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Victoria University College of Engineering and Science
An Analysis of Experiences and Perceptions of Technology-based Learning in Higher Education Institutions in Libya: Informing the Advancement
of E-learning
by
Amal Rhema
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy.
November 2013
ii
I, Amal Rhema, declare that the PhD thesis entitled An Analysis of Experiences and Perceptions of Technology-based Learning in Higher Education Institutions in Libya: Informing the Advancement of E-learning is no more than 100,000 words in length including quotes and exclusive of tables, figures, appendices, bibliography, references and footnotes. This thesis contains no material that has been submitted previously, in whole or in part, for the award of any other academic degree or diploma. Except where otherwise indicated, this thesis is my own work. Signature: Date 13/11/2013
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To my mother, my husband, my children, my sisters, my brothers, every member of my family, and particularly to the spirit of my father, with all love and respect.
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ABSTRACT
E-learning is increasingly becoming a vital component of education worldwide,
and educators acknowledge the importance and potential of information and
communication technologies (ICTs) in facilitating the educational processes.
Developing countries, including Libya, are lagging behind the expansion of e-
learning, mainly because they lack the necessary infrastructure and resources to
support it. While the adoption of e-learning in higher education has been well
researched internationally, research relating to the Libyan higher education is very
limited, and studies exploring the experiences and perceptions of students and
instructors involved in e-learning are particularly scarce.
This study investigated how ICTs and e-learning were experienced and perceived
at two higher education institutions in Libya: University of Tripoli in Libya’s
capital, and a regional University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi. The study focused on
identifying the characteristics, enablers, and barriers of educational settings as
related to e-learning from the experiences and perceptions of students and
instructors in engineering courses. An interpretative methodology using
questionnaires and phone interviews was employed to gather information from the
study participants.
This study provides evidence that the adoption of ICTs and e-learning in Libyan
higher education is relatively unestablished and faces great challenges; among
them, the “immature” infrastructure remains one of the biggest obstacles. The
study found that the e-learning skills and experiences of the participating students
and instructors were limited by poor access to computers and web-based
technologies, and a lack of ICT-trained educators and ICT-enabled educational
materials. However, despite limited experiences of e-learning, students and
instructors held positive attitudes towards ICT and e-learning, and perceived
technology-based tools as very useful for learning and teaching. Based on these
findings, a set of suggestions was developed to inform the integration of e-
learning in higher education in Libya.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful.
All praise is to Allah. First of all I would like to pray to Allah, thanking him for
everything and asking him for forgiveness and support. I am extremely grateful to
all of those who have provided me with their encouragement and assistance in
many different ways in the course of completing my thesis. I would like to start by
thanking my mother, Elkamela Etaher, and family for their encouragement. I
especially want to thank my husband Gauhar Ezawi for his help and support, and
my children Fatima, Khawla, Amal and Mohamed who have missed my good care
for such a long time.
I would like to express my thanks to my principal supervisor, Associate Professor
Iwona Miliszewska, who guided me throughout my PhD journey. I gratefully
acknowledge her invaluable help and endless support. I thank my associate
supervisor, Dr Ewa M. Sztendur, for her support and advice on the research
methodology and data analysis of my research study. I also offer my gratitude to
Associate Professor Aladin Zayegh and Dr Taha-Selim Ustun who helped me
with the translation of surveys.
I deeply appreciate the support of my home country, Libya, who offered me a
scholarship for my PhD studies, and also thank all the Libyan Embassy staff.
Lastly, I would like to thank my colleagues and friends for their time, friendly
study climate, and collaboration.
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PUBLICATIONS ARISING FROM THIS DISSERTATION
Rhema, A., & Miliszewska, I. (2010). Towards e-learning in higher education in
Libya. Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology, 7, 423-437.
Rhema, A., & Miliszewska, I. (2011). Reflections on a trial implementation of an
e-Learning solution in a Libyan university. Issues in Informing Science and
Information Technology, 8, 61-76.
Rhema, A., & Miliszewska, I. (2012). The potential of e-learning in assisting post-
crisis countries in re-building their higher education systems: The case of
Libya. Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology, 9, 149-160.
Rhema, A., Miliszewska, I., & Sztendur, E. (2013). Attitudes towards e-learning
and satisfaction with technology among engineering students and instructors
in Libya. In Proceedings of Informing Science & IT Education Conference,
InSITE (pp. 157-171). Porto, Portugal: Informing Science Institute.
Rhema, A., & Sztendur, E. (2013). Using a mobile phone to support learning:
experiences of engineering students in Libya. In Proceedings of Informing
Science & IT Education Conference, InSITE (pp. 216-238). Porto, Portugal:
Informing Science Institute.
Rhema, A., & Miliszewska, I. (2014). Analysis of student attitudes towards e-
learning: The case of engineering students in Libya. Issues in Informing
Science and Information Technology, 11, 169-190.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract iv Acknowledgements v Publications arising from this dissertation vi List of Tables xi List of Figures xiv Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background to the research 1 1.2. Research problem and questions 4 1.3. Methodology 6 1.4. Significance of this study 7 1.5. Overview of thesis chapters 7 1.6. Conclusion 8
Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Introduction 9 2.2. Higher education in developing countries 9 2.3. Higher education context in Libya 12
2.3.1. History of Libyan higher education 14 2.3.2. Types of educational institutions 15 2.3.3. Admission requirements 18 2.3.4. Student profile 19
2.4. E-Learning in education 21 2.4.1. Overview 21 2.4.2. The impact of technology on learning 24
2.5. E-learning in developing countries 26 2.5.1. ICT initiatives and projects 28 2.5.2. Growth of mobile communication 31 2.5.3. Implementation of e-learning in education 32 2.5.4. Implementation of m-learning in education 34 2.5.5. Challenges for e-learning in developing countries 36 2.5.6. Prospects for e-learning in developing countries 39
2.6. E-learning in Libyan higher education 40 2.6.1. ICT initiatives and projects 41 2.6.2. Growth of mobile communication 42 2.6.3. Implementation of e-learning in education 44 2.6.4. Implementation of m-learning in education 44 2.6.5. Challenges for e-learning in Libya 45 2.6.6. Prospects for e-learning in Libya 49
2.7. Success of e-learning in higher education 54 2.7.1. Determinants of e-learning success 56 2.7.2. Measures of e-learning success 57
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2.8. E-learning success as a function of student and instructor 60 experiences and perspectives
2.8.1. Student access to infrastructure 60 2.8.2. Student technical knowledge and skills 60 2.8.3. Student perceptions of usefulness of technology 61 2.8.4. Student attitudes towards e-learning 62 2.8.5. Instructor access to infrastructure 62 2.8.6. Instructor technical knowledge and skills 64 2.8.7. Instructor perceptions of usefulness of technology 64 2.8.8. Instructor attitudes towards e-learning 65
2.9. Conclusion 66 Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY
3.1. Introduction 68 3.2. Research design 68 3.3. Participants and settings 70
3.3.1. University of Tripoli 71 3.3.2. University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharabi 73
3.4. Data collection instruments and strategies 74 3.4.1. Survey design 75 3.4.2. Sample size requirements 77 3.4.3. Pilot survey 78 3.4.4. Survey validity and reliability 80 3.4.5. Survey data collection 82 3.4.6. Interviews 83
3.5. Ethical considerations 83 3.6. Data analysis procedures 84
3.6.1. Multiple linear regression model 84 3.6.2. Binary logistic regression model 86 3.6.3. Proportional-odds model 87 3.6.4. Interpreting the models 89 3.6.5. Analysis and interpretation of qualitative data 89
3.7. Conclusion 89
Chapter 4 STUDENT AND INSTRUCTOR EXPERIENCES AND PERCEPTIONS
4.1. Introduction 91 4.2. Participant demographics 92 4.3. Access to technologies 93
4.3.1. Student access to technologies 94 4.3.2. Instructor access to technologies 101
4.4. Technologies: purpose of use and level of skill 102 4.4.1. Student use of computer-based technologies 103 4.4.2. Instructor use of computer-based technologies 107 4.4.3. Student use of web-based technologies 110 4.4.4. Instructor use of web-based technologies 122 4.4.5. Student use of mobile phone technologies 130 4.4.6. Instructor use of mobile phone technologies 132
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4.5. Usefulness of technology in learning and teaching 134 4.5.1. Usefulness of technology in learning – student 134 perceptions 4.5.2. Usefulness of technology in teaching – instructor 140 perceptions
4.6. Satisfaction with the available ICT environment 145 4.6.1. Student satisfaction 145 4.6.2. Instructor satisfaction 148
4.7. Attitudes and beliefs towards ICT and e-learning 150 4.7.1. Student attitudes and beliefs 151 4.7.2. Instructor attitudes and beliefs 154
4.8. Challenges faced when using ICT and e-learning 155 4.8.1. Challenges faced by students 155 4.8.2. Challenges faced by instructors 156
4.9. Conclusion 158
Chapter 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1. Introduction 159 5.2. Overview of the thesis 159 5.3. Major findings 161
5.3.1. Access to technologies 162 5.3.2. Use of ICTs for learning/teaching 163 5.3.3. Usefulness of technology for learning/teaching 164 5.3.4. Satisfaction with technology 165 5.3.5. Attitudes towards ICT and e-learning 166 5.3.6. Challenges faced by e-learning users 167
5.4. Recommendations for the integration of e-learning 168 into Libyan higher education 5.5. Contributions of this study 170 5.6. Constraints and limitations 170 5.7. Recommendations for further research 171 5.8. Concluding remarks 172
REFERENCES 173 APPENDIX A Information for survey participants 202 APPENDIX B Survey instrument for students 205 APPENDIX C Survey instrument for instructors 214 APPENDIX D Information for interview participants 223 APPENDIX E Consent form for interview participants 226 APPENDIX F Obtaining informed consent - procedure 229 APPENDIX G Interview questions 231
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APPENDIX H Ethics application approval letter 234 APPENDIX I Model of student perceptions of usefulness 237
of technology
APPENDIX J Model of student attitudes towards ICT and 239 e-learning
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1. Number of university students in Libya in 2008-2009. 20
Table 2.2. Learning Management Systems in Egypt. 33
Table 2.3. Framework for e-learning challenges 38
Table 2.4. ICT usage in Libya and Egypt. 54
Table 3.1. Aspects influencing the design of a mixed methods study. 69
Table 3.2. Characteristics of participating institutions. 71
Table 3.3. Students – minimum sample size for a given population 78 size for categorical data.
Table 3.4. Instructors – minimum sample size for a given population 78 size for categorical data.
Table 3.5. Reliability of pilot survey – assessment of Cronbach’s 82 Alpha.
Table 3.6. Usable survey numbers in the selected programmes. 83
Table 4.1. Demographic characteristics of participating students. 92
Table 4.2. Demographic characteristics of participating instructors. 93
Table 4.3. Student access to technologies. 94
Table 4.4. Proportional odds models for access to technologies. 96
Table 4.5. Instructor access to technologies. 102
Table 4.6. Percentage of students who used computer-based 103 technologies for learning purposes, and their average level of skill.
Table 4.7. Logistic regression models for student use of 104 computer-based technologies for learning.
Table 4.8. Purpose of use and level of skill in computer-based 108 technologies: Instructors.
Table 4.9. Student use of Cluster 1 technologies for learning: 111 percentage of users and their average level of skill.
Table 4.10. Logistic regression models for student use of Cluster 1 112 technologies for learning.
Table 4.11. Student use of Cluster 2 technologies for learning: 115 percentage of users and their average level of skill.
Table 4.12. Logistic regression models for student use of Cluster 2 116 technologies for learning.
Table 4.13. Student use of Cluster 3 technologies for learning: 119 percentage of users and their average level of skill.
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Table 4.14. Logistic regression models for student use of Cluster 3 120 technologies for learning.
Table 4.15. Purpose of use and level of skill in Cluster 1 technologies 123 (Accessing information and communicating): Instructors.
Table 4.16. Purpose of use and level of skill in Cluster 2 technologies 125 (Podcasting and socialising): Instructors.
Table 4.17. Purpose of use and level of skill in Cluster 3 technologies 127 (Web publishing): Instructors.
Table 4.18. Percentage of students who used mobile phone functions 130 for learning and their average level of skill.
Table 4.19. Logistic regression models for student use of mobile 131 phone functions for learning.
Table 4.20. Purpose of use and level of skill in mobile phone 133 technologies: Instructors.
Table 4.21. Percentage of students who found computer-based 135 technologies useful for learning.
Table 4.22. Percentage of students who found web-based technologies 136 useful for learning.
Table 4.23. Percentage of students who found web-based 137 communication useful for learning.
Table 4.24. Percentage of students who found blogs, Wikis, and web 138 pages useful for learning.
Table 4.25. Percentage of students who found mobile phones useful 139 for learning.
Table 4.26. Number of instructors who found computer-based 141 technologies useful for teaching. Table 4.27. Number of instructors who found web-based technologies 142
useful for teaching.
Table 4.28. Number of instructors who found web-based 143 communication useful for teaching.
Table 4.29. Number of instructors who found blogs, Wikis and web 144 pages useful for teaching.
Table 4.30. Number of instructors who found mobile phones 144 useful for teaching.
Table 4.31. Student satisfaction with the available ICT environment. 145
Table 4.32. Student interest in studying courses that use e-learning. 146
Table 4.33. Instructor satisfaction with the available ICT environment. 148
Table 4.34. Number of instructors interested in providing e-learning 149 courses.
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Table 4.35. Student attitudes and beliefs towards ICT and e-learning. 151
Table 4.36. Multiple regression model for student attitudes/beliefs 153 towards ICT and e-learning.
Table 4.37. Instructor attitudes and beliefs towards ICT and e-learning. 154
Table 4.38. Perceived challenges of ICT and e-learning faced 155 by students.
Table 4.39. Perceived challenges of ICT and e-learning faced 156 by instructors.
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1. Number of higher education students in Arab 11 countries per 100,000 inhabitants.
Figure 2.2. Higher education institutions in Libya. 16
Figure 3.1. Visual representation of a sequential explanatory design. 70
Figure 3.2. The relationship between reliability and validity. 81
Figure 4.1. Predicted probability for level of access by gender to: 98 (a) desktop computer, (b) portable computer, (c) memory stick, (d) web camera, (e) dial-up Internet, and (f) high-speed Internet.
Figure 4.2. Predicted probability for level of access by group to: 100 (a) memory stick, (b) mobile phone, (c) video 3G, and (d) high-speed Internet.
Figure 4.3. Predicted probability of computer use for learning 106 by gender.
Figure 4.4. Predicted probability of computer use for learning 107 by group.
Figure 4.5. Predicted probability of web use for learning (Cluster 1 – 114 Accessing information and communicating) by group.
Figure 4.6. Predicted probability of web use to publish podcasts for 117 learning by gender.
Figure 4.7. Predicted probability of web use (Cluster 2 – Podcasting 118 and socialising) for learning by group.
Figure 4.8. Predicted probability of web use (Cluster 3 – 121 Web publishing) for learning by group.
Figure 4.9. Predicted probability of mobile phone use for learning 132
by group.
Figure 4.10. Student interest in studying e-learning courses and their 147 satisfaction with the available ICT environment
Figure 4.11. Instructor interest in providing e-learning courses and 149 their satisfaction with the available ICT environment.
Figure 4.12. Scatterplots (lower triangle), histograms (diagonal), and 152 correlations with 95% confidence intervals (upper triangle) for student average scores on attitudes/beliefs, access, skill and satisfaction levels.
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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH
Over the last twenty years, developed countries and emerging economies have
introduced ICT to enhance all their sectors of society including the educational
sector. The evolution of ICT in education over those years has shifted from the
use of standalone data processors in computer labs, through to accessing the web,
to using complex integrated web services for teaching and learning (Gerry, 2005;
Pass & Creech, 2008). Online teaching and learning (which refers to the use of
ICT), nowadays also called e-learning, is becoming an essential method of
delivering education. Ma, Wang and Liang (2008), defined e-learning as: An ideal learning environment using modern means of information technology,
through the effective integration of information technology and the curriculum to
achieve, a new learning style which can fully reflect the main role of the students to
thoroughly reform the traditional teaching structure and the essence of education, to
train large numbers of high quality personnel. (p. 54)
Higher education institutions throughout the world are in a period of rapid change
as a consequence of the development of technology and ICT in particular, as
“Changes occurring in the primary processes of higher education courses and
degree granting are closely related to the contextual trends of virtualisation,
internationalisation, lifelong learning and customer orientation that are part of
society in general” (Collis & Moonen, 2001, p. 30). Thus, traditional universities
have no choice but to alter significantly their instructional methods to keep pace
with developments spurred by the Internet. Adopting and adapting to “the
technology of the 21st century” is unavoidable for everyone in society and in
particular in the educational milieu (Ali, 2003; Collis & Moonen, 2005; Shank,
2011). In this context, ICT provides “significant potential for the social and
economic progress” (United Nations, 2004, p. 1), especially in developing
countries; a view supported by Nafukho (2007) and UNESCO (2006).
