributes to food security among the people with a

strong, transparent and effective cash transfer programme. This is a best

practice that Kenya could borrow from. Brazil’s Bolsa familia programme

provided poor families with a cash grant to enable them access food.

f) Developed and improved Infrastructure, especially roads: The

major problems that hinder agriculture development in Kenya are: poor roads

especially in agricultural productive

areas and poor transport facilities.

Most of the roads in the agricultural

areas are impassable especially

during the rainy season resulting in

the underutilization of high and

medium potential areas. The farmers also incur losses due to wastage, as the

produce cannot get to the market. The poor road network increases the

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Cabbages going to waste due to poor infrastructure in Kuresoi District, Nakuru

County

transportation costs for inputs and output thereby reducing profit margins of

the farmers.

g) Capacity building on agriculture/training on better farming

methods as well as the extension services: There is need to train and

support local farmers to embrace modern farming methods in order to

achieve food security. This will entail having agricultural extension officers

who will train farmers to increase agricultural production through the use

modern farming techniques and latest information such as use of improved

seed varieties, pesticides, green houses, fertilizers, irrigation, crop

diversification, use of machinery and artificial insemination. Findings showed

that most of the respondents 14.9% proposed capacity building to improve

food security.

h) Land reform for equitable land distribution: Land is the main

asset in agricultural production and generally, limited availability of

productive land is a major constraint to increased agricultural production.

Some of the causes of food insecurity in Kenya include low agricultural

productivity, inadequate access to productive assets such as land and capital,

inadequate infrastructure, limited well-functioning markets and high

population pressure on land. Data from documentation of Women’s

experience showed that 80.9% of all the women interviewed cited gender

based land inequalities with men being favored. Cuba’s land reforms which

encourage privatization of the land is putting much more land into production

and increasing the food security in the country.

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i) Provide affordable farm inputs like improved seeds, fertilizers,

pesticides:

Recent reduction in fertilizer prices will boost food security and the

government’s effort is commendable. However 8% of the respondents

suggested that more inputs be provided. Malawi’s ‘Fertilizer Subsidy

Programme’, which aims to raise household and national food security

through increased access to farm inputs has been a success. The programme

targets 1.5-1.7 million farmers each year. Access to cheap credit is a crucial

factor in the development of the agricultural sector. Agricultural producers

rely on credit facilities to raise the capital required to initiate and sustain

production activities. The role of credit in agricultural production is crucial

because inputs such as seeds and fertilizers and machinery are purchased at

the beginning of the production season, but returns are realized only at the

end of the season. Most of the respondents proposed that the amount of

money given should be increased, mechanisms be put in place to ensure

access to low interest loans for small scale business and investment in

farming and they should be given enough time to repay the loans there is

also lack of transparency and accountability. They also added that individual

loans for those who are not in self-help groups should be introduced.

j) Storage facilities and creation of Strategic food reserves:

Wastages and losses incurred as result of attack of produce by diseases and

pests, poor weather, destruction by wild animals and lack of adequate

storage facilities during surplus production has resulted in massive food

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insecurity reported during the survey. Most respondents recommended that

they should be provided with better food storage facilities like silos and cereal

store. Lack of capacity of the NCPB to hold farmers’ produce as experienced

in Trans Nzoia late last year resulted to huge losses. As shown by the finding

39.4% of the respondents are engaged in own production necessitating use of

proper storage methods to avoid losses. The respondents urged the

government to provide storage facilities for both perishable produce and

cereals e.g. cold rooms/coolers for horticultural produce such as fruits, milk

and vegetables storage before they are sent to the market and silos for maize

storage whenever there is a bumper harvest. They should also be educated

on the proper preservation and storage methods for both perishable and non-

perishable produce.

k) Value addition of agricultural produce: During the focus group

discussions it strongly came out that value addition will unlock the potential

of many Counties including Makueni, Baringo, E. Marakwet and Kajiado

among others. This could include construction of processing facilities and

other amenities for example milk processing plant. There should be

establishment of small scale organic food processing plants and non-

traditional crop production units which county residents can run to transform

agricultural commodities to a more a valuable state to increase the economic

value and consumer appeal. Through this, buyers will be willing to buy the

products at a higher price and the food processing plants will create

employment for the residents.

