Unit 2 – Reformation and Religious Wars

2.4 – AGE OF RELIGIOUS WARS

PART ONE: Introduction to Religious Wars

A sad weakness of Christianity and its practitioners is the inability to compromise on matters of the heart. The end result has been relentless bloodshed in the name of religion, often the result of violence against other Christians. Few Christians have historically displayed a willingness to tolerate a diversity of opinions on religious matters; violence rather than compromise has often been the rule. Post Reformation Europe was no exception to this sad fact.

For many people in early modern Europe, to tolerate other opinions on matters of faith was a sign of weak religious conviction or even an indication of heresy. There was a tendency on the part of many prominent individuals to declare themselves correct on matters of church doctrine and to declare their opponents not only wrong, but perhaps malevolently so. Martin Luther was no exception. He regularly referred to the pope as "the devil incarnate" and "a brothel keeper."

Political leaders of the day were no less emphatic in expressing (and following policies of) intolerance of the religious practices of others. A prime example is Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, who once referred to the Protestant Reformation as an "evil movement which seduces the people with false doctrines and incites rebellion." Although many political authorities, particularly within the Empire, saw the Reformation as an opportunity to seize Church property and authority, others saw it as a threat to law and order and their own power. Charles’ son, Philip II, King of Spain believed firmly that the only way to prevent souls from eternal damnation was to force them to convert (or re-convert) to Catholicism. Both sides of the debate did not hesitate to use force to coerce solutions. The end result was a wave of warfare that devastated Europe Best estimates are that almost one third the population died as a result of religious violence; a number that rivals the Black Death.

In the Holy Roman Empire, fighting was finally resolved by the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. The terms kept peace within the empire until 1618 and the outbreak of the Thirty Years War. Under the terms of the Peace, local princes could determine the religion of

their subjects. Lutheran areas of the Empire were given legal recognition and allowed to retain any territory they had acquired. Lutheran areas had to guarantee protection of Catholics and allow them to worship as they chose. However, only Lutheranism and Catholicism were recognized. There was no place or provision for Calvinists or Anabaptists. Following the implementation of the peace, hundreds of thousands of families left home and traveled to other areas where their religion was accepted.

The years of conflict were too much for Charles V. In 1556, he became the first Holy Roman Emperor to abdicate. He named his son Philip (Philip II) as king of Spain, and his brother, Ferdinand II as Holy Roman Emperor over the remaining empire.

PART TWO: The French Wars of Religion (1562-1598)

Origin of Difficulties Despite efforts to keep France Catholic by the royals, Calvinism won many converts in the country. It offered a tempting alternative to many noblemen who were resisting the extension of the King’s power. As many as 40% of the French nobility may have converted to Calvinism, not so much from religious conviction than as a means of political opposition to the King. Although the immediate issue that led to the French Wars of Religion was the Protestant struggle for freedom of worship and the right of establishment, it also was a struggle for power between the crown and the great French nobles, as well as between several prominent noble families for control of the crown itself.

Francis I was succeeded by his son, Henry II, (r. 1547-1559) who was even less tolerant of the French Huguenots. (French Protestants called themselves Huguenots. The origin of the term is one of some debate.) In 1547 he created a special committee

Only Napoleon and Hitler controlled more land at any point in modern European history than the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V.

to suppress heresy which became known as the "burning chamber." Rather then discourage Protestantism, his actions had the opposite effect, as those executed for heresy became martyrs for the cause. He was married to Catherine de Medici, daughter of Lorenzo de Medici (of Italian Renaissance fame), who was often reviled by the nobles as a "shopkeeper’s daughter."

In 1559, Henry signed a treaty of peace with Spain, (The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis) which guaranteed a "perpetual peace" between the two countries, and ended the Hapsburg-Valois Wars fought by Charles V. To seal the deal, Henry’s daughter, Elizabeth of Valois, married Philip II of Spain. (Philip was recently widowed, as his wife, Mary I of England had died). In June 1559, a great tournament was held to celebrate the wedding. Henry, a veteran jouster, participated. In the last joust of the day, his opponent’s lance shattered and struck Henry in the eye. He died twelve days later from complications from his wound.