2
The advancements of new technologies and the Internet have had a significant
impact on teaching and learning in higher education, leading to a greater
distribution of knowledge transfer. This change is particularly significant for
developing countries which lack the infrastructure and resources (Dhanarajan,
2001; Heeks, 2002; Rajesh, 2003; Williams, Mayer & Minges, 2011); the active,
participative student who is required for interactive learning is rare in those
countries and the traditional methods prevail in teaching and learning (Andersson
& Grönlund, 2009; Eastmond, 2000; Evans, 2005; Sehrt, 2003); and, the countries
lack the ability to implement advanced educational practices on their own
(Andersson & Grönlund, 2009). While technology transfer, defined as “the
movement of know-how, technical knowledge, or technology from one
organisational setting to another” (Bozeman, 2000, p. 629), could be of assistance,
it is not easy to implement, as observed by Klauss (2000): It is evident that both the selection of a technology and the strategy of transfer to
developing countries have to be very carefully considered to ensure that an
appropriate technology is chosen, that it is effectively adopted/adapted and
institutionalized, and that it is sustainable over time. (p. 277)
Currently, a large number of initiatives are in progress in developing countries to
reuse existing technologies in higher education institutions. During this process,
various kinds of customisations and modulations have to be considered to account
for country-specific differences such as learner backgrounds, culture, and
language, as these differences can be a barrier to achieving the objectives of e-
learning programs (Hodgkinson-Williams, Siebörger & Terzoli, 2007; Richter &
Pawlowski, 2007). Andersson and Grönlund (2009) present a critical review of
research pertinent to challenges to e-learning particularly in developing countries.
The review identified thirty challenges which were grouped into four main
categories: (1) challenges pertaining to individuals’ characteristics (of students
and teachers); (2) technological challenges; (3) course challenges (different
support functions, and course pedagogy and activities); and, (4) contextual
challenges (the institutional management and organisation, as well as the
surrounding society with its values and regulations).
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As in most developing countries, the implementation of e-learning in Libya is still
in an early stage, and the level of educational technology awareness, and even
basic computer skills, is generally low among educators in all types of higher
education institutions. This, in turn, leads to resistance in adopting ICT for
teaching (The General People’s Committee of Education, 2008). While some
Libyan universities have basic ICT infrastructure (such as computers, Internet
access, and a local area network), they still use the traditional model of education
(Rhema, 2005). In recent years, the Libyan government has started investing
heavily in updating and improving its education system by initiating national
programs to introduce ICT into education (The General People’s Committee of
Education, 2008). The national policy for ICT in education aims to improve
Libya’s ability to enable ICT access, provide ICT infrastructure and tools, and
help develop ICT skills on a large scale in all sectors of the community (Hamdy,
2007a).
The political and humanitarian crisis in Libya represents an educational disaster.
Education systems are destabilized, disrupted, or even destroyed. The escalation
of the conflict has had serious impact on the service provision and delivery in the
education sector, as the educational infrastructure has been severely damaged and
schools, universities, and institutes became a place of recruitment for soldiers.
Therefore, higher education system in Libya needs to be re-built and re-
developed. The use of ICT and e-learning could play a vital role in this process.
ICTs are key elements of the universal response to crises, whether natural or man-
made disasters. They are also fundamental enablers of the coordination
mechanisms that educational organisations need to restore in order to assist the
affected learners and instructors. Libya is a developing country and the use of
ICTs and the implementation of e-learning were still in an early stage even before
the 2011 armed conflict. The conflict resulted in a setback to Libya’s e-learning
efforts. However, the deployment of ICT and e-learning can provide Libya with
the opportunity to re-construct its education system significantly, modernise
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instructional methods, and widen and improve access to higher education (Rhema
& Miliszewska, 2012).
E-learning appears to be a promising alternative, as it can provide learning
opportunities anytime anywhere, which is particularly important considering
Libya’s vast rural population (Rhema & Miliszewska, 2011). ICT and e-learning
could be used, as a reconstructive and attractive measure, to support the affected
learners and instructors in Libya by creating an accessible learning environment
for collaborative teaching and learning. Furthermore, e-learning seems to have
provided solutions to several problems identified by students. It afforded
alternative ways of communicating with teachers and fellow students, provided a
greater variety of learning resources and modalities, extended the flexibility and
quality of group-work, and improved the opportunities for providing students with
feedback on assessment tasks (Rhema & Miliszewska, 2011).
1.2. RESEARCH PROBLEM AND QUESTIONS
E-learning has become popular in higher education institutions worldwide, as it
continues to present new learning and teaching opportunities for students and
instructors. This is particularly significant for developing countries, as they seek
to improve their education systems; however, students and instructors in those
countries are still not fully aware of the potential of ICT and e-learning.
Developing countries have problems with providing their educational institutions
with the required digital infrastructure, computers, and Internet access for e-
learning. In spite of these challenges, an increasing number of higher education
institutions in developing countries have started to consider e-learning as an
alternative method to traditional face-to-face interactions and campus-based
learning activities, and are already offering e-programs or web-facilitated courses
(Abdel-wahab, 2008; Bandalaria, 2007; Gronlund & Islam, 2010; Rhema &
Miliszewska, 2010). However, e-learning still remains largely unexplored,
particularly in Arab countries. Many conceptual boundaries such as technological,
pedagogical, and contextual are yet to be fully understood and explored (Duan,
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He, Feing, Li, & Fu, 2010; Rossiter & Crock, 2006). Libya is a developing
country with a traditional education system based on face-to-face interactions and
campus-based learning activities (Rhema & Miliszewska, 2010). The adoption of
e-learning was still in a quite early stage even before the 2011 armed conflict. The
political and humanitarian crisis that followed the 2011 conflict, destabilised,
disrupted, or even destroyed the existing education system in Libya.
Libya has started to examine e-learning as a promising field in which to invest its
educated human resources. It has started investing heavily in the reconstruction of
its education system, and in initiating national programmes to introduce ICT into
education (Austrade, 2009; Libyan Ministry of Communication and Informatics,
2012; Sawahel, 2013b; The General People’s Committee of Education, 2008). In
addition, there are plans to establish virtual campuses in many universities and
colleges to provide an advanced platform for students and instructors (The
General People’s Committee of Education, 2008; Libyan Ministry of
Communication and Informatics, 2012; Sawahel, 2013b). With these new
technological developments in Libya, there is a need to explore the readiness of
students and instructors for accepting ICT-supported teaching and learning.
This study aimed to investigate the experiences and perceptions of ICT among
students and instructors in selected higher education institutions in Libya to
determine their preparedness for e-learning. To this end, the study determined the
characteristics, enablers, and barriers of educational settings as related to e-
learning in engineering programs at two typical public Libyan universities:
University of Tripoli University and University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi. The
findings generated in this research study were used to develop a set of
recommendations that will assist Libyan higher education institutions in
developing future e-learning initiatives.
The overall research question for this study was:
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What are the experiences and perceptions of ICT and e-learning among
students and academics in higher education engineering programs in
Libya?
In order to explore the research question, the following sub-questions were
developed:
1. What are the differences in the participant access to technologies?
2. What are the differences in the participant levels of use of ICTs for
learning/teaching?
3. Given the participants’ experiences with ICT, what are their perceptions
of the usefulness of technology for learning/teaching?
4. What is the participants’ satisfaction with the available institutional ICT
infrastructure?
5. Given the participants’ experiences with ICT, what are their attitudes
towards ICT and e-learning?
6. What are the challenges faced by the participants when using ICT and e-
learning?
1.3. METHODOLOGY
Following a wide literature search on various aspects of technology-based
education in developing countries, including Libya, a review of the evolution of e-
learning and the impact of technology was carried out to provide a basis for
understanding the current state of technology-based education in developing
countries, and frame this research study. The following areas of focus have been
identified: higher education context in developing countries, challenges, barriers
and enablers of e-learning settings in developing countries, characteristics of
successful e-learning initiatives, and the experiences and perceptions of using
technology in education of students and instructors in developing countries.
7
This research study involved, as mentioned earlier, two typical Libyan higher
education institutions: University of Tripoli and University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi.
University of Tripoli is the oldest and the largest university in Libya and is located
in the capital city. University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi is one of the biggest regional
universities, located nearly 100km southwest of Tripoli.
In addition to examining the background of the selected institutions, information
was gathered about the experiences and perceptions of technology-based learning
from students and instructors in those institutions. Mixed methods, including a
written survey and phone interviews, were used for data collection. Permissions to
conduct data collection were obtained from the Victoria University Human
Research Ethics Committee and the Libyan institutions participating in the study.
The collected information was analysed to determine the preparedness of the
participating students and instructors for e-learning. The findings led to the
development of recommendations to guide future e-learning initiatives in Libyan
higher education institutions.
1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS STUDY
The provision of e-learning in higher education in developing countries has grown
significantly over the recent years. This growth has been accompanied by research
investigating the challenges and enablers of ICT-supported learning in different
countries including Nigeria, Tanzania, and Egypt (Ajadi, Salawu, & Adeoye,
2008; El-Gamal, 2005; Sife, Lwoga, & Sanga, 2007).
While e-learning is increasingly considered as an important success factor in
building the new Libya, research pertinent to ICT-supported learning in Libya is
scarce. Thus, this research study contributes to the current limited body of
knowledge, and provides an evidence-based source of information for academics,
administrators, and decision-makers involved in planning, design and
implementation of e-learning in Libya.
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1.5. OVERVIEW OF THESIS CHAPTERS
Chapter 2 reviews the literature related to e-learning and tertiary education in
developing countries in areas relevant to the current study, including: higher
education context in Libya and other developing countries; e-learning in Libyan
higher education and in other developing countries; the role of ICT and e-learning
in education; challenges and prospects for e-learning in Libya and other
developing countries; effectiveness of e-learning in higher education; and the
main factors contributing to e-learning success. Chapter 3 details the methodology
and research design along with the data collection and analysis methods used in
the study. Chapter 4 presents the analysis of the collected data on student and
instructor experiences and perceptions of ICT and e-learning. Chapter 5 discusses
the study findings, provides a set of recommendations for the integration of e-
learning in Libya, and outlines suggestions for further research.
1.6. CONCLUSION
This study involved an investigation of ICT and e-learning in higher education
institutions in Libya. Information was collected from students and instructors in
two Libyan universities to determine their level of preparedness for e-learning.
Based on the study findings, a set of recommendations for the integration of e-
learning in higher education Libya was developed.
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Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides a review of literature in five areas related to the present
study: higher education context in Libya; e-learning in Libyan higher education;
challenges and prospects for e-learning in Libya; success of e-learning in higher
education; and the main factors contributing to e-learning success. Section 2.2
gives an overview of higher education in developing countries and Section 2.3
presents in detail the higher education context in Libya. The following section
(Section 2.4) explores the fundamental role that ICT and e-learning have played in
education. Section 2.5 presents the applications of ICT and e-learning in
developing countries, and discusses the challenges and prospects for e-learning in
those countries. Following on, Section 2.6 focuses on e-learning in Libyan higher
education and discusses the issues that need to be considered and addressed in
adopting ICT for learning and teaching including technological infrastructure,
curriculum development, cultural and linguistic aspects, and administrative
support. Then, Section 2.7 examines the success of e-learning in higher education
including the determinants and measures of success. As this research study
investigated the readiness for adopting e-learning among students and instructors
in selected higher education programmes in Libya, Section 2.8 considers how
their experiences and perspectives of e-learning influence the success of e-
learning programmes. Finally, Section 2.9 summarises the chapter.
2.2. HIGHER EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Most countries in Africa, Southeast Asia, Middle East, Latin America, and some
parts of southern Europe, are categorised as ‘developing countries’ by the United
Nations Development Program (UNDP), because of their lower rank in the
Human Development Index (Cheibub, 2010; Gulati, 2008; Saheb, 2005). These
countries differ in their political circumstances, the history of their educational
10
developments, culture, language, religion, gender issues, population size,
resources, and availability of modern technology (Gulati, 2008). While these
countries generally lack rich educational traditions, there are exceptions including
the Indian Gurukul system, the first schools in Egypt, and the first universities in
Babylonia (Gulati, 2008; Saheb, 2005).
Educational settings in developing countries are typically different from those in
developed countries and are characterised by a lower quality of education, limited
access to schools and universities, and high fees (Chimombo, 2005). However,
national policies for higher education indicate that a higher education system is
regarded as an asset that provides competitive advantage to individuals and
nations. Consequently, the need for reform is even more compelling in view of
growing competition amongst countries in an era of increased globalisation
(Collis & Moonen, 2001; El-Hawat, 2007; UNESCO, 2009a, 2009b). According
to Mohamed (2005), “Arab countries have adopted radically new visions that
would prevent Arab societies from lagging behind other socio-economically
advanced nations” (p. 2).
During the 1950s and 1960s, after gaining independence, most Arab countries
struggled to build and develop systems of higher education (El-Hawat, 2007;
Mohamed, 2005; Samoff, 2003). This has changed in recent times, as a great
number of universities have been established in the Arab countries, and currently,
the region has over 200 higher education institutes, universities, and colleges (El-
Hawat, 2007; Gitsaki, 2011; Mohamed, 2005; UNESCO, 2003). Likewise, there
has been a remarkable increase in higher education enrolment rates (El-Hawat,
2007; Mohamed, 2005). As depicted in Figure 2.1, in 2008, enrolments in five
Arab countries (Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya and Palestine) exceeded the rate
of 4,000 students per 100,000 inhabitants, reflecting a growth of more than 40%
in comparison to 1998 enrolment levels (UNESCO, 2009c).
11
Figure 2.1. Number of higher education students in Arab countries per 100,000
inhabitants (UNESCO, 2009c, p. 9).
In addition to universities, institutes of technology were established in many Arab
countries to provide a wide range of educational opportunities for students: Institutions and colleges of technology established in many Arab countries show that
almost 30% of all such institutions were established during the last decade, totalling
no less than 170 institutions and spreading all over Arab Countries with a
concentration in Lebanon, Egypt, Libya, Oman, Algeria, Sudan, the United Arab
Emirates and the Palestinian territories. (El-Hawat, 2007, p. 6)
However, the development of suitable regulatory frameworks seemed to lag
behind the rapid growth of educational providers, as pointed out in a study
conducted by UNESCO (2002): Higher education authorities seem to be absent from regulating providers of higher
learning that are outside the mainstream of the education system, such as corporate
institutions and providers of education opportunities through non-traditional delivery
means, i.e. open learning, e-learning, virtual universities, etc. (p. 9)
The current state of higher education in most developing countries is generally
weak, as most higher education institutions suffer deficiencies in:
• infrastructure and resources (Andersson & Grönlund, 2009;
Dhanarajan, 2001; Gulati, 2008; Heeks, 2002; Rajesh, 2003);
12
• well trained and qualified teachers needed to carry out the development
and to manage the change (Gulati, 2008);
• active, participative students, familiar with interactive learning
(Andersson & Grönlund, 2009; Eastmond, 2000; Evans, 2005; Sehrt,
2003); and,
• the ability to implement advanced educational practices on their own
(Andersson & Grönlund, 2009).
The traditional means of learning, which are paper-based, are still the most
commonly used methods compared to the web-based and online learning
methods. According to Gulati (2008), developing nations find the traditional
means of learning more reliable and sustainable. However, Omidinia, Masrom
and Selamat (2011) reported that the use of ICT for learning purposes is widely
accepted in Iran’s educational institutions. The authors noted that securing the
necessary e-learning content and infrastructure is still the main problem.
2.3. HIGHER EDUCATION CONTEXT IN LIBYA
Currently, Libya has the highest literacy rate in the Arab world. According to the
United Nation’s Human Development Index, which is composed of the standard
of living, social security, health care and other factors for development, Libya is
ranked at the top of all African countries (Hamdy, 2007a). In today’s Libya,
education is valued and regarded as a door opener to new opportunities and secure
employment.
The Libyan government is seeking to develop new policies for higher education
with the proposals designed to deal with funding, quality, and management
through a long-term strategy for investment and reform (The General People’s
Committee of Education, 2008). The adoption of ICT in education is an essential
element in Libya’s overall development plans. The government aims to improve
the ICT infrastructure and revamp the entire education system, including the
development of new curricula and teaching methods. However, poor
13
infrastructure and a lack of skilled, qualified and ICT-savvy teachers present a
great challenge to the reform process (Hamdy, 2007a).
In Libya, higher education is offered in universities, both general and specialised,
and in higher vocational institutes. These include higher vocational institutes for
teacher training; higher institutes to train trainers and instructors; polytechnic
institutes; and, higher education institutes for technical, industrial and agricultural
sciences. In addition, new scientific institutions called Scientific Research Centres
have been created in such fields as Health and Pharmacy, Education,
Environment, and Basic Sciences; they serve both as educational and research
institutions.