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l) Provision of adequate and ready markets for agricultural

produce: From the research findings, a sizeable number 59% of respondents

derive their livelihoods from agriculture and business related activities,

therefore provision of adequate and ready markets for agricultural produce

will increase their income which will enhance food security. Farmers fall

victims of middle men who often exploit them by purchasing their produce at

very low prices. Brazil’s ‘Food acquisition Programme’ food from smallholder

farmers' or their organizations is purchased by a government agency at

market prices and distributed to local social organizations or to food-insecure

people. The programme provides a guaranteed market for smallholder

farmers at fair prices. Most of these smallholder farmers are located in rural

areas with less developed roads and limited access to food markets

m) Stringent laws and campaigns against alcohol and drug abuse:

This will address the plight of mostly wed ho no longer provide labour for food

production. In Elgeyo-Marakwet, Isiolo, Kiambu and Mombasa research

findings show that most of the youth have resorted to drug and alcohol abuse

as well as other social ills. One woman in Mombasa during an oral testimony

narrated how ‘unga’ (hard drugs) has spoilt many young men turning them

into dependence and criminals

n) Promote Science, Technology and Innovation: Science,

Technology and Innovation (STI) is a fundamental issue in increasing

agricultural productivity. Malawi’s food security surveillance system has

enabled it to digitally monitor the effectiveness of food security programmes

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in the country. In E. Marakwet the respondents during research noted that

Pannar 961 maize seed performed well in the region however it was only in

circulation for one season. The knowledge and experiences of farmers on food

production should be tapped in order to enhance food production and

government should be able to provide information to farmers according to

appropriate seeds and expected weather conditions. Research could also

guide farmers on issues of viability and markets of their produce. During the

survey, pest and diseases were noted to be among the leading causes of food

insecurity. In Bomet and Nandi respondents were particularly affected by the

maize disease which left them vulnerable therefore, integrated pest and

disease management will offer sustainable and viable control of pests and

diseases by enhancing the capacity of Kephis.

o) Change of attitude and eating habits: The residents of the various

counties should be encouraged to appreciate eating of non-traditional foods

and engage in diverse economic activities. For example, Kiambu residents to

appreciate eating of non-traditional foods like fish and women in Bungoma

and Kwale to engage in business instead of viewing the business venture as

belonging to people from other communities. All this will help in boosting food

security by diversifying sources of food and earning more income. The

government could put in strategies to diversify and demystify the attitudes on

non-traditional foods.

p) Mainstreaming food security as a cross-cutting policy issue:

Food security is a basic cross cutting issue, with its implementation of

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relevant strategies cutting across different policies on macroeconomic

policies including trade, health, water, agricultural development, land,

environmental and infrastructural development policies, regulations on

products including food standards. South Africa’s integrated food security

strategy is a good example of how to mainstream food security in all policies.

This means that for every policy that is being developed its implication for

food security must be assessed.

q) Gender mainstreaming in all food security programmes: Gender

as a variable contributes to appreciation of targeting of our policies,

allocating appropriate budgets for specific categories and groups. It helps in

efficient planning and programming as well as targeting our resources more

appropriately. It remains a critical strategy in ensuring food security and

therefore needs to be considered at all times as we deal with policy

formulation, strategy development, implementation and monitoring of the

same.

r) Insecurity: Due to high insecurity incidences as a result of both

human conflicts and human-wildlife conflict, enhanced security will is key if

food security has to be realized. From research finding wild animals posed a

great challenge to food security as was reported in Isiolo, Taita Taveta,

Baringo, Elgeyo-Marakwet and Kwale among other counties. We propose

beefing up of security as well as promotion of reconciliation and good

neighbourliness. Also stringent measure should be put in place by County

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government in partnership with the Kenya Wildlife Service to reduce human-

wildlife conflict.

s) Full devolution of power and resources be enforced in relation to

food security programmes is critical if we are going to realize food security.

Schedule IV of the constitution gives the responsibilities of animal husbandry,

plant and disease control, trade and development including market, statistics

for planning and development among other functions. We therefore propose

that for food security initiatives to work then clear implementation of

legislative and policy frameworks be enforced.