Henry was succeeded by his son, Francis II, a sickly fifteen year old boy, whose regent was his determined mother, Catherine de Medici. Catherine tried unsuccessfully to strike a balance between the Catholic and Protestant nobles. The Catholic Guise faction were increasingly fanatical about eliminating any Protestant influence, and rumors spread that they planned to kidnap the King and recognize their religion as official or abdicate.

The Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre:   Francis II died unexpectedly in December, 1560, and was succeeded by his younger brother, Charles IX (r. 1560-1574). Again, Catherine was regent. Although she attempted to sponsor discussions between Catholics and Protestants, her efforts were unsuccessful. The intense hatred each side felt for the other resulted in fighting that lasted for ten years. In 1572, both sides appeared to be ready to stop the bloodletting, and a celebration was planned for Saint Bartholomew’s Day, August 24, 1572. Hopes for peace were high, as the King’s sister, Marguerite of Valois, had married Henry Navarre (later Henry IV), a Huguenot prince. It was believed that this marriage would end the religious warfare.

Thousands of Huguenots attended the celebration in Paris, including their most influential leader, Gaspard de Coligny, admiral of France. The negotiations leading up to the wedding celebration had stated that the Huguenots would be unarmed, which they were; however the King’s Guise advisors (perhaps with his Mother’s approval) convinced him that the only way to prevent a general Protestant uprising was to strike brutally against the Huguenots.

On the morning of St. Bartholomew’s Day, a detachment of the King’s Swiss Guard led by the duke of Guise broke down the door to Coligny’s house. Coligny was murdered, his corpse battered and castrated, and thrown into the street where it was dragged through the streets by a mob of street urchins. The duke of Guise urged his troops to kill others, shouting, "Kill them, kill them all, it is the King’s command!" Over 2,000 Protestants were slaughtered in Paris alone, and a judicial court in the area issued a decree making it legal for anyone to kill a "heretic." Ten thousand Protestants were also massacred outside Paris. Henry of Navarre was captured, and only escaped death by promising to convert to Catholicism.

When news of the massacre reached Spain, Philip II, usually humorless, could not resist smiling to himself. In Rome, the Pope held a celebratory Mass to commemorate the event.

Even so, many Catholics felt that the matter had gone to far, and were appalled at the hatred and violence committed in the name of religion.

Rise of Henry IVAfter a period of civil war between Catholics and Huguenots, the Huguenot Prince Henry of Navarre rose to the throne to become Henry IV. The new king, who "knew hot to fight, to make love, and to drink," was pragmatic enough to see that a conversion to Catholicism was in order. He wanted a strong, united France, and knew that the majority of Frenchmen were Roman Catholic. So, stating that "Paris is worth a mass," he embraced Catholicism. His willingness to sacrifice his religious convictions for political expediency saved France from further bloodshed and possible disintegration of the nation.

In 1598, Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes, which granted religious liberty to the Huguenots. They would be allowed seventy five fortified towns plus other fortified places n which to exercise freedom of religion. They were declared eligible for public office and guaranteed the right to use schools and other facilities on an equal basis with Catholics. The Edict also declared Catholicism to be the official state Church of France, and restored all of the church’s former income and property. Although the Edict did not satisfy the extremists, it did provide a strong measure of Peace in a land long devastated by war.

Although a good King, Henry’s personal life was less than exemplary. He had six illegitimate children by three mistresses along with three children born to his queen. He proudly referred to his nine children as his "herd." On one occasion, he formally introduced one of his mistresses to his wife, demanding that the latter repeat her curtsy so that she bow a little lower, and the three dined together in a meal that had to be anything but comfortable.

Henry IV launched a major economic reform program, hoping to improve the life of the peasants. He remarked that he hoped every peasant family would have a chicken in the pot for Sunday dinner. He did make the effort, but was largely unsuccessful. It is remarkable only in that most rulers cared little about the welfare of the peasantry. The French people revered him to the extent that he was called "Henry le Grande." In 1610, a Monk who doubted the sincerity of Henry’s conversion to Catholicism murdered him.