The National Authority for Scientific Research is responsible for higher education
and research and The University People’s Committee, chaired by a Secretary,
manages university education. Each faculty within a university also has a People’s
Committee, chaired by the Dean and heads of departments as members. Each
university manages its administration and its budget. University-level education
includes three major sections: university education (lasting four to seven years),
university vocational and technical education (lasting three to five years), and
advanced graduate studies. Education in Libya is free for everyone from
elementary school right up to university and postgraduate study, including study
abroad. While postgraduate studies are fee-paying, the government provides
generous subsidies which cover nearly 80% of the fees.
Schools and universities are located throughout the country to facilitate good
access to educational opportunities and, to meet the needs of students from remote
areas, mobile classrooms were introduced in 2006 to cover all parts of Libya
(Hamdy, 2007a).
14
2.3.1. History of Libyan higher education
At the time of independence in 1951, Libya was one of the poorest countries in
the world. It had few known natural resources, and its population was small, poor
and largely illiterate; literacy levels were particularly low among girls and women
at that time (Alhmali, 2007). Since 1963, owing to substantial oil revenues and
increased government investments, Libya has experienced a rapid development in
the education sector.
After Libya’s independence in 1951, its first university, the Libyan University,
was established in Benghazi. It was named the Faculty of Arts and Education and
was followed in 1957 by the establishment of the Faculty of Science in Tripoli. In
1957, the Faculty of Economics and Commerce was founded, followed by the
Faculty of Law in 1962, and the Faculty of Agriculture in 1966; by 1967, the
Libyan University had witnessed further expansion with the inclusion of the
Faculty of Higher Technical Studies and the Higher Teachers’ Training College.
The Faculty of Medicine was founded in 1970, and in the same year the Islamic
University in Al-Bayda was incorporated by the Libyan University under the
name of the Faculty of Arabic Language and Islamic Studies. In 1972, the Faculty
of Oil and Mining Engineering was established and then moved in the late 1970s
to the Brega Oil Terminal Complex.
In 1973, the Libyan University was divided into two independent universities: the
University of Tripoli and the University of Benghazi; these universities were later
renamed as the University El-Fateh in Tripoli and the University of Garyunis in
Benghazi respectively (Encyclopedia of the Nations, 2009). After the battle of
Tripoli and the downfall of the Gaddafi government in 2011, the University of
Tripoli returned to its original name.
The steady increase in higher education enrolments over the past three decades
has resulted in a major transformation of the Libyan university system from a
single, state-run multipurpose university into a decentralised group of general and
15
specialised universities (El-Hawat, 2003). Currently, there are 18 public
universities in Libya; they include nearly 150 specialised faculties and more than
500 specialised scientific departments, and cover four major disciplines: Arts,
Science, Technology and Medicine (El-Hawat, 2003).
The overall responsibility for all aspects of education in Libya lies with the
Libyan Ministry for Education. The Ministry shares this responsibility with local
education committees that control the education programmes within their
geographical area. The Ministry controls all the committees in the country and its
Higher Education Department oversees the operations of all universities in Libya.
2.3.2. Types of educational institutions
Higher education in Libya can be provided by universities, higher vocational
institutes, and open universities:
• Universities (government and private) include three types of education:
university education (lasting four to seven years), university vocational and
technical education (lasting three to five years), and advanced graduate
studies.
• Higher education institutes provide education in the areas of administration
and management, technology, creative arts, and teacher development.
• Petroleum training and qualifying institutes are dedicated to the training
and education of personnel for the oil industry.
• Higher institutes for teacher training produce qualified educators.
• Open universities offer distance education.
In addition, higher education institutes provide higher vocational and technical
education of three to five years’ duration in such fields as Electrical Engineering,
Mechanical Engineering, Finance, Computer Studies, Industrial Technology,
Social Work, Medical Technology and Civil Aviation. The qualification awarded
after three years of study is a Higher Technician Diploma; after four or five years,
16
a Bachelor degree is awarded. Upon completion of their studies, graduate
technicians are assigned to work on development projects.
Universities
Currently, there are 18 government universities in Libya; Tripoli University and
Garyounis University are the oldest and the largest, with student populations of
115,000 and 60,000 respectively (Rhema & Miliszewska, 2010). In addition to
universities, there are 264 government-funded higher education institutes that
provide education in the areas of administration and management, technology,
creative art, and teacher development. Finally, another eight institutes – petroleum
training and qualifying institutes – are dedicated to the training and education of
personnel for the oil industry. Five of these institutions are located in the capital
and main cities, and three of them operate in regional areas. Figure 2.2 shows the
locations of higher education institutions in Libya.
Universities Higher Education Institutes Petroleum Training Institutes
Figure 2.2. Higher education institutions in Libya (Sourced from Rhema & Miliszewska, 2010)
17
In the late 1990s, Libyan authorities invited the private sector to play a role in the
nation’s education system. Since then, more than 30 private universities have been
founded; they provide education in all disciplines (Rhema & Miliszewska, 2010).
Consistent with other countries, university level studies are divided into three
stages: Bachelor, Master, and Doctoral degrees, as described in the following:
1. Bachelor Degree. Conferred after four to seven years’ university study (five
years in Architecture and Engineering, and five to seven years in Medicine) in
universities and higher institutes.
2. Master’s Degree. Conferred after two years’ study following a Bachelor
Degree and offered mostly by large universities, such as Garyounis and El-
Fateh.
3. Doctorate. May be awarded after a further two years of research in such fields
as Arabic, Islamic studies and Humanities and is conditional upon the
completion of a thesis. Many students still travel abroad to pursue doctoral
degrees in other disciplines (Clark, 2004).
Teacher training
There are several types of teacher education in Libya including courses for pre-
primary and primary/basic school teachers, secondary school teachers, and higher
education teachers. Primary school teachers are trained in three to four years in
State Higher Teacher Training Institutes at intermediate school level. A number of
centres for in-service training were opened in 1995-96. In addition, a centre to
train teachers for technical and vocational education, at basic and intermediate
levels, was opened. Secondary school teachers require four years of higher
education studies.
Master degree holders can become assistant lecturers at universities. They can be
promoted to lecturer after three years of teaching. They are promoted to Assistant
Professor after having taught for four years and submitted three research articles
18
evaluated by a scientific committee. PhD holders are appointed as lecturers and
promoted to Assistant Professor after four years of teaching. They are then
promoted to Joint Professor after a further four years of teaching, and submission
of a published scientific thesis evaluated by a scientific committee. Joint
Professors are promoted to Full Professor after having taught for a further five
years and published three more research articles evaluated as above (Clark, 2004;
Rhema, 2005; Rhema & Miliszewska, 2010).
Non-traditional studies
The Libyan education system offers possibilities for non-traditional studies
including distance higher education and non-formal higher education studies.
Distance education is provided by the Open University, created in 1990. Its main
centre is in Tripoli, but it has opened 16 other centres around the country in
Benghazi, Sebha, Ejdabia, Derna, Misurata and El-Kufra. For graduation they
need 120 to 150 credit hours depending on the study major. Curricula and
teaching programmes are conveyed via written and audio-visual material (learning
packages). Non-formal studies include short postsecondary courses for training
paramedical personnel and health inspectors (Hamdy, 2007a).
2.3.3. Admission requirements
Prior to admission to universities, higher technical, and vocational education
institutions, students are required to complete pre-university schooling which is
divided into three stages: Primary, Preparatory and Secondary; Secondary schools
can be specialised or general. Secondary school graduates can either continue
their study in universities, or join the labour market (The General People’s
Committee of Education, 2008). Since 1990, students are also required to obtain a
score of 65%, or more, in the secondary education examination in order to be
admitted to university; some faculties, such as medicine and engineering, require
scores exceeding 75%. Students with scores below 65% can be admitted to higher
training and vocational institutes. Students from specialised secondary schools are
19
strongly encouraged to continue higher education in their field of specialisation
(for example medicine, engineering, economics). The qualification awarded after
three years of study at universities, vocational institutes and centres is a Higher
Diploma; after four to five years, the qualification awarded is a Bachelor Degree.
2.3.4. Student profile
Higher education students in Libya include local Libyan students and non-Libyan
students from neighbouring Arab countries. With a common Arabic language and
almost everyone following the Islamic religion, Libya appears socially
homogenous, as students share values, ideologies, and needs (Alhmali, 2007).
More students are enrolled in the humanities and arts than in science and
technology; currently, 60% of the total number of higher education students study
humanities and arts. The average age of students starting higher education is
between 18 and 21 years (The General People’s Committee of Education, 2008).
Libya’s population of approximately 6.2 million includes around 2.7 million
students. There were 19,300 university students in the academic year 1980-1981;
that number grew to 280,000 in 2006-2007, and up to 300,000 in 2008-2009, as
illustrated in Table 2.1. An extra 90,000 students were enrolled in the higher
technical and vocational sector in 2009. It is expected that this number would
increase to reach more than half a million by 2025 (The General People’s
Committee of Education, 2008).
20
Table 2.1. Number of university students in Libya in 2008-2009 (sourced from the General Authority for Information, 2008, p. 140).
الجامعاتUniversities
ليبيونLibyan
غير ليبيينNon Libyan
المجموعTotal
ذكورMale
إناثFemale
المجموعTotal
ذكورMale
إناثFemale
المجموعTotal
ذكورMale
إناثFemale
المجموعTotal
طرابلسTripoli 17,141 25,059 42,200 658 400 1,058 17,799 25,459 43,258
قار يونسGaryounis 16,411 29,100 45,511 412 459 871 16,823 29,559 46,382
عمر المختارOmar El-Mokhtar
10,107 18,428 28,535 357 335 692 10,464 18,763 29,227
سبهاSabha 5,698 12,810 18,508 411 302 711 6,114 13,110 19,224
السابع من ابريل7 P
thP of April 13,087 22,415 35,502 460 387 847 13,545 22,802 36,347
الجبل الغربيAl-Jabal Al-Gharbi
6,871 12,402 19,273 109 130 239 6,980 12,532 19,512
التحديAl-Tahadi 2,324 6,027 8,414 66 105 171 2,390 6,177 8,567
ناصر األمميةNaser 257 91 366 376 198 574 651 289 940
المرقبElmergib 9,962 16,687 26,649 129 127 256 10,091 16,814 26,905
7. أكتوبر7 P
thP of
October 8,953 12,629 21,562 185 258 443 9,138 12,867 22,005
األسمريةAsmarya 2,225 1,669 3,894 8 2 10 2,233 1,671 3,904
طرابلس للعلوم الطبيةTripoli of Medical Sciences
9,907 20,546 30,453 680 1,942 2,622 10,587 22,488 33,075
العرب الطبيةMedical of Al-Arab
2,626 7,509 10,135 53 107 160 2,679 7,616 10,295
الجامعة المفتوحةOpen University
766 528 1,294 17 9 26 783 542 1,325
المجموعTotal 106,353 185,880 292,296 3,921 4,761 8,680 110,277 190,689 300,966
21
2.4. E-LEARNING IN EDUCATION
Over the last twenty years, developed countries and emerging economies have
introduced ICT to enhance all their sectors, including education. This change has
had a significant impact on the curricula, as it involves revised and updated
curriculum, textbooks, creating lesson plans and exams (Olson, Godde, de Maagd,
Tarkleson, Sinclair, Yook & Egidio, 2011). It also influences the methodology of
teaching, and the learning processes. The most dramatic growth of e-learning has
occurred since the 1980s and evolved from using standalone data processors in
computer labs, through accessing the web, to using and providing integrated web
services for teaching and learning (Gerry, 2005; Holmes & Gardner, 2006; Moore,
Dickson-Deane, & Galyen, 2011; Pass & Creech, 2008).
2.4.1. Overview
The new technologies, including computer conferencing, interactive media, digital
technologies, and the Internet significantly increase the reach of e-learning
provision. They enable content to be current and accessible, allow students to
communicate and interact with each other and with instructors at any time, and
they open up a universal market. Consequently, many institutions have been
attracted to e-learning systems and the e-learning market has grown continuously
(Harun, 2001; Olofsson & Lindberg, 2006). By 2003, industry analysts put the
size of the e-learning market at USD 3 billion in the United States alone; the
number grew to almost USD 15 billion by 2005, USD 18 billion in 2010, and it is
expected to reach USD 24 billion by 2015 (Adkins, 2013; Keegan, 2005).
E-learning is a mode of education based on network technology that uses ICTs to
deliver content and instruction to learners across time and place, and provides
access to resources of information (Duan et al., 2010; Liaw, 2008; OECD, 2005;
Wallhaus, 2000). It is broadly inclusive of all forms of educational technology in
education, and the use of information and communication technologies in learning
and teaching (Devedzic, 2013). Xhaferi (2014) defines e-learning as systems that
22
are a technological development aimed at the use of the information and
communication technology for the delivery of teaching materials and interaction
between students and teachers. Holmes and Gardner (2006) defined e-learning as
“online access to learning resources, anywhere and anytime” (p. 14), and added
that: e-learning offers new opportunities for both the educator and the learner to enrich
their teaching and learning experiences, through virtual environments that support
not just the delivery but also the exploration and application of information and the
promotion of new knowledge. (p. 14)
The term e-learning is often used interchangeably with distance learning
(Holsapple & Lee-Post, 2006). However, some authors argue that e-learning
represents a new generation of distance learning, and they point to significant
differences between the two including the fact that: “E-learning does not represent
more of the same (…) [It is] about doing things differently” (Garrison &
Anderson, 2003, p. 7). E-learning offers potential learners an alternative means of
learning, compared with the traditional way, and thus represents an innovation in
education (Duan et al., 2010; Ma et al., 2008). The arrival of mobile learning (m-
learning), too, has been heralded as the next progressive step from e-learning by
some authors, while others viewed it merely as ‘e-learning using mobile devices
and wireless transmission’ (Caudill, 2007; Iqbal & Qureshi, 2012; Orr, 2010).
Nash (2011) noted that while desktop based e-learning offers solid, multimedia-
rich, web-based solutions, it lacks the portable and ubiquitous nature of mobile
learning.
The different understandings of e-learning are conditioned by particular
professional approaches and interests (Stein, Shephard, & Harris, 2011). Sangra,
Vlachopoulos and Cabrera (2012) presented an overview of e-learning based on
different definitions gathered from the literature and an online Delphi survey
evaluated by experts in the field of education and ICT. They identified four
general categories of definitions: technology-driven, delivery-system-oriented,
communication-oriented, and educational-paradigm-oriented. They stated that:
23
E-learning is an approach to teaching and learning, representing all, or part, of the
educational model applied, that is based on the use of electronic media and devices
as tools for improving access to training, communication and interaction and that
facilitates the adoption of new ways of understanding and developing learning.
(Sangra et al., 2012, p. 152)
E-learning is an integral component of blended learning, which integrates online
technology-based learning with traditional face-to-face learning (BECTA, 2004;
Garrison & Vaughan, 2008; Macdonald, 2008; Masie, 2001; Singh, 2003; Stubbs,
Martin, & Endlar, 2006; Tallent-Runnels et al., 2006; Welker & Berardino, 2005).
The blended model plays a significant role in improving the quality of instruction
and student learning, particularly for students from diverse cultural backgrounds,
as it enables customised interaction with the learning environment (Al-Hunaiyyan,
Al-Huwail, & Al-Sharhan, 2008; Vaughan & Garrison, 2006; Oh & Park, 2009).
Placed within the e-learning framework, mobile learning has emerged as a tool
which allows students to use mobile devices to access learning materials, perform
learning tasks, participate in learning interactions, undertake assessment tasks,
learn work processes, access learning support, and evaluate teaching (Uys, Brann,
Klapdor, & Smith, 2012). Traxler (2007) as well as Uys and colleagues (2012)
proposed that “mobile learning deals with the mobility of the learner, so that
learning can occur anywhere/anytime” (p. 575). Thus, it supports and promotes
personalised learning, as mobile devices are focused on the learner rather than the
institution. Learners use some type of mobile handheld computer, such as a PDA,
smartphone, tablet PC, games console or other portable device and make use of
the device’s connectivity, as well as its tools and content, to learn regardless of
where they are and what time it is. Mobile learning also has the ability to provide
opportunities for learning embedded in a natural environment, allowing learners
to engage in learning-related activities in diverse physical locations, supporting
group work on projects, and enhancing collaborative learning in the classroom
(Liu et al., 2003; Suki & Suki, 2007). Mobile learning has great potential to
relieve educational disadvantage by providing opportunities for increased access
to education, particularly to the poor:
24
Because mobile phones are increasingly becoming part of the everyday lives of the
poor, it is argued that they have potential to become a low cost accessible delivery
channel for learning services, thus facilitating innovations including m-learning.
(Kok, 2011, p. 69)
2.4.2. The impact of technology on learning
Over the past decade, the new technology tools have dramatically transformed
people’s perspectives and practices with respect to communication methods,
business practices, as well as learning processes (Mikre, 2011; UNESCO, 2002).