Research shows that many Kenya’s who are often and always worried about not

having food at the household level was on average 30% with the highest worried

community being Turkana (70%), Kisii (59%), Migori (53%), Kwale (47%), Trans

Nzoia(42%) and Isiolo at 35%. The implications for both hunger and worry for over

30% of Kenyans has an impact on their individual development, health of families

and communities and therefore on the national development. The researchers

therefore propose that measures be put in place to ensure that at least 7.1 million

Kenyans be removed from this dehumanizing situation. Kenya must declare zero

tolerance to both hunger and worrying to hunger. It can be done.

5.3 Institutional and legal framework

a) Enactment of a legal framework for the implementation of the

right to food

Kenya is a signatory of several international declarations which include The Maputo

Declaration on Agriculture and Food Security which advocates for African states to

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commit at least 10 percent of their national budget to agriculture, the Millennium

Development Goal Number One on the eradication of extreme poverty and hunger

as well the UN General Comment 12 on the right to food in the International

Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights which envisages a national

framework law for the achievement of food security as a state obligation. With the

promulgation of the Constitution, 2010, Kenyans scored a milestone in the fight

against hunger. Article 43 (1)(c) guarantees that ‘every person has the right to be

free from hunger, and to have adequate food of acceptable quality’. This indicates

the commitment that the government has (or should have) on eradicating hunger

among its citizens and also it provides an entry point for the citizens in advocating

for the state to fulfil its obligations as far as food security is concerned. The

constitution and the treaties have not been fully implemented since they have not

been followed by legislation. This legislation will make sure that Kenyans have legal

redress on the right to food security. Governments of countries such as Brazil, India,

Malawi and South Africa have been committed in promoting the Right to Food. For

instance, Brazil has adopted a legal framework to enforce the Zero hunger

programme. Similarly, in India, the National Rural Employment Guarantee legislation

ensures that government implements the employment programmes. Legislation

legalizes rights-based entitlements making them difficult to revoke or reduce

In Colombia, the judicial system of Colombia is one of the most advanced in the

advocacy for social rights such as food, health care, housing and social security. It

provides a legal redress for people whose socio-economic rights have been

prejudiced

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AWSC is drafting a legal framework that will lead to full implementation of the right

to food and freedom from hunger. This is much needed in Kenya for the full

implementation of article 43 (1)(c).

b) Implementation of food security programmes through

innovative institutional frame works

Just like India and Brazil, Kenya should implement food security policies and

programmes through multi-stakeholder institutions, which comprise public, private

and civil society representatives. The involvement of the different sectors of the

economy will ensure that they take part towards making Kenya a food secure nation.

Multi stakeholder institutions will also ensure proper implementation, monitoring and

evaluation of food security programmes.

South Africa’s South Africa’s Integrated Food Security Strategy is a good example

which has adopted a broadly developmental/multisectoral rather than strictly

agricultural approach to food security. The IFSS focuses mainly on household food

security, without overlooking national food security, although South Africa

is food-secure. To achieve food security, the IFSS is based on four interrelated

components. These are: Food availability, Food access or effective demand,

Reliability of food and Food distribution. It is based on four pillars which are

: Pillar 1: Production and Trading which are set to ensure that identified food

insecure populations gain access to productive resources to produce food, target

groups are vulnerable groups (e.g. female-headed households, young people,

disabled), small-scale farmers, emerging farmers and commercial farmers.

Agriculture is the lead agency in this area, with the Departments of Land Affairs,

Health, Public Works, Water Affairs and Forestry, and Trade and Industry forming

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part of the cluster; Pillar 2: Income Opportunities which ensures that people

have access to income and job opportunities to enhance food related purchasing

power the target groups are Vulnerable groups (mainly young people and food-

insecure poor households). This pillar is supported by the expanded Works

Programme. This area is led by the Department of Trade and Industry; other

parts of the cluster include the Departments of Agriculture, Public Works,

Water Affairs and Forestry, Minerals and Energy, Public Enterprises,

Transport and Communications; Pillar 3: Nutrition and Food Safety which is

set to ensure that food insecure people are empowered to make appropriate

decisions around nutritious and safe food. The target groups are mainly poorest

(community poverty levels) 1st and 2nd quintile primary and secondary schools. The

programme that seeks to actuate this pillar is the National School Nutrition

Programme, the Department of Health is the lead agency in this area, together

with the Departments of Agriculture, Water Affairs and Forestry, and Trade

and Industry as cluster members; and Pillar 4: Safety Nets and Food

emergencies which seeks to ensure that the state provides relief measures which

could be short-to medium-term and on a sustained basis and the target groups are

the vulnerable groups, children, elderly, disabled and those in destitution. led by the

Department of Social Development and the Department of Provincial and Local

Government; other parts of the cluster are the Departments of Agriculture, Public

Works, and Water Affairs and Forestry.