PART THREE: Religious Conflict in Britain

Mary TudorHenry VIII had re-instated his daughters under his last will, and provided that they should succeed Edward if he were to die childless, which he did. First in line was Mary Tudor, the daughter of Catherine of Aragon, and next Elizabeth, daughter of Anne Boleyn. Mary was a devout Catholic, and it was widely anticipated that she would return the Church of England to Rome.

Mary, the devout Catholic, was convinced that her father’s actions must be reversed, otherwise the souls of the English people would be damned. She was good hearted, and well intentioned, but also inflexible. Although Mary was inclined to be merciful, as a devout Catholic she believed she must exterminate heresy by burning prominent Protestants as an example to others. Many fled to the continent when she ascended the throne, but others remained. Mary only reigned for five years, but in that time, 287 people died at the stake for heresy. She had most of the Reformation policies of Edward repealed, and appointed loyal Catholics to church positions.

Mary also needed a male heir, and rather than marry an eligible Englishman, married Philip II of Spain. Philip was the son of Charles V, HRE, and her mother’s first cousin. More importantly, he was Catholic to the core. The marriage caused strong resentment, as many Protestants in England could not bear the thought of a "Spanish King." The marriage was so unpopular that it hurt, rather than helped, the cause of Roman Catholicism in England. It was a revolt caused by the marriage that led to the execution of Lady Jane Grey.

Philip only came to England twice, once in 1554 when the marriage was celebrated, and again in 1557, for "conjugal privileges. He was considerably younger than Mary, and although she cared very much for him, the feeling was not reciprocal. After his last visit, Mary was thrilled when she exhibited all the signs of pregnancy; but the symptoms were not caused by a child, but by a malignant tumor in her uterus. She died of uterine cancer and broken hearted on November 7, 1558. It is a sad irony of history that a gentle yet rigid woman who ruled from her heart is remembered by history as Bloody Mary, and remembered by the fires of Smithfield.

Elizabeth IElizabeth I, daughter of Henry VIII by Anne Boleyn and half sister of Mary Tudor, succeeded her sister as Queen of England. During her reign, the England became irreversibly Protestant, and the Scottish reformation came to fruition.

Elizabeth had been well schooled, unlike her half sister. Her tutor had been Roger Asham, a humanist scholar and one of the foremost instructors of the day. She was quite intelligent, and under his tutelage learned Latin and Greek, as well as mastery of English vernacular. Her stepmother, Catherine Parr, the last wife of Henry VIII was very protective of her, and ultimately

rescued her from the advances of a gentleman at court many years older. She learned to speak to English sailors in a language they could understand. She also learned early on that caution as opposed to principled boldness was the wiser course (a lesson her sister Mary never learned). She narrowly escaped execution at the hands of her sister when she insisted that she was loyal to the then Queen. Elizabeth was a shrewd judge of character and learned to not let her emotions interfere with her better judgment. Although she had any number of "favorites," she never married, once informing Parliament that she was married only to England. Elizabeth often had violent fits of temper, some real, some staged, as a way of gaining control. She was exceptionally popular as the "Virgin Queen;" however her failure to marry also meant she left no male heir, which would lead to problems in the latter years of her reign. Her reign was also complicated at times by her indecisiveness. Her natural intelligence allowed her to see both sides of an issue, and this complicated her decision making. She was the last of the Tudor Monarchs of England.

The Elizabethan Religious SettlementElizabeth learned early on that the religious question must be settled if she was to be successful. Religion was very important to most people in England, and the previous violent shifts between Catholicism and Protestantism were damaging. There were problems, of course. England had been officially Catholic under her predecessor; to force it back to Protestantism would risk war with France and Spain. However most people, including the Queen, had no desire to remain Catholic.

By the Act of Supremacy of 1559, Parliament recognized Elizabeth as the "supreme governor of this realm in all things ecclesiastical and temporal;" however, unlike her father, she refused the title of "supreme head" of the Church, stating that that dignity belonged to God alone. That same year, Parliament issued the Act of Uniformity, which established a Protestant state church; however its religious tenets were such that Catholics could worship there without damage to their consciences. In essence it established a “middle road” to appeal to both Catholics and Protestants. In an attempt to appeal to both sides, she permitted the clergy to marry, but also continued the Episcopal (bishopric) system. Church ritual remained ceremonial, but theologically, it embraced salvation by faith alone.