This shift has influenced societies, lifestyles, and educational systems giving high
priority to technology as a tool. Tertiary institutions are changing and adapting
mainly in response to the various pressures associated with widening access,
financial viability, and developments in ICTs. The use of ICTs in education does
not mean that ICT applications replace other traditional teaching and learning
methods (e.g. face-to-face interactions); rather, it indicates a paradigm shift in the
provision of quality teaching and learning (Yang, 2009). The adoption of flexible
delivery model has been a key initiative in many institutions. While this model
has been interpreted in many ways, it generally means the introduction of web-
based design and delivery of courses (The ICT Cluster, 2010; McDonald &
Postle, 1999).
Supporting learning with a web-based system and ICTs can become ‘the fruit of
the incorporation of technology into education’ (Ali, 2003; Cameron, 2003;
Ingram & Hawthorn, 2003). Thus, depending on how ICT is integrated into the
curriculum and into learning activities, it can highly influence teaching and
learning processes and experiences. Boon (2001) suggested that e-learning
involves more than uploading course materials online, it “involves teaching
strategies like communication, formative assessment, participation, case studies
and problem solving, assignments, demonstrations, simulations and record
keeping” (p. 162). According to Watson (2001): “ICT is not only perceived as a
catalyst for change, but also for change in teaching style, change in learning
approaches, and change in access to information” (p. 251).
25
With the proliferation of technologies in every day lives, ICTs have become
indispensable components of teaching and learning in tertiary education (Oliver,
2002; Yang, 2009), not least because of student expectations. Prensky (2007)
observed that: …our students are clamouring for these technologies to be used as part of their
education, in part because they are things that the students have already mastered
and use in their daily lives, and in part because they realise just how useful they can
be. (p. 41)
Kennedy, Churchward, Judd, Gray, and Krause (2008) have also provided
evidence of a substantial positive association between effective use of ICT and
success in tertiary studies. The researchers stated that students were
overwhelmingly positive about the use of ICTs to support their studies, and a high
percentage of students used different kinds of technologies and technology-based
tools in their university studies.
The evolution of technologies and the penetration of e-learning have impacted the
roles of teachers and students. In the new learning environment, teachers are
becoming problem solvers, rather than direct knowledge providers. Students are
transforming from being primarily the receivers of information to more self-
directed learners. Yang (2009) agreed that the use of ICTs has the capacity to
promote the shift towards a student-centred learning, as it provides students with
opportunities to “search for the ways of learning, make choices about their own
learning methods, and self-evaluate learning progress” (p. 9). Oliver and Goerke
(2007) supported this view, particularly in relation to mobile learning. Presenting
a critical review of research pertinent to the use of mobile learning at Curtin
University of Technology in Western Australia, they reported that: Emerging technologies owned and used by students, and incorporated wisely into
university curricula, can go some way towards enhancing high quality, face to face
learning experiences, where articulated knowledge is constructed and student
achievement of intellectually challenging outcomes is effected. (p. 12)
26
As university students have become increasingly busy and physically mobile,
their use of a variety of technologies has also increased. Smartphones, tablets,
laptops, and other portable devices have become indispensable for the majority of
young people in developed countries. In 2008, the Horizon Report suggested that
the increased need for delivery of services and content to mobile and personal
devices would be one of the greatest challenges that higher education would face
(Johnson, Levine, & Smith, 2008). The future envisioned in the Horizon Report
was echoed in Kim, Lee, Merrill, Spector, and van Merriënboer (2008), who
predicted that mobile technologies will have an important place in learning and
teaching, giving new opportunities to move learning out of the classroom.
Consistent with recent reports, mobile applications have been “the fastest growing
dimension of the mobile space in higher education right now, with impacts on
virtually every aspect of informal learning, and increasingly, every discipline in
the university” (Johnson, Adams, & Cummins, 2012, p. 6). Mobile devices with
numerous applications and connection to the Internet have the capacity to create
collaborative learning environments, and permit efficient communication
regardless of time or location. Constant connectivity via mobile broadband
networks allows access to tools for searching and browsing, publishing,
communication via email, video and audio conferencing, and access to social
networking (Andrews et al., 2011; Johnson et al., 2012). The rapid expansion of
mobile technology has been heralded also as a key means for providing access to
those who are currently missing out on education: Mobile technology may have its greatest impact in the developing world, because it
brings telephony to districts [that] fixed-line telephones formerly never reached.
However, as data has not been available until recently, empirical evidence on mobile
telephony impact or diffusion in developing countries is scarce. (Puumalainen,
Frank, Sundqvist, & Tappura, 2011, p. 2)
2.5. E-LEARNING IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
ICT and e-learning have been considered an invaluable platform for economic
growth and educational development particularly for developing nations.
27
Technology enhanced education is generally perceived as a way to relieve poverty
and social division, and improve living standards; this is especially meaningful in
countries with poor infrastructure, limited Internet access, and inadequate supply
of computers in their educational institutions (Gulati, 2008). Adoption and proper
utilisation of ICTs lead to increase yields and quality production of goods and
services. ICT industry can be resourced, properly managed and mainstreamed into
a significant contributor to the national gross domestic product (Belloo &
Aderbigbe, 2014). According to Kozma (2008) and the United Nations (2005),
ICT in developing countries can expand access to quality education, boost
literacy, provide universal education, and facilitate the learning process itself.
According to Sawahel (2013a), Africa has become the most dynamic e-learning
market in the world – with Senegal in first place followed by Zambia, Zimbabwe
and Kenya. Adkins (2013) reported that the overall growth rate for self-paced e-
learning in Africa is over 15%. Senegal has the highest growth rate in Africa at
30%, followed by Zambia, Zimbabwe and Kenya at just over 25% each. The
continent has the highest growth rates in the world in the areas of packaged
content, custom content development services, cloud-based authoring tools and
learning platform services, installed authoring tools, and installed learning
platforms (Adkins, 2013).
Despite the progress, most African universities are still struggling to integrate e-
learning into their teaching and learning (Tagoe, 2012). A survey by UNESCO on
e-learning in Africa revealed that “e-learning is still very much in its infancy
across most of the continent” (Macharia & Nyakwende, 2010, p. 73). Many
countries are yet to establish a reliable and equitable e-learning system and e-
learning has yet to become an important government agenda (Akbar, 2005;
Rhema & Miliszewska, 2011). Likewise, technological, pedagogical, social and
economic boundaries, as well as the ability to contextualise the benefits of ICT in
improving the quality of life, are yet to be fully understood and explored (Duan et
al., 2010; Nair, Han, Lee, Goon & Muda, 2010; Rossiter & Crock, 2006; Tortora
& Rheault, 2011).
28
Successful implementation of e-learning in developing countries requires great
effort and resources (Ferrer, 2009). In an institutional setting, it demands a
significant change in teaching practices, requires inclusive strategic planning, and
needs to be carefully managed using appropriate organisational strategies
(Mohammad, 2008). For instance, e-learning course planning is needed to develop
course content that includes pedagogical underpinnings and is suited for e-
learning delivery (Boulton, 2008; Khan, 2005). Careful attention to various sub-
strategies and adequate preparation to facilitate the e-learning adoption are also
required to ensure smooth and successful integration of e-learning across an
organisation (Lin, 2008). Kituyi and Tusubira (2013) designed a framework for
integrating e-learning in higher education institutions in developing countries.
They put emphasis on the infrastructure and the ICT skills that must be attained
by management, teachers, and students. They found that the use of projectors,
mixing face-to-face and e-learning, and harmonising course content for both
modes of learning are the most important requirements for e-learning integration,
they were also the most relevant features of e-learning information systems. In
addition, the use of videos, audio tapes, guest lecturers, textbooks, and other
reading materials and training were considered important contributes to successful
integration of e-learning.
2.5.1. ICT initiatives and projects
Since the mid-1990s, numerous Interactive Radio Instruction (IRI) initiatives have
been initiated in Africa to improve the quality of education. In most cases,
students demonstrated progressive improvements in achievement over time
(Bosch, 1997; Murphy, Anzalone, Bosch, & Moulton, 2002); improvements in
enrolment and attendance were also recorded for both boys and girls in urban and
rural settings (The World Bank, 2005). Moreover, interactive radio made students
willing to listen and participate in the lessons being delivered (Achimugu,
Oluwagbemi & Oluwaranti, 2010; Aktaruzzaman, Shamim & Clement, 2011).
29
In Tanzania, a national policy for ICT in education and the Tanzania
Communications Regulatory Authority Act were established in 2003. The policy
aimed to provide access to ICT tools, build a strong infrastructure, expand and
develop the teaching of ICT at all levels of the national education system, and use
ICT to improve the quality of education and training in all areas including
distance learning. The policy planned to develop and deploy a nationwide e-
education system that interconnects all schools and higher education/training
facilities across the country (Hennessy et al., 2010). Furthermore, by 2007
licences were issued for two basic telephone service providers, four land cellular
mobile telephone operators, one global mobile personal communication service,
eleven public data communication companies, nine private (dedicated) data
services companies, and twenty four public Internet service providers (ISPs); all
taxes related to computers and allied equipment were eliminated, and license fees
and royalties payable by the telecommunication operators were reduced (Sife et
al., 2007).
In Iraq, a TV channel Iraqi Edu has been used to increase access to education for
affected Iraqi students enrolled in the formal schooling system and out-of-school,
and refugee students (UNESCO, 2011). The Distance Learning/Educational TV
project has assisted Iraqi people in anticipating and addressing the difficulties
associated with the reform of the Iraqi educational system; these difficulties
included shortage of trained and qualified teachers, administrators, and planners,
lack of teaching/learning materials, poor teaching facilities, and the deteriorating
economic conditions that led the youth to seek gainful employment during school
hours (UNESCO, 2011).
In the Arab States, where the official language, religion and culture are similar,
the national ICT policy in the area of education is jointly co-ordinated by the
Ministry of Communications and Information Technology and the Ministry of
Education (Hamdy, 2007b). In an Arab League meeting of the Ministers of
Telecommunications and Information Technology, Egypt was selected to become
the hub of e-learning in the Arab Region, largely due to the leadership of the
30
Egyptian Minister of Communication and Information Technology (Beckstrom,
Croasdale, Riad, & Kamel, nd). In its effort to spread internet usage across the
country and transform Egypt into an information society: The Ministry of Communications and Information Technology is publicising the
coming advent of free internet access in the country. In partnership with licensed
ISP's, MCIT affiliate Telecom Egypt will set-up an estimated 15,000 ports, capable
of serving 2 million internet users, with users having to pay only for the local dial-up
phone tariff. The service is effective as of Jan 1st, 2002. Companies are eligible to
apply for a Free Net number from the Telecommunications Regulatory Authority.
(Beckstrom et al., nd, pp. 7-8)
In 2002, a large-scale ICT project, entitled the Higher Education Enhancement
Project, was launched with a loan from the World Bank and partial funding from
the Egyptian government. The project included six sub-projects: Higher Education
Enhancement Project Fund; Faculty Leadership Development Project; ICT
Development Project; Faculty of Education Project; Egypt Technical Colleges
Project; and, Quality Assurance and Accreditation Project. Some of these sub-
projects were implemented in cooperation with other Mediterranean countries,
and with the participation of universities and Egyptian educational institutions,
while others were carried out in cooperation with France, Germany, and the
European Union. In addition, a central unit for digital libraries and automation of
university libraries has been established (UNESCO, 2009c).
The Supreme Council of Universities (SCU) has established a National E-
Learning Centre and charged it with the task of integrating ICTs into Egyptian
higher education. SCU aims to advance higher education in Egypt by harnessing
the potential of ICTs for learning and capacity building. To achieve this goal,
SCU will set national standards for e-learning, develop e-learning policies,
promote the culture of e-learning nationwide, promote research and innovation in
e-learning, establish e-learning centres in all public Egyptian universities, and
assure the quality of e-learning in Egyptian universities (Mohammad, 2008).
31
2.5.2. Growth of mobile telecommunication
The speedy growth of mobile telecommunications in developing regions has been
spurred by unreliable fixed ICT infrastructure as well as “liberal regulatory
environments and global market penetration” (Uys et al. 2012, p. 579). The rapid
acquisition of mobile technologies among the poorest nations enables people to
create significant opportunities for economic growth, health care enhancement
and increased access to education for people living in these countries (Andrews et
al., 2011). Zuckerman (2009) reported that 80% to 90% of the public in some
poor countries have at least minimal access to a mobile phone. Furthermore,
nearly 80 million mobile subscribers, most of them in developing countries, use a
mobile phone although they have no access to the electrical grid (United Nations,
2012).
In the Middle East (excluding the North African countries) mobile penetration
rates were anticipated to reach 94% in 2011 and 126% in 2015. Iran and
Afghanistan have reported significant subscription growths. In 2010, Iran ranked
as the single biggest mobile market, with 66 million subscriptions, followed by
Saudi Arabia with 43 million subscriptions and revenues of more than USD 11
billion. It is expected that mobile subscriptions in the Middle East will reach 327
million by 2015 (Cherrayil, 2010). In the Gulf region (countries such as United
Arab Emirates and Qatar), the mobile phone penetration rate is more than 100%.
Even in poorer countries affected by war, like Palestine and Yemen, an increase in
mobile phone penetration is expected in the next few years because of a growing
youth market and the emergence of new telecommunication operators (Muttoo,
2011; UNESCO, 2012). Cherrayil (2010) reported that the Palestinian market
recorded the fastest growth in 2010, with mobile subscriptions increasing by 56%.
The Arab region represents one of the fastest growing mobile phone markets in
the world with mobile phone penetration overtaking Internet penetration (Muttoo,
2011). According to a study conducted by Gallup (2011), 87% of young Arabs
aged between 15 and 29 reported having access to mobile phones in 2010, an
32
increase from 79% in 2009. Arab countries have utilised mobile phones to
empower communities through various innovative mobile phone applications. For
example, in Jordan, the Bedouin women, who are not culturally allowed to seek
help without their husband’s permission, consult doctors via mobile phones.
Mobile phones have given these women the opportunity to ask for medical advice
which has the potential to generate long-term positive impact on their health. In
Syria an Electronic Voucher System was introduced in 2009 to alleviate food
insecurity among Iraqi refugee families in Damascus. Through this programme,
which is the first of its kind in the world, Iraqi refugees receive vouchers on their
mobile phones to purchase food items from government-owned stores (Muttoo,
2011). The local telecom operator provides SIM cards to refugee families free of
charge. In addition, mobile phones have the potential to organise political action
and boost the functional capacity of organisations and individuals during
demonstrations, for example during the Arab Spring. Having assumed a
significant role in the political settings of Arab countries, mobile phones will
continue to mobilise people during elections and future social movements
(Muttoo, 2011).
2.5.3. Implementation of e-learning in education
Several initiatives are currently in progress in many developing countries to reuse
existing technologies transferred from developed countries, to adopt e-learning,
and to integrate ICTs into their educational systems. In Tanzania, the University
of Dar es Salaam has managed to implement an e-learning platform by using
WebCT and Blackboard as learning management systems; a video conference
facility is also available. Other universities, including Sokoine University of
Agriculture (SUA), Mzumbe University, and Open University of Tanzania (OUT)
have the basic ICT infrastructure such as Local Area Network (LAN), Internet,
computers, and multimedia facilities to enable the establishment of an e-learning
platform. SUA has started using Moodle as a course management system. OUT is
piloting an open source learning management system called Atutor for students in
a BSc (ICT) degree. It has also launched several initiatives to prioritise e-learning
33
Management Systems including the formulation of comprehensive institutional
frameworks such as ICT Policy, ICT Master Plan and E-learning Implementation
Strategy (Bhalalusesa, A Lukwaro & Clemence, 2013; Nihuka, 2011). In addition,
Tanzania Global Learning Centre offers open and distance learning to university
students and community (Sife et al., 2007).
In Egypt, an open source Moodle e-learning platform has been implemented at
universities as an aid to deliver e-content and to provide the institution with
various possibilities for delivering asynchronous e-learning web-based modules;
eighteen e-learning labs (6 PCs, server, LAN) have been installed at all
universities (El-Seoud, Seddiek, Taj-Eddin, Ghenghesh & El-Khouly, 2013). The
use of e-learning at Cairo University includes activities such as conversion of text
books to interactive CD-ROMs and pilot projects in virtual classrooms. The
American University in Cairo uses WebCT as a learning management system and
provides a centre for assisting faculty members in adapting their teaching
materials to a web-friendly format. In addition, the Global Campus within Egypt
currently includes web-based, and CD-ROM, modules in a blended learning
environment. Students are provided with personal management tools such as a
calendar, profile for grades and assessment, communication tool to contact local
and UK-based tutors, access to discussion groups, and access to online libraries
(Baraka, 2005). Currently, various Learning Management Systems are in use in
Egyptian institutions as shown in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2. Learning Management Systems in Egypt (Beckstrom et al., nd).