In order to actuate the IFSS, the South African government developed the Zero-

hunger programme that sought to improve South Africa’s adequacy and stability of

access to safe and nutritious food at both national and household level. More

specifically, it seeks to eradicate hunger and poverty by increasing public

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investment in infrastructure, health, education, research and technology

development and information systems development within the comprehensive rural

development framework.

PART6: KEY ACHIEVEMENTS

During the implementation of the Project, the Centre has achieved more

than what it set out to realize. Some of the key achievements are

highlighted below:

6.1 National current status of food security established and shared

with major stakeholders

The country’s status of food security was established and a national status of

food security report published. The report was launched in a stakeholder’s

forum which was attended by different government officials. Among them

were the officials from the ministry of Agriculture Livestock and Fisheries,

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Ministry of interior Security, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Devolution,

presidential advisor on food security, senate agricultural committee, women

MCAs, Civil societies among others.

6.2 Food security bill prepared and submitted to the Senate for

consideration.

The AWSC in collaboration with the school of law, university of Nairobi

prepared and submitted a food security bill, to the Senate for adoption. The

bill has gone through the first and second reading and was subjected to

public hearings and it is now awaiting the third reading.

The bill proposed institutional framework, food security authority as well as

the county food security committee to be established.

6.3 Women’s perspectives and experiences documented and

disseminated

A report on women’s experiences with food security was prepared after

research was carried out in 15 counties. This is a major output that will be

used in promoting women’s knowledge on food security with policy makers.

The research findings were shared in a two days women conference that was

officially opened by the Cabinet Secretary, Ministry of Devolution Ms.Anne

Waiguru

6.4 Publication of the online journal.

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An online Journal; Pathways to African Feminism and Development has been

published to promote academic discourse.

6.5 County food security status established in 20 counties

Food security status in the twenty counties where the research was

conducted has been established and documented in the county specific

reports. The reports that have been consolidated from the results from each

county are available.

6.6 County Policy Briefs established in 15 counties.

County policy briefs for the 15 counties where the women experiences study

was conducted were established. The briefs are available as one

consolidated document.

6.7 Developing of the Budget proposals

2014/2015FY and 2015/2016FY budget proposals for addressing the 18%

(7.1 million) of the Kenyans developed and submitted to the budget

committee for consideration.

6.8 Development of food security scores for Kenya which takes into

consideration the experiences of the people with hunger developed

by the research team.

The food security score was developed using the hunger module that

assessed whether often and always was a household had a time when any

of its member or the respondent went to sleep hungry and whether there 106

was a time when the household did not have food at all in the household.

Unlike the global hunger index that looks at the secondary effects of hunger

such as child mortality, FSS that was developed by AWSC, the score used

the primary information that looks into the severity of food insecurity.

6.9 Collaborations established

i. Collaboration with KNBS.

During the study, AWSC created collaboration with Kenya National Bureau of

Statistics. The Bureau has also invited AWSC’s to participate in Kenya

Integrated Households Budget Survey (KIHBS) and has also agreed to

incorporate the hunger module that will help AWSC to capture all the

counties.

ii. Collaboration between AWSC and the school of law on matters

legal and legislative established

The Director, AWSC and the Dean, School of Law UoN have led the team

that comprised of law professors and lecturers from the schools of law of

the University of Nairobi and of Kenyatta University, lawyers from the

Kenya Law Reform as well as consultants from the State office and

Senate. The partnership yielded a draft bill for the implementation of

Article 43 (1) (c) that was tabled before the Senate.

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iii. Establishment of collaboration between AWSC and the Council of

Governors (COG)

Awsc has established collaboration with the COG on matters of food

security. AWSC and the COG have jointly developed a proposal to

establish a Food Security Information System (FSIS)and have submitted to

various donors to consideration.

iii. Establishment of collaboration between AWSC and the ministry

of agriculture Livestock and Livestock and Fisheries.