Several attempts were made to revert England to Catholicism by force if necessary. One plot sought to place Mary Queen of Scots on the throne, a plot which ended in Mary’s execution in 1587. Additionally, the Spanish Armada sent to depose her in 1588 failed miserably. These events only served to further discredit the Catholic Church in England. By the time of the Armada, Catholicism in England as the state religion was doomed.

Elizabeth was very adept at making herself popular with her subjects. She often made brilliant speeches to parliament and made herself visible to the common folk in travels around the country. During these occasions, she was often splendidly arrayed. This worked to her advantage, together with her ability to charm almost anyone. Among her other accomplishments, she encouraged artists such as William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Edward Spenser. She avoided foreign entanglements (George Washington would have been proud, had he been born yet!), normally by semi-flirtatious policies. No monarch would dare attack England if the possibility of marrying its Queen existed. Little did they know that she had decided early on not to share her power or bed with a man.

Elizabeth’s decision not to marry was the source of gossip about her sex life. She did have numerous "favorites," one of whom, Robert Devereux, the Earl of Essex, was ultimately executed for treason. (Elizabeth commonly referred to Essex as her "little frog.") She resisted the urging of her advisors to marry, and ruled successfully for forty five years. In 1601, near the end of her life, she told her subjects:

Though God has raised me high, yet this I count the glory of my crown, that I have reigned with Your love….Your prosperity has been my chief concern….My heart was never set on worldly goods, but only for my subjects good.

Elizabeth was a coy actress and sly politician. It is entirely possible that she believed these words herself, as did many of her subjects.

PART FOUR: The Crusades of Philip II of Spain

No one could question the commitment of Philip II to the cause of Catholicism. He was the son of HRE Charles V, who had left Spain to him to rule as well as the Low Countries (present day Holland), Luxemburg, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Milan and all of the Spanish holdings on the west coast of Africa and in the Western Hemisphere. IN 1580, he conquered Portugal in the name of his mother, who was Portuguese, and annexed it to Spain. He sponsored the colonization of the Philippine Islands, which bear his name. He could claim legal authority over more of the earth’s surface than any monarch in the history of the world, including Alexander the Great.

Philip was cautious, but hard working and patient. He had a penchant for details that drove other people crazy. Almost every document of state passed through his hands, as he did not trust his subordinates with them; however he treated servants and nobles with equal courtesy. He was a ladies man in his younger days, but as a married man was dedicated to his children. He was devoutly religious, and found solace in his faith from the tragedies of his personal life: He lost his mother father, sister, four wives, one daughter, and four sons in rapid succession. He felt an obligation to the Catholic Church, and took it upon himself to use the wealth and

power of his empire to restore the dominion of the Church over as much of Europe as possible. He also believed he had a divine mandate to protect Christendom from Islamic forces.

The War against IslamA large number of Moors (Spanish Muslims) had nominally converted to Christianity, and were known as Moriscos. Many were gradually reverting to Islam, and Philip distrusted them. He feared that they would assist if Muslim forces were to attack Spain. In January, 1567, Philip issued a decree ordering the Moriscos to stop practicing Islam and using the Arabic language. Their response was to revolt, in which cause they were aided by Muslims from Algiers and other Muslim lands. The rebellion lasted for two years, during which time both sides committed unspeakable atrocities.

Before suppressing the Moriscos, other developments in the Muslim world commanded Philip’s attention. Suleiman the Magnificent, died in 1566, and was succeeded by his son, Selim II, who was determined to make a name for himself independent of his fathers. To do so, he sent new forces to Europe and conquered the Island of Cyprus. This provoked the Pope, Pius V, to call for a new crusade against the Muslims. Philip joined forces with the Pope and formed a Holy League, and sent a huge fleet under his illegitimate half brother, Don Juan of Austria. The fleet met the Muslim Fleet at Lepanto. Over 400 ships and 160,000 men were involved. The Holy League had over 1815 naval guns, and soon defeated the Sultan’s fleet. The Holy League’s victory prevented the Muslims from conquering territory in Europe for another one hundred years.