Learning Management Systems Organisation Centra Ministry of Education WebCT American University at Cairo eKnowledge/Bredge; Edline; Cyberlearning RITSEC eClass –(hardware only); Oracle iLearning; Lotus Learning Management System National Technology Institute
Custom solution (Arab Academy of Science and Technology); (UNESCO) and NetVarsity
Moodle Ain Shams University
34
2.5.4. Implementation of m-learning in education
Owing to their highly portable and wireless nature, mobile phones and mobile
learning have been seen as a means of extending learning opportunities to remote
areas, thus supporting the expansion of educational access. According to Nash
(2011), “in some countries, m-learning is more of a necessity than a luxury due to
limited connectivity to the high-speed Internet at homes and profusion of mobile
phones” (p. 93). However, Kok (2011), in her review of the current state of
knowledge about mobile learning in developing countries, pointed to the absence
of a strong evidence base, and warned about the tendency to exaggerate the
potential of mobile learning applications for poor users. On the other hand,
according to UNESCO (2012), the continuous advances in technology and the
rapid and widespread uptake of mobile phones across developing countries have
led to positive educational transformation over the last few years.
In China, an important pilot study of m-learning, the Mobile Campus Program,
was conducted at the Shanghai TV University. The programme enabled students
in 41 remote branches to use smartphones to access the Short Message Service
(SMS) system, allowing a quick delivery of educational and administrative
information (Sun, 2008; Yang & Wang, 2011). The study findings revealed that
most of the study participants believed that Mobile Campus contributed to their
learning, helped them to understand key points of lecture presentations, and
increased their access to college services. However, the project identified some
issues, such as low learning efficacy, limitations of mobile devices, limited m-
learning resources, and little guidance given in the learning process (Sun & Chen,
2007; Yang & Wang, 2011).
The issues of self-efficacy, as well as the importance of guidance and timely
feedback, have been discussed by Nash (2011) too. The author presented an
overview of mobile learning strategies used in developing countries for learners in
remote locations with limited Internet connectivity. Mobile devices were used to
provide interactivity and share instructional content for diverse cohorts of students
35
in different learning environments in Paraguay, Iraq, Afghanistan and Colombia.
The author identified several factors to consider when planning mobile
instructional strategies; chief among them, an examination of learning objectives
and realistic evaluation of student preferences and their learning conditions, such
as access to software and hardware.
In South Africa, mobile phones have been used to provide equal access to
information and potential collaboration, as well as to extend the availability of
lecturers and tutors during non-teaching times. Mobile learning has been adopted
for specific teaching and learning purposes at Cape Town University. The
Dynamic Frequently Asked Questions (DFAQ) tool, designed and developed at
the university as a special-purpose question and consultation environment for
students with a SMS interface, allows students and lecturers to ask and respond to
questions using their mobile phones; DFAQ has been used in various courses and
projects at the University (Williams & Ng’ambi, 2009). In addition, a number of
mobile learning initiatives have been launched in South Africa to improve the
performance of learners of mathematics. In those projects, learners use mobile
phones to access curriculum-aligned mathematics content and to participate in
competitions, quizzes and peer-learning based on lessons related to mathematics
(Kalloo & Mohan, 2012; UNESCO, 2012). Other m-learning projects in South
Africa include the Math on MXit and MobilEd programmes offered by the
Meraka Institute, and in Kenya teachers and students use SMS for communication
(Farrell & Shafika, 2007).
In Arab countries, m-learning is still in its inception phase. Yet, some universities
in Saudi Arabia have already adopted SMS for teaching and learning. For
example, recently King Saud University has initiated a new service that offers
users the ability to send text messages directly from a personal computer to a
mobile phone (Altameem, 2011).
The above initiatives show how innovative mobile phone applications have led to
positive educational transformation in the developing world. However, some
educational institutions argued that using mobile phones has disrupted teaching
36
and reduced students’ attention in class, resulting in negative educational
outcomes (Campbell, 2005). Others claimed that using mobile phones contributed
to cheating during exams (Smith, 2006; UNESCO, 2012). Therefore, some
government organisations have launched e-Safety Committees to consider ways to
raise awareness and promote a safe and responsible use of technologies,
particularly in schools (UNESCO, 2012). In Africa and the Middle East, concerns
about the disruptive nature of mobile phones expressed by teachers,
administrators and parents drove many institutions to ban the use of mobile
phones on school premises. Negative attitudes towards mobile phone use
stemmed mainly from reports of unacceptable or unsafe behaviour facilitated by
mobile phones such as cheating, cyber-bullying, and sexual predation in mobile
chat platforms. Parents also raised fears about teenagers using mobile phones to
procure drugs (UNESCO, 2012).
According to a study conducted by Attewell, Smith and Douch (2009) to explore
the impact of using mobile technologies for teaching and learning, 33% of
learners reported a negative impact on their motivation. A 2008 study conducted
by the Joan Ganz Cooney Center at Sesame Workshop in collaboration with
Common Sense Media and Insight Research Group reported that parents and
teachers were distrustful about the educational value of mobile technologies. The
study revealed that teachers perceived the Internet, computer programmes, and
CD-ROMs as having more educational potential than mobile forms of digital
media. Moreover, almost all teachers (85%) perceived mobile phones as
distractions; with 64% agreeing that they had no place in school (Shuler, 2009).
2.5.5. Challenges for e-learning in developing countries
The adoption of ICTs and e-learning in the field of education in developing
countries is fraught with difficulties and barriers: “Such barriers can be related to,
for example, the infrastructural context, the cultural context, and the transferred
knowledge” (Kohn, Maier, &Thalmann, 2010, p. 16). Many research studies have
been conducted to investigate the use of ICT and e-learning in higher education
37
institutions, and to determine the challenges and enablers of e-learning in different
African countries such as Nigeria (Ajadi et al., 2008), Tanzania (Bhalalusesa et
al., 2013; Sife et al., 2007), Ugandan (Kituyi & Kyeyune, 2012), and Egypt
(Abdel-wahab, 2008; El-Gamal, 2005).
Many developing countries lack basic components vital to the implementation of
e-learning such as computers and Internet access (Bhalalusesa et al., 2013;
Omidinia et al., 2011). This is coupled with the lack of technically qualified
personnel to carry out necessary installations, lack of finances to acquire all the
necessary infrastructure, and poor planning. These factors increase the likelihood
of failure of e-learning projects and limit student access to e-learning
infrastructure (Bhalalusesa et al., 2013; Omidinia et al., 2011).
Andersson and Grönlund (2009) presented a critical review of research pertinent
to the challenges of e-learning, particularly in developing countries. The review
identified thirty challenges and grouped those into four types: (1) challenges
pertaining to individuals’ characteristics (both students and teachers); (2)
technological challenges; (3) course challenges (different support functions, and
course pedagogy and activities); and, (4) contextual challenges (the institutional
management and organisation, as well as the surrounding society with its values
and regulations). A summary of the challenges is presented in Table 2.3.
38
Table 2.3. Framework for e-learning challenges (Andersson & Grönlund, 2009, pp. 9-10).
Indi
vidu
al c
halle
nges
Student
• Motivation • Conflicting priorities • Economy • Academic confidence • Technological confidence • Social support (support from home and employers) • Gender • Age
Teacher • Technological confidence • Motivation and commitment • Qualification and competence • Time
Cou
rse
chal
leng
es
Course design
• Curriculum • Pedagogical model • Subject content • Teaching and Learning Activities • Localization • Flexibility
Support provided • Support for students from faculty • Support for faculty
Con
text
ual
chal
leng
es
Organisational • Knowledge management • Economy and funding • Training of teachers and staff
Societal/Cultural • Role of teacher and student • Attitudes on e-learning and IT • Rules and regulations
Tec
hnol
ogic
al
chal
leng
es
• Access • Cost • Software and interface design • Localisation
Andersson and Grönlund (2009) pointed out that the reviewed research tended to
focus on technological and contextual challenges to e-learning in developing
countries, and suggested that aspects pertinent to individuals’ characteristics were
yet to be addressed: For example we found that the hierarchical teaching methods in many developing
countries will have to develop into a pedagogy more oriented towards students’
activities, self-learning and motivation. This is a step change as it will change
inherited roles on part of students as well as teachers. Such a major change will
necessitate a focus on individuals’ activities and perceptions, and how the changes
to education brought about by e-learning affect, and are affected by, these. (p. 10)
39
2.5.6. Prospects for e-learning in developing countries
While the incorporation of e-learning in many developing countries faces many
challenges, the development and adoption of e-learning is likely to be helped by
the increasing commitment of many governments towards the modernisation of all
sectors of life, including education (Kamel, 2008). Government approval and
support are likely to act as a catalyst for change. The investment in ICT diffusion
has been perceived as an engine for innovation, better education, better health
services, improved government services, and for empowering the private sector
(Kamel, Rateb, & El-Tawil, 2009). For example, in Egypt, over a period of five
years, the government has commissioned projects in the telecom sector that were
worth over USD 1 billion (American Chamber of Commerce, 2007), and the total
investment in ICT exceeded USD 44 billion dollars by the end of 2010 (Ministry
of Communications and Information Technology, 2013 cited in Amin, 2014).
Most developing countries have realised the need for ICT training for teachers and
launched various professional development initiatives. For example, in Rwanda,
workshops are provided by the Rwandan Regional ICT Training Centre based at
Kigali Institute of Science and Technology to help teachers incorporate ICT in the
classroom (Gutterman, Rahman, Supelano, Thies, & Yang, 2009). In Mali, the
Programme de Formation Interactive des Enseignants par la Radio is the biggest
teacher training programme that uses radio and digital technologies to bring the
training directly into the communities. Its curriculum includes subject matters
such as HIV/AIDS and gender equality. As a result of this programme, an
estimated 15,200 teachers and 300 supervisors/principals were trained across the
entire nation (Gutterman et al., 2009). In Egypt, one of the goals of the Ministry
of Communications and Information Technology and the National ICT Policy is
the training of educational cadres (Hamdy, 2007b). In developing countries, ICT
capacity building in teachers plays a major role in enabling paradigmatic shift
from teacher-centred pedagogy to a more effective learner-centred pedagogy
(infoDev, 2010).
40
Expanding the Internet bandwidth capacity to academic institutions free of charge,
or at low cost, is another driver of e-learning adoption in developing countries.
For example, in Africa a partnership, referred to as the Bandwidth Consortium,
aims to broaden Internet bandwidth capacity with lower fees to educational
institutions. The consortium includes eleven universities in Africa and two higher
education organisations, Association of African Universities and the Kenyan
Education Network, backed by four major United States foundations; of these, six
institutions are in Nigeria, two in Ghana, and the others in Mozambique, Tanzania
and Uganda (Ekundayo & Ekundayo, 2009; Nafukho, 2007). In Egypt, free
Internet and broadband have been provided since the launch of the Free Internet
Initiative in Cairo in 2002 (Hamdy, 2007b). The initiative offers subscription-free
Internet services to users via dial-up to special-prefix numbers.
2.6. E-LEARNING IN LIBYAN HIGHER EDUCATION
As in most developing countries, the use of ICTs and the implementation of e-
learning in Libya are still at an early stage. While some Libyan universities, such
as Alfateh University, Garyounis University, and Academy of Postgraduate
Studies and Economic Research, have basic ICT infrastructure (such as
computers, Internet access, and a LAN), they still use the traditional model of
education; this model is based on face-to-face interactions and learning activities
that are available only on campus. Libyan Open Universities (LOPs) offer
students the opportunity to study at home, catering to the needs of students with
work and family commitments, and to students from the regional areas of the
country. However, the learning experiences tend to be traditional, as the
universities rely largely on printed learning materials. This is beginning to change,
as several institutions have recently introduced electronic resource repositories,
and e-libraries (Rhema & Miliszewska, 2010).
In 2005 a national policy for ICT in education was launched in Libya; the policy
was managed by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Vocational
Training with the support of other parties such as the country’s major
41
telecommunication providers: the General Postal and Telecommunication
Company and Libya Telecom and Technology. The co-operation between the
government and the private sector aimed to improve Libya’s ability to implement
large-scale ICT initiatives. In a drive towards modernity, this policy aimed to
enable ICT access, provide ICT infrastructure and tools, and help develop ICT
skills on a large scale in all sectors of the community. However, its main purpose
was to use ICT and e-learning as instruments to improve the quality of Libyan
education through:
• adopting modern, technology-assisted educational techniques and
methods;
• supporting the scientific community to engage in research within the
general Libyan population;
• encouraging the private sector to participate in funding higher and
specialist education;
• developing open and distance learning; and,
• boosting the profile of higher education.
The Libyan government agencies have worked hand in hand with UNDP and
UNESCO to ensure an appropriate and timely implementation of the ICT policy;
this support also opened the door for international partnerships and encouraged
investment in Libya.
2.6.1. ICT initiatives and projects
A major project, launched in 2005 and sponsored by UNESCO and the Libyan
government, involved the establishment of the Libyan Higher Education and
Research Network (LHERN). This included the installation of LANs within all
149 faculties on various university campuses, and a Wide Area Network (WAN)
to link the campuses together. The project resulted in the creation of a national
ICT resource centre for educators and the automation, through ICT, of university
management systems including student information systems, university
procedures, and financial operations (UNESCO, 2005b). The project involved the
42
creation of digital libraries and portals of educational resources, and the
development of ICT enhanced learning solutions such as e-learning, tele-
education, and tele-medicine. The project also provided training in digital literacy,
basic ICT skills, the use of ICTs in teaching and courseware development, as well
as system administration and operation of media centres.
In another major development, the government Department of Computers and
Networks oversaw the implementation of the National Computer Project, which
aimed to supply and install more than 150,000 computers in nearly 5,000
computer laboratories at educational institutions, including higher education
institutions. The project linked all educational institutions with an advanced
telecommunications network using telephone lines, satellite, and wireless
communications (The General People’s Committee of Education, 2008). This
project assisted particularly in expanding and improving Libya’s e-examination
system; this system manages the results of final examinations of secondary school
students and, based on the results, determines their subsequent university
destination (Rhema & Miliszewska, 2010).
In 2013, several new initiatives were launched in Libya. Aimed at reforming
Libyan universities, these initiatives will develop ICT infrastructure, connect
universities via a modern communications network, and build virtual higher
education. The initiatives were announced by Libya’s Deputy Minister of Higher
Education and Scientific Research at the Arab Education Summit held in May,
2013 in Amman, Jordan. The Summit was themed ‘ICT, Learning, Infrastructure,
Procurement and Investment’ and hosted by Arab Brains, a networking
organisation that connects innovative education, and public and private sector
leaders (Sawahel, 2013b).
2.6.2. Growth of mobile telecommunication
The mobile phone penetration in Libya has increased dramatically from 1% in
2001 to 171% in 2010, indicating multiple subscriptions per person (International
43
Telecommunication Union [ITU], 2012). Libya’s government leveraged mobile
broadband technology in order to compensate for the lack of fixed infrastructure.
In 2010, there were nearly 11 million mobile phone subscriptions and 2.7 million
active mobile broadband subscriptions in the country (ITU, 2012).
The 2011 armed conflict in Libya halted the country’s progress and set back the
gains built up over generations in the areas of nutrition, health, housing, education
and employment (Rhema & Miliszewska, 2012); it also profoundly affected
communication services. Even before the conflict and with a relatively high
income level, Libya’s ICT networks and projects had remained poor compared to
those of similar countries. This was attributed to a political environment in which
the ICT market had been controlled by a state-owned monopoly, except for
mobile cellular (voice) services, where two state-owned operators were competing
with each other. In October 2011, Libya Telecom and Technology (LTT) started
its reconstruction and maintenance work and carried out technical operations to
reinstate its services in the affected areas such as Misurata and Bani Waleed. LTT
set February 2012 as the deadline to return the service to its state prior to the
Libyan revolution (ITU, 2012; Rhema & Sztendur, 2013).
ICTs and mobile phones played a vital role in facilitating the communication and
organisation of the Libyan revolution in February 2011 (Jones, Kennedy, Kerr,
Mitchell, & Safayeni, 2012; Libyan Ministry of Communication and Informatics,
2012). According to Jones et al. (2012), extensive mobile network coverage and
high rates of mobile phone use in Libya suggest that mobile devices have a
promising role to play in election monitoring. With donor support, the Shahed
Network for Election Monitoring could implement a reporting system based on
mobile technology, allowing observers to submit data directly via SMS (Jones et
al., 2012; Rhema & Sztendur, 2013).
44
2.6.3. Implementation of e-learning in education
The drive towards the deployment of e-learning in Libya is motivated by the
country’s desire to further develop and improve its education system. For
example, in 2008 Libya introduced an electronic system for submitting specialised
secondary education examinations; the project proved to be a success and the
General People’s Committee of Education aims to expand it to other educational
areas.
Further pilot initiatives to implement e-learning have also started, initially in
primary schools. A Libyan educational technology solutions provider, MCIT,
together with its partner, the Ireland-based Riverdeep, has developed a successful
e-Learning pilot project covering six schools in Tripoli where MCIT designed and
provided the entire IT network and power infrastructure for the schools and
supported the systems and applications under the standards developed by
Riverdeep (The General People’s Committee of Education, 2008).