Establishment of collaboration between AWSC and the Ministry of

Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries on matters of food security led to

adoption of recommendation on family support programme which target

food poor households. The Ministry has also adopted the food security

strategy in the amalgamated document.

iv. Creating the need for collaboration of institutions of higher

education and government research institutions

The implementation of this project has made it clear that there is synergy

created when institutions of higher learning and research institutions

collaborate. This is evident in the successful execution of the baseline survey

that the Centre undertook with the KNBS.The KNBS were very receptive in

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acknowledging the importance of qualitative data that they most often do

not use while conducting their surveys.

This collaboration also led to the establishment of a network of people and

institutions who are interested in the implementation and realization of the

social economic rights.

6.10 Contributing to shaping devolution by engaging County

Governments & Assemblies on their constitutional mandate

reflected in Schedule IV

i. Devolution is still proving to be a concept that Kenyans are struggling with.

Understandably, the County Governments and Assemblies seem to be

struggling with their roles, functions and mandate as per the Constitution.

The Centre has held consultative meetings and workshops to disseminate

the research findings and the proposals for the attainment of food security in

their counties. These avenues have enabled the different county

representatives generate matters to do with what they as county executives

and assembly members can do within their mandate to implement these

proposals. This has facilitated the clearer comprehension of the county

governments and assemblies roles for food security in their counties.

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6.11 Contributing to the implementation of Citizens engagement as

reflected in the Principles of Devolution

Article 174 (c) states that ‘The objects of the devolution of government are

to give powers of self-governance to the people and enhance the

participation of the people in the exercise of the powers of the State and in

making decisions affecting them.’ This has been achieved through the

regional radio shows, public forums held, seminars that have taken place and

workshops that have been aimed at increasing awareness of food security.

Awareness creation has led to a more informed citizenry and with this comes

a better understanding of the State decisions and increased participation

which ensures closer monitoring of interventions and programmes as well as

performance.

6.12 Engagement with policy makers

The Centre has strengthened the working relationships with some

Parliamentary committees for instance the Agriculture Oversight Committee

and Budget Oversight Committee and developed new contacts with various

committees of the Senate. In addition, consultations have been held with 21

County Governments and Assemblies and this has led to networking where

future collaborations have been developed. The Centre has also developed

close collaborations and linkages with Senate Agriculture, Legal and Budget

committees, Council of Governors, Members of the County Assemblies and

ministries including the Ministries of Labour and social services, Agriculture,

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livestock and Fisheries, Internal Security and National Coordination; among

others.

6.13 Building the capacity of the University community and AWSC

team that includes scholars from other Universities in issues to do

with Article 43 (1)(c)

The Centre involved the technical expertise of the members of the University

to undertake some of the activities.

6.14 Capacity building of students on research

The University in general provided opportunities to students to engage in the data collection and analysis hence giving them practical learning experiences as well as offering them with financial stipends.

PART7

Way forward

i. Follow up on FSIS

The centre in collaboration with the council of governors has written a

proposal to establish the Food Security Information System and they have

sent to different donors.

ii. Establish status of food security with KNBS

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AWSC has approached KNBS to incorporate the hunger module in

the Kenya Integrated Household Budget Survey to establish the

food status in the 47 counties.

iii. Ensure targeting of food poor household is adopted as a strategy

by MoA.

The centre has drafted a concept for adoption by the MOALF

recommending the adoption of the targeting strategy for the

food poor households in the amalgamated food support

programme.

iv. Adoption of food security legislative framework.

The centre is working hard to ensure that the food security bill

2014 is adopted by the senate.

v. Lobby for increased resources for food security.

The centre has presented its opinion on the 2015/2016,

2016/2017, 2017/2018 budget proposal Statement to lobby for

increased resources for food security.

vi. Further research on women’s experiences with science,

technology and innovation

Given the resources, the centre is intending to carry out the

above research to document women’s experiences with science,

technology and innovation i.e documentation of women great

contributors in terms of food security e.g Wangari Maathai,

Green Belt Movement in promotion of environment.

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PART8

Appendices:

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