Don Juan’s victory inspired Philip, who now believed that he must crusade against the remaining Muslims in Spain and then the Protestants, whom he considered the spawn of the devil. Don Juan managed to defeat the Moriscos, and in 1609, Philip issued a royal decree whereby they were expelled from the country.

The Revolt of the Low Countries (the Netherlands) The Low Countries were the richest part of Philip’s empire, but also the most troublesome. The people of the area had been fond of his father, Charles V, as Charles had been born in Flanders. Philip did not depart drastically from his father’s policies, but the Netherlanders resented him for his Spanish nature. They believed that he used their taxes for the benefit of Spain. Worse, the area had become largely Protestant, which caused Philip no small amount of agitation.

In 1566 Philip told the Spanish ambassador to Rome, "I neither intend nor desire to be the ruler of heretics. If things cannot be remedied as I wish without recourse to arms, I am determined to go to war.

A group of Dutch nobles approached Philip’s half sister, Margaret of Parma, in April 1566, to request that he ease up his persecution of the Protestants. During the interview, Margaret’s counselor referred to the nobles as "those beggars." The label was quickly used to indicate the contempt the Spanish king and Catholic church had for the Netherlanders, and a campaign of desecrating Catholic churches began. In response, Philip sent the Duke of Alba, known as the "Iron Duke" to put down the rebellion. He organized a "council of blood" which dealt with suspected heretics brutally. Thousands were put to death; his actions were so brutal that Margaret of Parma resigned, and was promptly replaced with Alba. Ultimately, the Dutch rebels

persuaded Elizabeth I of England to send 6,000 troops to assist the rebels, and allowed Dutch rebel ships, known as "Sea Beggars" to dock in British ports. The revolt did not end until 1609, several years after Philip’s death. In 1648, the full independence of the Protestant Low Countries was recognized.

The Spanish ArmadaPhilip’s most grandiose plan was to return England to the fold of the Catholic Church. His first attempt to do so was made in 1554, two years before his own coronation when he married Mary Tudor, Queen of England. The move alienated many of Mary’s subjects, and the marriage did not produce an heir. When Marry died in 1558, Philip proposed marriage to her half sister, Elizabeth.

Elizabeth was determined to marry no one, let alone a sovereign who might usurp her own power. Philip was too important for her to spurn outright, so she strung him along for a number of years. By 1570, Philip saw the handwriting on the wall, and knew the marriage was not going to happen. He therefore decided to "liberate" England from the Protestant "Jezebel" or so he called Elizabeth. Elizabeth’s aid of the Dutch rebels, and sponsorship of Francis Drake’s raids on Spanish shipping made matters even worse.

Drake had attacked Spanish shipping in the Western Hemisphere, and had sailed around the world to avoid capture. While he was en route, Philip had sent an ultimatum to Elizabeth demanding that Drake be surrendered to him when he returned. Elizabeth not only refused to do so, she met Drake at the dock and knighted him on board his ship, the Golden Hind.

The execution of Mary Queen of Scots pushed Philip over the edge. Mary, a Catholic, had been Elizabeth’s heir, but with her execution, the next in line was Mary’s son, James, who was being reared a Protestant. Philip called Mary a martyr of the church, and swore to avenge her death. He therefore commissioned a naval expedition, a huge Armada, to attack England.

The enterprise seemed doomed from the start. Delays in launching the fleet allowed Sir Frances Drake to attack the Spanish Fleet at Cadiz harbor in April, 1587, and damage or capture thirty ships, plus valuable war materials, including wood for the casks that would hold the armada’s water and food supplies. This action was said to "singe the beard" of Philip. Then, in February, 1588, the fleet’s commander died before it was ready to sail. The new commander was a good administrator, but inexperience.

The fleet sailed from Lisbon in May, 1588 with 130 vessels, 20,000 soldiers, 10,000 sailors, and 2,000 guns in the "confident hope of a miracle." In response, the English had 190 ships that set lower in the water and had more long range fire power. The plan was to gain control of the English Channel and transport the troops of the Duke of Parma from the Netherlands across the channel and land on English soil. Elizabeth, knowing of the plan, met with her troops dressed in full battle armor, and delivered a stirring speech in which she promised to lead the troops into battle herself: "I know I have but the body of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a King; and of a King of England too." Her words were truly inspirational.