In 2009, the Libyan government launched a USD 72 million project to use ICTs in
the Libyan higher education and scientific research system. The project included
the establishment of LANs in 149 faculties on various university campuses and
institutes, and the launch of a wide area network forming the Libyan Higher
Education and Research Network (Sawahel, 2009).
2.6.4. Implementation of m-learning in education
Mobile phones are emerging as a particularly useful e-learning platform in Libya
at a time when the necessary infrastructure for the Internet connection does not
exist (Rhema & Sztendur, 2013). Libyan people are scattered in small
communities spread out across huge rural areas. The limited spread of the
telecommunication networks into rural areas is a common barrier to the use of
ICT. In rural areas, mobile phones can minimise the digital divide and facilitate
informal learning (Rhema & Sztendur, 2013).
45
In 2013, the British Council launched a ‘Learn English on your mobile phone’
initiative; its aim is to enable Libyan students to learn English via mini-lessons
sent in text messages to their mobile phones. Participation costs only around USD
2 monthly and students receive five lessons/messages a week. Each lesson
includes short descriptions of grammar and vocabulary items, and useful phrases
and common expressions. The English courses are available at three levels:
elementary, intermediate and advanced (Libyan Herald, 2013, 6 Feb).
2.6.5. Challenges for e-learning in Libya
The implementation of ICT and e-learning in Libyan higher education institutions
still faces many challenges including: the cultural and linguistic background of
students and instructors, and their attitudes towards e-learning; the
underdeveloped technological infrastructure and the often prohibitive cost of
educational technologies; the lack of local expertise in curriculum development
for e-learning; and the lack of educational management mechanisms to support e-
learning initiatives (Rhema & Miliszewska, 2010).
Culture and language
Culture is defined “as the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes
the members of one group or category of people from another” (Hofstede, 1980,
p. 25). Therefore, people’s perceptions of ICT and e-learning differ, depending on
their backgrounds. Accordingly, the design of an e-learning system needs to
consider cultural differences and sensitivities of its users; this includes
consideration for the various dimensions of the e-learning environment (Khan,
2003). In designing interfaces for an e-learning system, cultural communication
and ethical issues must be taken into consideration, as “cultural factors are
increasingly cited as significant influences on IT adoption” (Elbeltagi, McBride,
& Hardaker, 2005, p. 46). For example, in Libya and in the Western cultures the
“thumbs-up” sign signifies approval, whereas in some other cultures, such as
Bangladesh, it is used to challenge people. Attitudes towards eye-to-eye contact
46
represent yet another example of cultural differences. Eye-to-eye contact is often
avoided in Libya and other Arabic cultures because humility is an important
aspect of the Islamic religion. However, avoiding eye contact in Western societies
might be interpreted as a sign of submission and weakness, and sometimes
ignorance.
The design should also consider appropriate reading directions; importantly for
Libya, right-to-left to suit the Arabic language. Likewise, text justification and
navigation systems should be fixed on the left hand side. In addition, the choice of
icons, symbols, objects and colours needs to be carefully considered. For
example, many users in the Western countries will find an image of a dog on a
Web page harmless, or indeed friendly, whereas users in Libya would find a
similar Web page quite offensive.
Libyan families are still mostly traditional in their customs, attitudes, behaviours,
and interaction and communication patterns and protocols. Therefore, a Libyan
family has a limited ability to follow the developments in ICTs and e-learning,
embrace them, and influence the attitudes and behaviours of their children. Also,
teachers as well as students are still mostly unaware of the potential of e-learning.
The language barrier is a significant inhibiting factor in adopting e-learning in
developing countries. The official language in Libya is Arabic and the level of
English skills is low. Arabic is very different from English: the two languages
have nothing in common. However, most of the learning resources (including the
all-important freeware), software, and web contents are in English, thus rendering
them unusable to a great majority of Libyans and making it very difficult to
integrate ICT and e-learning into the Libyan education system (Rhema &
Miliszewska, 2010).
47
Attitudes, awareness and motivation
Awareness goes along with attitude and “positive attitude towards ICTs is widely
recognised as a necessary condition for the effective implementation” (Sife, et al.,
p. 7). In Libya, the level of educational technology awareness and even basic
computer skills is generally low among educators in all types of higher education
institutions, which leads to resistance in adopting ICT for teaching. Most students
and teachers have had little, if any, experience in using a computer; and those who
are familiar with computers, generally use them only as a tool for entertainment
and communication (the Internet). Thus, students tend to feel anxious when
engaging with technology for learning purposes, because of their perceived sense
of incompetence. On the other hand, they find interacting with computers
pleasant, helpful and easy, as they use online chat-rooms, and download music
and films (Rhema & Miliszewska, 2010).
Student motivation affects their study performance and satisfaction with the
learning experience; it also influences the acceptance and adoption of ICTs and e-
learning (Andersson & Grönlund, 2009). And conversely, ICTs may impact
student motivation. Many researchers indicate that ICTs increase student
engagement because they help students develop new knowledge, concepts, and
skills and allow them to work at their own pace and level (Friedman & Coates,
2009; Kay, 2007). They also provide opportunities for student-centred learning,
thus creating a potentially more enjoyable learning environment for students
(Neal, 2005). However, many Libyan students, particularly those with limited
exposure to computers, lack sufficient appreciation for the benefits of e-learning
which, in turn, affects their motivation to study with the help of ICT (Rhema &
Miliszewska, 2010; Rhema, Miliszewska, & Sztendur 2013).
Technology
Technology is a fundamental factor in the development of e-learning. The
technological dimension of the e-learning framework includes infrastructure,
48
hardware, and software; software and interface design are an integral part of this
dimension (Khan, 2003). In addition, adequate technical support is an important
part of the implementation and integration of ICT and e-learning in an education
system (Sife et al., 2007).
Libya faces a number of challenges on the technological front. The country
largely lacks the required technological infrastructure; however, many
infrastructure projects are currently in progress. While computer laboratories are
available in most Libyan higher institutions, the lack of adequate network
facilities places serious restrictions on Internet access. The use of educational
software within institutions is also limited, as there are very few products on the
market that are available in Arabic, and the country lacks the capacity to develop
its own products. Lastly, the technical support is almost unavailable in Libya,
which leads to delays in installation, operation, and maintenance of equipment
and software, and further discourages users (Rhema & Miliszewska, 2010; 2011).
Curriculum development
The use of ICTs enables the curriculum to become dynamic and interactive
(UNESCO, 2005a), as it facilitates the creation of different kinds of courses, each
providing learners with a distinctive type of learning experience and each suited to
different situations (Horton, 2000). As e-learning is different from traditional
learning, the curriculum and pedagogical methods need to be modified and
developed to employ ICTs effectively, and they should be specifically designed to
fit the e-learning setting (Andersson & Grönlund, 2009). To achieve this, qualified
curriculum developers are needed, as emphasised by Baylor and Ritchie (2002),
who concluded that “regardless of the amount of technology and its
sophistication, technology will not be used unless faculty members have the skills,
knowledge and attitudes necessary to infuse it into the curriculum” (p. 398).
In this respect, Libya faces a double challenge: first, Libyan higher education
curricula are prescribed and controlled nation-wide by the Ministry for Higher
49
Education; so, there is a need to overcome the constraints and reliance on
standardised curriculum. Second, the development of new pedagogical scenarios
for e-learning settings requires willing participation of academics and
considerable assistance from educational developers with experience in e-
learning; such expertise is not available in Libya yet (Rhema & Miliszewska,
2010). However, the United Nations (2005) reported that: The most important output of the first area of cooperation was in Education which
concentrated on the development of new curricula for the new specialized schools
and vocational training centres, a pivotal action for the future of education in the
country. (p. 2)
Institutional support
Teachers generally are more motivated and committed when they feel supported
and encouraged by the administrators (Andersson & Grönlund, 2009). According
to Mapuva (2009), “Institutional leaders are a determinant factor, given their
decision-making roles which could either make-or-break the e-learning projects
by either facilitating or impeding its implementation within their institutions” (p.
3). So, administrative support can be regarded as essential for the successful
adoption of ICTs into the educational processes. However, administrators in
Libyan institutions generally lack the ability to deal with educational problems
and tend to struggle with the management of institutional inefficiencies.
Therefore, it will take some time and effort for the administrators to come on
board of e-learning; they will need to develop an understanding of the technical,
financial, pedagogical, and administrative dimensions of ICTs in education
(Rhema & Miliszewska, 2010).
2.6.6. Prospects for e-learning in Libya
Recent developments in the Libyan government’s direction towards ICTs have
opened up promising opportunities and the government’s approval and support are
likely to act as a catalyst for change. In 2012, the new Libyan government
allocated USD 3.7 billion (nearly 7% of the budget) to the Ministry of Education
50
for educational reforms (Libya Intelligence Organisation, 2013). These reforms
include improvements to infrastructure and technical equipment as well as teacher
training (Azeemullah, 2012). The development and adoption of e-learning in
Libya is also likely to be helped by educational technology transfer from
developed countries, growing awareness of e-learning and expectations of
students, successful deployment of e-learning initiatives by similar developing
countries, and the development of e-learning expertise in Libyan educators
(Rhema & Miliszewska, 2010).
Technology transfer
The continuous advances in technology have led to a greater distribution of
knowledge transfer. This change is particularly significant for developing
countries which lack the infrastructure, resources, and attitude to be able
implement advanced educational practices on their own (Iahad, Dafoulas,
Milankovic-Atkinson, & Murphy, 2004; William et al., 2011). Bozeman (2000, p.
629) defined technology transfer as “the movement of know-how, technical
knowledge, or technology from one organizational setting to another”. In the
educational context, technology transfer includes the exchange of knowledge,
techniques and methods of teaching and learning between educational institutions
nationally and internationally. Technology transfer to developing countries
requires particularly careful consideration (Straub, Loch & Hill, 2001); as Klauss
(2000) stated: It is evident that both the selection of a technology and the strategy of transfer to
developing countries have to be very carefully considered to ensure that an
appropriate technology is chosen, that it is effectively adopted/ adapted and
institutionalised, and that it is sustainable over time. (p. 277)
Technology transfer has enabled many developing countries to adopt e-leaning
applications, for example web-based LMSs such as WebCT and Moodle are
widely used in Egypt, whereas Blackboard is being used in schools in Tripoli in
Libya. With the assistance of UNESCO and some developed countries, Libya is
51
also undertaking a curriculum reform taking into consideration the ICT revolution
and global changes (Rhema & Miliszewska, 2010).
Changing student expectations
E-learning has the potential to address the educational problems of Libyan
students. According to previous research, which reported on the introduction of
web-based learning in the Data Analysis Department of the Aljabal Al-gharbi
University in Libya (Rhema, 2005), e-learning seems to have provided solutions
to several problems identified by students. It afforded alternative ways of
communicating with teachers and fellow students, provided a greater variety of
learning resources and modalities, extended the flexibility and quality of group-
work, and improved the opportunities for providing students with feedback on
assessment tasks. Some of the student responses reported in Rhema’s study
included the following statements:
“It appeared that the traditional classroom setting is not sufficient to assure effective
and efficient communication between instructors and us and that other means of
communication and education have to be found.”
“We do not have a wider choice of resources and modalities of study materials.”
“The possibilities to collaborate in group work assignments are too limited to work
at fixed times in the day; we could not work when we are in different places. When
ones misses the class session he/she will face difficulties to understand the lesson
because the only key learning materials are the instructor notes on the class.”
“The instructors stopped giving individual and group assignments to us because they
could not find the time to give face-to-face feedback. The only way of course
assessment is two exams per semester. Furthermore, there are no collaborations
between students to interchange knowledge between each other.”
So, while the Libyan students appreciate the difficulties of the Libyan education
system, they are opening up to alternatives that could offer improvements. The
task is to convince them that e-learning is a viable alternative; well trained
teachers with a positive outlook on ICT are likely to play a vital role in this task.
Nonetheless, specialist training is necessary to improve teacher awareness of ICT
52
and its uses. This training will play a dual role: it will improve their own attitudes
towards ICT and e-learning and, in turn, will increase student interest and
motivation (Rhema & Miliszewska, 2010).
E-education capacity building
While instructors play a vital role in the educational process, most of the
instructors in Libya are not familiar with e-learning and they need training. The
government has acknowledged the need and provided continuing intensive
training courses for instructors through the General Centre for Teacher Training.
The Centre also provides workshops for educators to explore the role of e-learning
in response to the teaching and learning needs, and to focus more on how to build
a consolidated approach to e-learning for capacity development. According to the
2008 report of The General People’s Committee of Education, “the Centre has
trained thousands of teachers and inspectors, social workers, laboratory
technicians, and schools principals, and also plans to re-skill and up-skill more
than 15,000 teachers in various scientific and educational fields at different
levels”. Another centre, the Libyan Dutch Training Centre, was completed in
Tripoli in 2010 with the aim of providing services to upgrade the qualifications of
teachers and graduates in the field of technology.
The training programmes are considered a vital starting point in the development
of e-learning in Libya. While they have a generally positive impact on the
development of the Libyan education sector, they specifically encourage the use
of e-learning and the adoption of its tools and technologies to facilitate wider
access to learning and improvement of educational achievements in Libya (Rhema
& Miliszewska, 2010).
The Libyan government also offers opportunities for students to complete their
higher and further education studies overseas; currently, more than 5,000 Libyan
students supported by full government scholarships are studying abroad in the
UK, Ireland, Germany, Canada, the USA, Malaysia, Indonesia and Australia. In
53
addition, the government provides further educational support to nearly 1,000
students who have excelled in their studies in targeted disciplines of national
importance; these high-achieving students are provided with full scholarships to
pursue undergraduate and postgraduate studies and lead the development of model
educational establishments for the future Libyan generations (Rhema &
Miliszewska, 2010). In May 2013 the Libyan Ministry of Higher Education and
Scientific Research announced that it would send abroad over 1,000 technical
college staff to complete Master’s degrees and over 550 academics to undertake
PhD studies; a pilot programme to fund and support research for development
purposes was also launched (Sawahel, 2013b).
Successful initiatives in neighbouring countries
There is a need to document and share the best practices in the field of e-learning
with other countries; countries that are interested in introducing e-learning and
countries that have successfully implemented it in their own education systems.
Development partners, particularly organisations that promote e-learning, can
facilitate the process of documentation and organise events to share and exchange
best practices and experiences.
Many organisations in Libyan neighbouring countries such as Egypt and Tunisia
have implemented and continue to expand various e-learning initiatives. Egypt is
a particularly interesting case, in that its technological infrastructure is similar to
that of Libya (relative to population), as illustrated in Table 2.4. However, Egypt
has a much greater number of Internet users (15% of total population) as
compared to Libya (5%). On the other hand, Libya has a greater number of mobile
phone users (74% of total population) as compared to Egypt (56%).
54
Table 2.4. ICT usage in Libya and Egypt (adapted from The World Factbook, 2009)
Libya (pop. 6.5 M) Egypt (pop. 74 M) N % N % Telephones - main lines in use (2008) 1,033,000 16 12,011,000 16 Telephones - mobile cellular (2008) 4,828,000 74 41,272,000 56 Internet users (2008) 323,000 5 11,414,000 15 Internet hosts (2009) 11,751 0.2 177,443 0.2
In Egypt, numerous e-learning projects have been launched by a number of
government universities since 2002. These projects include initiatives at the Cairo
University, a nation-wide Higher Education Enhancement Project funded by the
World Bank, UNESCO endorsed open source platform for higher education, and
the MEDA and Tempus projects supported by the European Commission
Directorate General for Education and Culture (Abdel-Wahab, 2008).
In Tunisia, the e-learning team of the Higher School of Sciences and Techniques
of Tunis has worked for several years on designing the first Tunisian e-learning
platform called Waheeb. Waheeb provides a fully integrated student environment,
LMS, and a range of tools for custom content creation and publication.
Importantly for Libya, Waheeb can be used completely in Arabic; it also supports
English and French (Chorfi & Jemini, 2002; Rhema & Miliszewska, 2010).
2.7. SUCCESS OF E-LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Success, in dictionaries, means the accomplishment of an aim or purpose. The
success of a programme can mean meeting the human needs for using such a
programme. A large number of research studies have investigated the evaluation
of e-learning success; these studies reported that the criteria used for measuring e-
learning success are numerous and influence one another (Tzeng, Chiang & Li,
2007).
An e-learning programme is perceived to be successful if it fulfils and satisfies the
needs, meets the expectations, and addresses the concerns of its stakeholders
55
(Clayton, Elliott, Saravani, Greene, & Huntington, 2008; Elliott & Clayton, 2007;
Merisotis & Phipps, 1999; Wagner, Hassanein, & Head, 2008). Users (students
and instructors) will perceive e-learning as successful if they recognise that it
would help them improve their learning and teaching effectiveness and efficiency;
their initial perceived satisfaction with e-learning will determine whether they will
use the system continually.
Students perceive an e-learning programme to be successful if they:
• have a high degree of flexibility in when and where they participate in
Internet-based courses (Arbaugh, 2002; Arbaugh & Duray, 2002; Elliott &
Clayton, 2007; McGorry, 2003);
• have convenient access to technical assistance and technical support staff;
• have convenient access to institutional resources that facilitate their
completion of the course;
• feel comfortable with the technology (Masrom, 2007; McGorry, 2003);
• have an opportunity to interact with their instructors and other students
when and where they need; and,
• are willing to participate in another similarly designed program (McGorry,
2003).
Instructors perceive an e-learning programme to be successful if:
• their students are motivated (Wagner et al., 2008), accomplish assessment
tasks, communicate and interact with instructors and other learners,
participate in discussion (Liaw, 2008), and successfully complete the e-
learning course (Levy, 2007);
• the programme content meets the students’ needs; and,
• the institution provides the technical infrastructure and support (Wagner et
al., 2008).
56
2.7.1. Determinants of e-learning success
Attwell (2006) developed a comprehensive framework for evaluating and
researching the success of e-learning projects and programmes. The framework
includes the following five major clusters of variables: individual learner
variables, environmental variables, technology variables, contextual variables and
pedagogic variables.
According to Roca, Chiu, and Martinez (2006), e-learning qualities can be
grouped into three categories: information quality, system quality, and service
quality; they also suggested that the information quality had the most significant
influence on users’ satisfaction. Selim (2007) identified instructor characteristics,
student characteristics, technology, and support as the vital success keys of e-
learning. Gil (2008) classified the critical incidents affecting e-learning
satisfaction into four groups: administration, functionality, instruction, and
interaction; among those groups, interaction and instruction were identified as the
most important determinants of effectiveness. On the other hand, Castán and
Martínez (2006) focused on services as determinants of excellence in online
learning. They identified four types of services:
(1) essential services, comprising teaching-related indicators (the knowledge,
experience, teaching capacity of the lecturer; feedback; and the speed and
efficacy in solving doubts related to the teaching);
(2) support services (administration services);
(3) complementary services (virtual spaces for student interaction such as
forums and discussion groups); and,
(4) user interface services (uploading and downloading of pages, navigation
speed, and connections with the virtual campus).
57
2.7.2. Measures of e-learning success
An important question for institutions is how the success of an e-learning
programme is assessed. DeLone and McLean (1992) developed a comprehensive
measurement instrument comprising six dimensions: (1) system quality, (2)
information quality, (3) use, (4) user satisfaction, (5) individual impact, and (6)
organisational impact; this model served as a basis for the development of other
subsequent models. In 2003, DeLone and McLean (2003) suggested an amended
Information Systems (IS) success model and evaluated its usefulness in light of
the dramatic alterations in IS practice, particularly the emergence and consequent
explosive growth of Internet-based applications. Their amended model included
six measurements: (1) information quality, (2) system quality, (3) service quality,
(4) use/intention to use, (5) user satisfaction, and (6) net benefits.
Wang, Wang and Shee (2007) used DeLone and McLean’s model to measure e-
learning systems’ success; they focused mainly on the perspective of the e-learner,
and used the six IS success dimensions to develop and validate a measurement
model of e-learning systems success. Their instrument provided not only an
overall assessment but also had the capability to investigate the aspects of e-
learning systems that are most problematic (Wang et al., 2007). Lee and Lee
(2008) suggested a modified IS success model considering IS attributes and self-
regulated learning attributes to measure e-learning effectiveness; this model is
composed of independent variables, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of
use of an Learning Management System (LMS), satisfaction with learning
content, and interaction between teacher and learner. Samarasinghe and Tretiakov
(2009) also developed a multi-dimensional model to measure e-learning system’s
success; it consisted of four dimensions: (1) system use by learners, (2) learner
satisfaction, (3) learning effectiveness, and (4) continuance intention (the
intention of learners to continue relying on e-learning components in courses they
would take in the future).
58
Hsieh (2004) suggested that e-learning success evaluation criteria must
incorporate learning theories, relative website design, course design, and learning
satisfaction theories to form an integrated evaluation model. Masrom (2007)
focused on the individual users’ acceptance of e-learning as an effective learning
tool and identified the perceived usefulness of technology and the perceived ease
of use as factors influencing the user’s attitude towards using technology. Tzeng
and colleagues (2007) reported that the multi-criteria decision making (MCDM)
model is a suitable approach for evaluating e-learning success.
Student learning outcomes are often used to measure the success of e-learning
programmes. Many researches into the learning outcomes of students found that
using technology in learning improves learning outcomes (Song & Bosselman,
2011; Yang, 2009). Kekkonen-Moneta and Moneta (2002) reported that using
technology applications such as email and online practice quizzes have resulted in
improved learning outcomes.
Learners’ satisfaction with e-learning has been used often as a method to measure
e-learning success. Several empirical studies have been conducted on students’
learning along with student satisfaction (Song & Bosselman, 2011). A
comprehensive literature review including technology integration, computer-
based communication, and distance education was undertaken by Arbaugh
(2000a) for the purpose of understanding five broad factors that may influence
student satisfaction with Internet-based courses: perceived usefulness of the
course, flexibility, interaction, student experience, and engagement (Arbaugh
2000a, 2000b, 2000c). Levy (2007) stated that “students’ satisfaction with e-
learning is a significant factor in measuring the effectiveness of e-learning” (p.
189). Song and Bosselman (2011) also identified student satisfaction as a good
measure of e-learning success. However, Garrison and Kanuka (2004) pointed out
the need for a systematic evaluation of satisfaction and success of the teaching,
learning, technology, and administration of new e-learning courses.
59
2.8. E-LEARNING SUCCESS AS A FUNCTION OF STUDENT AND INSTRUCTOR EXPERIENCES AND PERSPECTIVES
The success of e-learning adoption and implementation depends on a multitude of
factors among which, student and instructor experiences and perceptions of e-
learning play a major role (Lee, 2010; Mosakhani & Jamporazmey, 2010; Roca &
Gagné, 2008; Selim, 2007; Wu, Tennyson, & Hsia, 2010).
2.8.1. Student access to infrastructure
In 2002, a survey was carried out at the Pakistan Virtual University in which 387
undergraduate students in their final year participated. The study concluded that
over 90% of the students viewed learning through satellite TV and the Internet as
highly beneficial (Hussain, 2007). The Pakistani students held these positive
views despite having very limited access to the necessary infrastructure.
According to Hussain (2007), most students in the country relied on Internet cafes
to meet their online learning needs. However, such facilities were very limited in
number; for instance, five of these cafes served in excess of 10,000 people.
Consequently, the students participating in the study reported difficulties in
accessing computers, suitable learning environments, libraries, and professional
mentors. It also emerged from the study that the majority of the students
experienced dizziness, headaches and computer vision syndrome due to long
periods spent on using the computer in order to make up for the limited
accessibility (Hussain, 2007).
Similar infrastructure limitations were reported at Terbuka University in
Indonesia following a study that involved over 300,000 students. According to
Belawati and Zuhairi (2007), students as well as education systems relied heavily
on courier services, post, and telephones for distance learning. At the Bangladesh
Open University, a vast majority of distance education students in rural, urban and
suburban areas relied for their learning activities on print, face-to-face tutorials,
audiocassettes, radio and TV broadcasts (Belawati & Zuhairi, 2007).
60
Students in the developing countries are increasingly utilising Web 2.0
technologies, mainly blogging, social networking, and email, to share learning
information and materials (Sighama, Kalema, & Kekwaletswe, 2012). Requiring
only a computer and an Internet connection, these technologies are considered
particularly valuable. Apart from computers, Internet enabled mobile devices are
also used to access blogs and social networking sites for learning purposes.
2.8.2. Student technical knowledge and skills
Over the last few decades, the use of computing devices in educational institutions
in developing countries has increased considerably (Trucano, Hawkins, &
Iglesias, 2012). The use of the Internet, computers, and mobile-based technologies
has generated a great deal of interest among students, who use them for
educational purposes as well as social interactions and entertainment; this at least
indicates a degree of familiarity with these technologies and skills for using them
(Trucano et al., 2012).
Student skills in the use of the Internet-enabled mobile devices and computers to
access blogs, wikis, and social networking sites are on the increase, although most
students have limited access to the necessary devices. A good example can be
Pakistan which lacks the necessary ICT learning facilities, yet its students show
good e-learning skills and knowledge. According to Hussain (2007), students
participating in an e-learning study reported high levels of ICT skills but indicated
difficulties in accessing ICT facilities.
Al-Wahab and El-Masry (2010) described a positive usage pattern of mobile
technologies among South African youths. A 2009 study involving 500 students
showed high usage of the Internet and mobile technologies for personal
communications, instant messaging, downloading songs, videos and games, as
well as searching the Internet. This indicated that the students had the skills and
interest in using mobile devices.
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2.8.3. Student perceptions of usefulness of technology
Student perceptions of the usefulness of technology-based tools for e-learning
vary and can be influenced by variables such as gender, age, previous experience
in the use of computers, preferred learning style, and technology acceptance
(Tagoe, 2012). However, regardless of these variables, students in developing
countries generally view technology-based tools as a great aid in their learning
activities. For example, Tagoe (2012) reported that many undergraduate students
at the University of Ghana perceived technology-based tools as easy to use and
highly useful in their learning activities.
The findings of the research undertaken at the University of Ghana (Tagoe, 2012),
were reinforced by the findings of a similar study carried out at the Abant Izzet
Baysal University in Turkey (Tekinarslan, 2009). The study involved 741
undergraduate students and investigated their perceptions of self-efficacy, web-
based learning, and usability. The participating students reported that the Internet-
enabled computers and mobile devices were very useful and convenient as
learning tools. Online learning students at the Iran University of Science and
Technology also perceived the use of computer and Internet-related technologies
as greatly beneficial to their learning (Yaghoubi, Mohammadi, Iravani & Attaran,
2008). The students identified online surfing, data banks, email, and Microsoft
Office tools as essential tools for their learning activities.
Generally, students in developing countries perceive technology-based tools as
highly useful in many learning aspects. Their strong positive perceptions can be
attributed to the wide array of advantages these tools offer (Sighama et al., 2012).
Though there are learners whose perceptions are not as positive, they are a clear
minority (Yaghoubi et al., 2008). The negative perceptions have been attributed to
limited access to the necessary devices and lack of e-learning skills (Sighama et
al., 2012).
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2.8.4. Student attitudes towards e-learning
University students in developing countries generally have favourable attitudes
towards e-learning, and many students believe that e-learning positively impacts
their motivation and self-esteem (El-Gamal & El-Aziz, 2011; Nassoura, 2012).
Students in Pakistan’s Virtual University are motivated towards e-learning and
they appreciate the advantages of learning through satellite TV and the Internet
(Hussain, 2007). This is echoed in Iran, where student attitudes largely influence
the adoption of e-learning in the country (Omidinia et al., 2011).
However, in countries where the learning process and adherence to the traditional
practices are inseparable, e-learning is viewed as an interference with the practices
that have been valued for generations. A good example of this scenario is
Botswana. Despite having taken significant steps towards a Western style
economy and urbanisation, the country maintains strong connections to its
traditional roots. According to Brown, Thomas, Merwe and Dyk (2011), students
in Botswana have negative attitudes towards e-learning because they gain most of
their knowledge from their communities and are still strongly embedded in
traditional values. Other researchers suggested that the physical separation of the
learner from the instructor tends to create a feeling of isolation on the part of the
learner leading to negative attitudes (Deb, 2011).
Despite resistance, the attitudes towards e-learning in Botswana and some other
developing countries are gradually improving. As Internet enabled mobile devices
are becoming more and more popular, so is the range of areas in which they are
applied, and this includes e-learning.
2.8.5. Instructor access to infrastructure
In most Sub-Saharan African countries distance education is mostly carried out
through print materials and occasional face-to-face sessions. In those countries,
insufficient accessibility to ICT infrastructure at most universities limits the
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instructors’ ability to apply e-technologies to deliver distant education (Nihuka,
2011).
At the Open University of Tanzania (OUT), for instance, student support and
course delivery were based on printed materials; this is according to Nihuka
(2011), who generalised the scenario to include other higher education institutions
in Sub-Saharan Africa that offer distance learning. Instructor access to e-learning
infrastructure was very limited, and instructor and student access to mobile
phones, CDs and DVDs was below 50%. However, since 2004 the technological
infrastructure and access to such infrastructure have improved significantly at
OUT. This included the establishment of several computer laboratories at the
OUT headquarters and an increased number of Internet connections, particularly
through Virtual Private Networks (VPN) (Nihuka, 2011). The OUT instructors
gained wide access to a LAN and Voice of Internet Protocol (VoIP). These tools
greatly improved the instructors’ ability to communicate and interact with
students.
In the Middle East region, access to different technologies has improved too. For
example, Qatar is developing and expanding its e-learning facilities (ITP, 2008).
According to Al-Asmari (2005), all the universities in the Arab Gulf countries
provided Internet access for faculty, staff, and students. In addition, most
universities in those countries adopted Internet-based LMSs to supplement face-
to-face courses (Taha, 2007). According to Gasaymeh (2009), instructors at two
Jordanian public universities reported high level of access to computers and the
Internet; the universities had several computer laboratories and all computers in
these laboratories were connected to the internet.
Generally, it can be noted that instructor accessibility to infrastructure and Web
2.0 technologies in developing countries varies; it continues to improve thanks to
national efforts to integrate technology into the education systems.
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2.8.6. Instructor technical knowledge and skills
Developing countries are in the process of implementing ICT policies and
enhancing skills and competence in using technology-based tools are among the
chief objectives of these policies. While instructors are expected to play a key role
in the implementation of the ICT policies, presently only a small proportion of
instructors have sufficient knowledge and skills to use e-learning tools (Nihuka,
2011). In this context, mobile learning appears to be an exception. The increasing
accessibility of mobile devices in developing countries has been accompanied by
the development of skills that have enabled instructors to apply them with ease in
their teaching; the use of mobile devices does not require advanced skills or
expertise, and the necessary skills are easy to learn.
While the up-skilling of instructors in the use of ICT for teaching and learning is
progressing in developing countries, most of the instructors are yet to experience
the full capacity of e-learning tools which, in turn, limits their opportunities to
develop a wide range of e-learning skills. Nihuka (2011) noted that the use of ICT
by instructors in educational institutions does not necessarily imply its use for
teaching and learning. For instance, in Sub-Saharan African countries the main
purposes for which ICT infrastructure is used by instructors are administrative
tasks rather than the delivery of education to students (Nihuka, 2011).
2.8.7. Instructor perceptions of usefulness of technology
Instructor perceptions are influenced by the quality of their experiences with
technology-based tools. Various factors, positive as well as negative, can
determine if instructors will perceive ICTs to be useful in their teaching activities.
The positive factors include the belief that ICTs will: make lessons more
interesting, improve the presentation of lesson materials, create a feeling of
prestige, increase student confidence, make lessons more enjoyable, and make
administrative tasks more efficient. The negative factors include the belief that
ICTs will: make lessons more difficult and less fun, reduce student motivation,
65
impair student learning, restrict lesson content, and consume too much time for
lesson preparation (Nihuka, 2011).
Generally, the instructors perceive as useful the use of computer, and web-based
and mobile-based technologies in their interactions with students; the increasing
adoption of e-learning tools for delivering course materials confirms their positive
perceptions of the usefulness of these tools (Buabeng-Andoh, 2012). Instructors at
the Open University of Tanzania perceive e-learning as a method of facilitating
teaching and the delivery of educational content, as well as fostering global
participation (Nihuka, 2011).
Lack of sufficient competence, skills, and experience has been noted as a factor
that leads to negative perceptions among instructors. Instructors who lack the
necessary skills are likely to perceive ICTs as complicated, difficult, and
ineffective (Selim, 2007). Nihuka (2011) further stated that the infrastructural
limitations of the developing countries make instructors perceive technology-
based tools as unreliable and inadequate for their teaching activities.
Consequently, perceptions of the usefulness of e-learning technologies for
teaching vary among various groups of instructors. Importantly, those who have
sufficient experience, knowledge and skills perceive e-learning as an essential
element in the educational systems of the developing countries.
2.8.8. Instructor attitudes towards e-learning
Attitudes are often regarded as an important determinant of driving a positive
change. According to a research study conducted in Jordan by Gasaymeh (2009),
the most important factors influencing instructor attitudes were their perceived
value of Internet-based distance education, the level of computer and Internet
access, the level of institutional support, their readiness for time commitments
required for Internet-based distance education, and their level of computer and
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Internet skills. Instructors skilled at using e-learning are likely to have a
favourable attitude (Selim, 2007).