The Spanish fleet was damaged by storms, and met the English fleet in the English channel. Neither side suffered great loss. However, when the Armada reached Calais, they found that that Parma could not reach the coast with his army. The Armada did not have enough boats to navigate the shallow coastal waters of Calais, so there was no way of loading and transporting troops. The mission had failed, even though most of the Armada was still in tact.

On the night of August 7, 1588, the English set fire to eight of their ships and sent them into the Spanish fleet. The Spanish were afraid that the ships were loaded with dynamite and would explode in their midst, and orders were given for the fleet to cut anchor and disperse. The English attacked the following morning before the fleet could reassemble and inflicted heavy damage.

The Dutch rebels had previously used ships loaded with dynamite with terrifying success. The Spanish called them "hell burners."

Unwilling to risk another encounter in the channel, the Spanish sailed north through the North Sea around Scotland and Ireland and then home to Spain. The remains of the fleet held together despite no charts for the North sea, bad weather, and catastrophic illness on board caused by lack of food and water. Less than half the Spanish fleet ever sailed again.

The defeat of the 1588 armada did not end the wars between Spain and England. The following year, Sir Francis Drake led a counterattack against Spain with 120 ships. Half the ships and their crews were lost. Six years later, Drake led another expedition against the Spanish in the West Indies where he hoped to capture a Spanish treasure fleet and destroy Spanish bases in the Americas. The raid proved to be a disaster, and Drake died before returning to England. In 1596, the English sacked Cadiz.. The Duke of Medina Sidona, who had commanded the 1588 Armada, burned the fifty ships the English had hoped to capture. Philip sent armadas against England later in 1596 and the following year, but they were driven from the channel by terrible storms. The long and expensive naval duel between England and Spain proved indecisive, except that England remained Protestant and independent. Philip II died in 1598, wondering why God had not blessed more of his crusades with success.

PART FIVE: The Thirty Years War

The Thirty Years War was the last religious war in Europe, and was also the bloodiest war to affect the continent before the twentieth century. Over 200 states of varying sizes fought in the war; causing Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden to note that "all the wars of Europe are blended into one. It was marked by egregious atrocities and incalculable bloodshed. German cities lost a third of their population and the rural population was reduced by two fifths. The population of the Holy Roman Empire declined from 20 million to 16 million. Mainz, Germany lost twenty five percent of its buildings and forty percent of its population. Württemberg, a predominantly Protestant town, lost three quarters of its population.

In addition to the devastation of war, plague, famine, and other diseases such as typhoid and influenza ravaged the population of Europe. Most deaths occurred in towns where refugees had fled the war, and lived in cramped unsanitary conditions. Germany would not recover from the war for decades, and the Holy Roman Empire never recovered.

The Holy Roman Empire and the   Casus Belli The Holy Roman Empire was a loose confederation of approximately 1,000 German states, with varying degrees of independence. They varied from the larger states such as Austria to independent states such as Hamburg and Lǖbeck. (To this day, Hamburg’s official title is the "Free and Hanseatic State of Hamburg.) The Holy Roman Emperor was elected by four princes and three archbishops. The German states seldom worked together, other than in opposition to the Turks.

The Peace of Augsburg of 1555 had established that the prince of each state would determine its religion under the principal of cuis regio, eius religio. However, this proved to be only a temporary solution. The agreement had only been between Lutherans and Catholics. Calvinists, who did not consider themselves bound by the Treaty, had made strong headway in several areas. Lands which had belonged to the Catholic Church were seized and secularized by Protestant rulers. At the same time, Catholics, led by the Duke of Bavaria and the Jesuits (who were becoming increasingly aggressive in their desire to regain that which they had lost to Protestantism) reclaimed several Protestant areas for Catholicism.

When Charles V abdicated in 1556, he divided his empire between his son Philip (who became Philip II, King of Spain) and his brother Ferdinand, who became Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor. Ferdinand was succeeded by his grandson Matthias, who had no heirs, and urged the promotion of his cousin, Ferdinand of Styria.

Growing political and religious tension led a group of Protestant princes to form a group known as the Protestant Union in 1608. In response, the Catholics organized the Catholic League in 1609. Each side was determined that the other would not make any religious (meaning "territorial’) advance. The Empire was thus divided between two armed camps.

In 1617, Ferdinand of Styria was elected King of Bohemia. This gave him jurisdiction over several Lutheran, Calvinist and Hussite areas although he himself was fiercely Catholic. When he began closing Protestant Churches, he ran into protests.

The Defenestration of PragueOn May 23, 1618, a number of Protestant officials met in Prague to protest the actions of the Emperor. In the fervor of the moment, they grabbed two Hapsburg Officials and tossed them out the window of the palace, and they fell seventy feet to the moat below. They both survived the fall relatively unhurt, although the reason for their delivery is a matter of debate: The

Catholics claimed that an angel sent by the blessed Virgin had caught the two men and gently lowered them to the ground. The Protestants claimed that they fell into a large pile of manure which had accumulated in the moat and the soft substance broke their fall. This unfortunate event led to the outbreak of war.

The act of throwing something (or someone) out a window is properly known as defenestration, if you wish to impress your classmates and English teacher. It is derived from the French word, fenêtre.

The Armies of the Thirty Years War: This war was one of the cruelest in the history of warfare. Numerous atrocities were committed, perhaps because many of the soldiers were mercenaries fighting far from home and knowing they had to live off the land to survive. Propaganda against other religions, often written in strident tones, may also have contributed. Although Gustavus Adolphus and others provided severe penalties, including execution, for cruelty to prisoners and peasants, it did little to stop the decadence. An example of the atrocities committed is described by a contemporary:

[T]he soldiers stretched out a hired man on the ground, stuck a wooden wedge in his mouth to keep it open, and emptied a milk pail full of stinking manure droppings down his throat—they called it a Swedish Cocktail. Then they used thumb-screw which they cleverly made out of pistols, to torture the peasants….They put one of the captured bumpkins in the bakeoven and set fire in it…I cant say much about the captured wives, hired girls and daughters because the soldiers did not let me catch their doings. But I do remember hearing heir pitiful screams in various dark corners.

Over one million men fought in the War, and casualties were enormous. Most casualties were not from battle wounds, but from disease. Large numbers of civilians were also killed by marauding armies. Many armies marched through the German countryside, speaking different languages, and taking what they wanted while burning, raping, and looting. The city of Marburg was occupied eleven different times. Armies were often ragtag with no discipline and often accompanied by women (some of whom were prostitutes) and children. Although they were to wear uniforms, these generally rotted in the damp German climate, and soldiers were often forced to steal clothes from the dead, friend and foe alike, or from civilians. Soldiers often wore symbols indicating their regiment and fought behind banners bearing the colors of the army—hence the phrase to "show one’s true colors."

The War ended with the Peace of Westphalia ,   of 1648. It recognized the sovereign independent authority of the German princes. Each ruler could govern his particular territory and make war and peace as well. Power was now in the hands of over three hundred princes; there were no central courts or central government. The Holy Roman Empire was effectively destroyed.

The Treaty acknowledged the independence of the United Provinces of the Netherlands, and the international stature of France and Sweden was improved. France gained the province of Alsace, and Sweden received a large cash settlement. The Papacy was denied the right to participate in German religious affairs—perhaps the end also of Church involvement in European politics. The treaty also stipulated that the Augsburg agreement of 1555 would become permanent, except that Calvinism was legally permissible along with Lutheranism and Catholicism. In practice, the northern German states remained Protestant and the Southern States remained Catholic.

With the destruction of the power of the Hapsburgs, France became the most powerful nation in Europe.

CORNELL NOTES QUESTIONS…

1) How did the Edict of Nantes somewhat maintained domestic peace in France?2) In what ways did Elizabeth I use religion to achieve peace in England after the rule of her sister?3) Discuss three ways in which Charles V and Philip II failed to restore Catholic unity across Europe.4) What were the causes of the Thirty Years War?5) Why was the Treaty of Westphalia important when it came to the big picture in European history?

Also, be able to identify and explain the significance of the following individuals – Elizabeth I, Henry IV, Charles V, Philip II