According to Adeyinka, Adedeji, Toyobo, Adika and Adeyinka (2007), various
developing countries are taking steps to improve attitudes towards technology use
among instructors in educational institutions. They note that unfavourable
attitudes towards technologies stem largely from the lack of knowledge and
expertise pertinent to their use. They state that without such expertise and
knowledge, it is more difficult for the instructors to evaluate how ICTs are used
and the role they play in teaching. As a result, instructor confidence and readiness
to use ICTs are hindered. Thus, increasing instructor training can help reform their
attitudes towards the use of ICTs for teaching and administrative tasks (Adeyinka
et al., 2007; Fu, 2013).
2.9. CONCLUSION
E-learning is rapidly becoming an essential method of delivering education thanks
to the proliferation of ICTs; even traditional education systems in developing
countries have started shifting towards new methods of teaching and learning. In
many developing nations, including Libya, e-learning remains an unexplored
entity which has prompted research studies to illuminate e-learning developments.
The literature review presented in this Chapter outlined and discussed the context
of ICT and e-learning in higher education in developing countries and in Libya.
The literature on student and instructor experiences and perceptions of e-learning
indicated that high levels of satisfaction and positive attitudes towards e-learning
tend to contribute to e-learning success.
Numerous studies have focused on determining the individual, course, contextual
and technological challenges of the adaptation of ICT and e-learning in
developing countries. Literature sources dealing with students’ and instructors’
experiences of e-learning revealed satisfactory level of quality learning/teaching
67
for both groups. Research related to students’ and instructors’ perceptions has
focused on determining their level of satisfaction and attitudes. It has been
suggested that a high level of satisfactory and positive attitude towards ICT and e-
learning among all concerned parties are often considered to be the main factors
contributing to e-learning effectiveness.
Chapter 3 presents the methodology and research design and discusses the
approaches used to generate data on student and instructor experiences and
perceptions of e-learning used in this study.
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Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1. INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2 presented a review of literature pertinent to the current study. It
provided an overview of higher education context in Libya and other developing
countries and discussed the state of e-learning in those countries. This chapter
presents the methodological approaches used in this research. Section 3.2
describes the research design; Section 3.3 identifies the participants and settings;
Section 3.4 describes the data collection instruments and strategies used in this
study; Section 3.5 covers ethical considerations associated with data collection;
Section 3.6 describes the methods used for data analysis; and, Section 3.7
summarises the main points of the chapter.
3.2. RESEARCH DESIGN
A mixed methods approach was used as the primary research design in this study.
Several definitions for mixed methods have been proposed in the literature.
According to early adopters of mixed methods, Greene, Caracelli and Graham
(1989), mixed methods designs are “those that include at least one quantitative
method (designed to collect numbers) and one qualitative method (designed to
collect words)…” (p. 256).
Creswell (2009) discussed the most important aspects that influence the design of
a mixed methods study. These aspects are presented and explained in Table 3.1.
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Table 3.1. Aspects influencing the design of a mixed methods study (adapted from Creswell, 2009, p. 207).
Timing Weighting Mixing Theorising
No sequence concurrent
(qualitative and quantitative data gathered at the same time)
Equal
(equal emphasis on qualitative and quantitative data)
Integrating
(merging the quantitative and quantitative data)
Explicit
(guiding theories are made explicit)
Implicit
(guiding theories are made implicit)
Sequential Qualitative first
(data collected in phases – qualitative first)
Qualitative
(the emphasis is on qualitative data)
Connecting
(the quantitative and qualitative research are connected between a data analysis of the first phase of research and the data collection of the second phase of research)
Sequential Quantitative first
(data collected in phases – quantitative first)
Quantitative
(the emphasis is on quantitative data)
Embedding
(a secondary form of data is embedded within a larger study having a different form of data)
Following Creswell’s classification of mixed methods strategies, this research
study employed a sequential explanatory design. In this type of design, findings
from the initial data collection phase inform the subsequent phase of the enquiry.
The first phase of this study involved the collection and analysis of quantitative
data, followed by the collection and analysis of qualitative data in the second
phase. The design of this study is illustrated in Figure 3.1; the capitalised entries
for the quantitative phase (QUAN) indicate the emphasis on the quantitative
rather than qualitative (qual) data.
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Figure 3.1. Visual representation of a sequential explanatory design.
The quantitative phase of the research was based on a cross-sectional survey –
data was collected from participants at a single point in time to assess how their
experiences with technology-based learning correlated with their attitudes and
perceptions of e-learning.
The analyses of survey results were followed up by short phone interviews
conducted with one type of participants (instructors) only. The interviews enabled
further exploration of issues related to the integration of technology into teaching
and learning.
Chute, Thompson and Hancock (1999) stated that qualitative research facilitates
the exploration of a specific purpose as deeply as possible. Thus, the number of
interviewees is smaller and interviews are less formally controlled. Interviews
“allow greater spontaneity and adaptation of the interaction between the
researcher and the study participant” (Mack, Woodsong, MacQueen, Guest, &
Namey, 2005, p. 4); they generally involve open-ended questions that help elicit
meaningful insights. Participants can use natural language to express themselves
so that in-depth information may be gathered directly from their own words
(Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2000).
3.3. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTINGS
Participants in this research study were students and instructors from four
engineering departments in two Libyan higher education institutions, the
University of Tripoli and the University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi. Table 3.2 provides
QUAN Data
Collection
QUAN Data
Analysis
qual Data
Collection
qual Data
Analysis
Interpretation of
Entire Analysis
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general information about the participating departments including student and
instructor population as at 2013 (sourced from the respective university websites).
Table 3.2. Characteristics of participating institutions. University of Tripoli University of Al-Jabal Al-
Gharbi Location Urban Regional Established 1957 1985 Student population 115,000 20,000 Instructor population 1,800 1,000 Faculty of Engineering Faculty of Engineering
Established 1961 1991 Student population 8,500 1,300 Instructor population 300 100
Group A Elec. Eng.
Group B Petr. Eng.
Group C Elec. Eng.
Group D Petr. Eng.
Established 1961 1970 1991 2004 Student population 1,200 700 150 160 Instructor population 80 12 20 13
The choice of participants from the engineering departments was based on the
need for the respondents to have experienced using ICT for learning and teaching.
In the Libyan context, engineering students and instructors are generally regarded
as the most frequent and advanced users of technology and their views were
considered to be particularly valuable.
3.3.1. University of Tripoli
University of Tripoli, located in the capital city, Tripoli, was established in 1957.
It is a government-funded university, and one of the oldest and largest universities
in Libya. The University was renamed to Al-Fateh University in 1976. After the
battle of Tripoli and the downfall of the Gaddafi government in 2011, the
University returned to its original name. The University offers qualifications in
the disciplines of engineering and science, agriculture, education, medical science,
accounting, economics, management, information systems, law, languages, social
science, political science, Arabic and Islamic studies, and arts and media.
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Throughout 2011, the escalation of the armed conflict in Libya has impeded the
provision of educational services at the University. The conflict has resulted in
extended closures of campuses, displacement of students and instructors, and
destruction of educational infrastructure and equipment.
The Faculty of Engineering was established in 1961 with the assistance of
UNESCO (Tripoli University Website, 2011; Wikipedia, 2013); it was the first
engineering faculty in Libya. The Faculty offers qualifications in various
engineering disciplines including: civil, mechanical and industrial, electrical and
electronics, architecture, petroleum, chemical, geological, mining, aerospace,
nuclear, metallurgical, computer, marine, and management engineering.
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering (Group A)
Established in 1961, the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering is
the oldest department of the Faculty of Engineering. As one of the leading
departments in the Faculty, the Department has contributed to the preparation of
the necessary engineering workforce and provided important scientific and
advisory services to the Libyan industry and community.
Department of Petroleum Engineering (Group B)
The Department of Petroleum Engineering, founded in 1970, offers courses in oil
exploration, oil and natural gas processing, and environment and safety controls in
oil industry. The Department focuses on producing graduate engineers for various
areas of the Libyan petroleum industry. Since the petroleum industry has
increasingly dominated the whole economy, and the development of Libya has
been greatly dependent on the oil sector, the Libyan government has heavily
invested in the sector including training centres and petroleum institutes. Through
government support, the Department of Petroleum Engineering owns a suite of
fully-equipped laboratories which support both theoretical and practical
disciplines.
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3.3.2. University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi
The University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi is located almost 100km southwest of the
capital Tripoli. Established in 1985 as a branch of 7th April University in Zawia, it
became an independent university in 2004. It is a government-funded university
and one of the biggest regional universities in Libya. The University includes
several faculties (located in different cities in the state of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi) and
each faculty is divided into several departments. The University provides courses
in the disciplines of engineering, medical science, accounting, economics,
management, information systems, law, languages, arts and media, social science,
political science, and Arabic and Islamic studies.
In 2010, Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi University engaged in collaboration with Salford
University in the United Kingdom in order to bring radical improvements in the
field of education and curriculum development (Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi University
Website, 2011). However, the 2011 armed conflict in Libya hindered the
operation and progress of the University and resulted in attrition of students and
instructors, extended closures of campuses, and destruction of educational
infrastructure.
The Faculty of Engineering was established in 1991 in the city of Jado, and
moved to the city of Gharian in 1999. The Faculty offers undergraduate
qualifications in various engineering disciplines including electrical and
electronic, petroleum, civil, mechanical and industrial, and geological
engineering; postgraduate qualifications are offered only in electrical and
mechanical engineering.
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering (Group C)
Established in 1991, the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering is
the heart of the Faculty of Engineering. The Department aspires to serve the
industry, the profession, and the community at large, and to gain regional and
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international recognition through providing quality engineering education,
carrying out research programs, and providing exceptional community service.
Department of Petroleum Engineering (Group D)
The Department of Petroleum Engineering, founded in 2004, offers courses in oil
exploration, oil and natural gas processing, and environment and safety controls in
oil industry. The Department focuses on producing graduate engineers for various
areas of the Libyan petroleum industry. It aims to build good scientific
relationships with many research centres and institutes to enable practical work
experience for students. The Department conducts research associated with the
extraction of natural resources, and plays a leading role in providing and applying
modern technologies aimed at increasing the petroleum reserves of Libya.
3.4. DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS AND STRATEGIES
A paper-based survey questionnaire was the primary data collection instrument
used in this study. Surveys are considered to be an economical, reasonable and
trustworthy method for collecting data from a large number of individuals who all
respond to identical questions; survey administration can be managed in person or
mailed, if the researcher is far from the participants (Cohen et al., 2000).
A self-completion questionnaire was selected as the most appropriate instrument
for this study for the instrument’s simplicity and to enable the collection of data in
a relatively quick and inexpensive manner (Mishra & Panda, 2007). The fixed-
alternative format of such an instrument gives the respondents specific alternative
responses enabling them to choose the one closest to their own point of view.
These types of questions are easier for respondents to answer than open-ended
types. The standardisation of alternative responses enables comparability of
answers, which in turn facilitates statistical analysis and interpretation of data
(Sampson, 2003). Data collected through questionnaires is likely to be more
uniform and accurate than that obtained by other methods such as interviews. The
participants complete the questionnaires under the condition of anonymity, hence
75
providing more honest and direct replies (Seliger & Shohamy, 2000). However,
this method of data collection requires the gathering of large samples which might
be logistically challenging, particularly if participants reside in other countries.
3.4.1. Survey design
In this study, questionnaires for students and instructors contained closed
multiple-choice questions and several open-ended questions. The multiple choice
questions, measured on a 5-point Likert scale, invited the participants to rate their
level of agreement with various statements, while the open-ended (qualitative)
questions enabled the participants to provide more detailed information and
additional comments.
Questions in the survey instruments were grouped in eight sections (Appendices B
and C):
• Section 1, ‘Demographics’, collected data about participants’ demographic
characteristics.
• Section 2, ‘Access to Technology’, asked questions pertaining to the
participants’ level of access to different types of technologies (mobile
phones, computers, memory sticks, digital cameras, video (3G), web cam
and the Internet) outside of the university campus.
• Section 3, ‘Use of Technology’, provided participants with a list of
technology based tools (computer-based technology, web-based
technology, and mobile-based technology) that might be used in their
university studies/teaching or daily life. The participants were asked to
indicate how they used various technologies and rate their level of skill in
these technologies. In particular, they were asked to indicate if they had
used these technologies for ‘learning/teaching purposes’, ‘other purposes’
(e.g. entertainment), or both. If participants did not know a technology,
they could choose the answer ‘do not know this technology’. If they were
76
familiar with the technology, they could use a rating scale (from “1” ‘not
skilled at all’; to “5” ‘very skilled’) to indicate their level of skill.
• Section 4, ‘Perceived Usefulness of Technology in Learning’, provided
participants with a list of various technology-based tools that might be
useful in their learning/ teaching. Participants were asked to use a rating
scale (from “1” ‘strongly disagree’ to “5” ‘strongly agree’, and “6” for ‘do
not know’) to indicate the degree of usefulness of these tools to support
their learning/teaching. In addition, participants were asked to list three
ways in which the technologies they used in everyday life could help them
in their learning/teaching.
• Section 5, ‘Challenges of ICT and e-Learning Practice’, asked participants
to list the challenges that they faced as students or instructors when using
ICT and e-learning.
• Section 6, ‘Technological Characteristics and Technical Support’, asked
participants to rate the technological characteristics and technical support
available in their institution. The participants were requested to rate the
provided statements using a rating scale (from “1” ‘very poor’ to “5” ‘very
good’) to indicate their level of satisfaction with technology.
• Section 7, ‘Attitude towards ICT and E-learning’, consisted of positive
statements to determine participants’ attitudes towards ICT and e-learning.
The respondents were asked to use a rating scale (from “1” ‘strongly
disagree’ to “5” ‘strongly agree’) to indicate their perceived attitudes
towards ICT and e-learning in learning/teaching.
• The final section, Section 8, asked participants to add any additional
comments.
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An extensive search was conducted to find a valid/published survey. Questions of
the surveys used in this study were developed from different published studies.
Sections 2, 3, and 4 of the survey were adapted from a published survey
developed by researchers in the Centre for Studies in Higher Education (CSHE)
and the Biomedical Multimedia Unit at the University of Melbourne (Kennedy et
al., 2008). This survey was used also by the Centre for Innovation in Learning and
Teaching at Victoria University in a pilot project, conducted to obtain empirical
data regarding first year students’ access to, and use of, technology (Sztendur &
Milne, 2009).
Section 5 of the survey comprised one open-ended question developed by the
researcher. Section 6 was adapted from a published survey called the
Teleconference Evaluation Questionnaire (TEQ), which measured student
satisfaction with technology (Biner, 1993). Lastly, the researcher developed
Section 7 from a number tools used in studies investigating teacher attitudes
towards ICT and e-learning (Gasaymeh, 2009; Mishra & Panda, 2007).
3.4.2. Sample size requirements
The number of surveys to be distributed was calculated using Cochran’s
correction formula for categorical data (Bartlett, Kotrlik, & Higgins, 2001;
Cochran, 1977):
𝑛1 =𝑛0
1 + 𝑛0/Population
where:
𝑛0 = required return sample size according to Cochran's formula𝑛1 = required return sample size because sample > 5% 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
Table 3.3 presents sample size requirements for given populations of participating
students, assuming an alpha level of 0.05 and the margin of error of 0.05
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(recommended for categorical data, Krejcie & Morgan, 1970). Table 3.4 presents
sample size requirements for given population sizes of participating instructors.
Table 3.3. Students – minimum sample size for a given population size for categorical data (margin of error = 0.05, alpha = 0.05)
University Group Population size
Minimum sample size
Sample size adjusted for return rate of
50% Tripoli Group A, Elec. Eng. 1150 288 576
Group B, Petr. Eng. 712 250 500 Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi Group C, Elec. Eng. 151 109 151*
Group D, Petr. Eng. 160 113 160* *Truncated at the population size.
Table 3.4. Instructors – minimum sample size for a given population size for categorical data (margin of error = 0.05, alpha = 0.05)
University Group Population size
Minimum sample size
Sample size adjusted for return rate of
50% Tripoli Group A, Elec. Eng. 81 67 81*
Group B, Petr. Eng. 12 12 12* Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi Group C, Elec. Eng. 19 19 19*
Group D, Petr. Eng. 13 13* 13* *Truncated at the population size.
3.4.3. Pilot survey
Piloting a survey is essential to verify the respondents’ understanding of the
survey questions. A pilot survey is a minor scale methodological test that provides
an opportunity to check the design of the survey and make adjustments before
conducting the actual study (Curwin & Slater, 2008; Teijlingen & Hundley,
2001). Pilot surveys can assist in confirming the clarity of items, layout, and
instructions, and the suitability of response categories for closed questions (Cohen
et al., 2000; Robson, 2002).
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A pilot of the surveys used in this study was conducted with several engineering
students and instructors from the University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi in Libya. The
surveys were translated from English to Arabic to ensure that the participants
would fully understand the survey questions. The final Arabic version was
reviewed by another native Arabic speaker. This step was crucial as the intended
participants of this research study had a limited command of English.
The researcher’s contact at the University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi has volunteered
to facilitate the data collection for the study, including the pilot survey. Data from
the pilot survey was collected over a period of two weeks in February 2011. An
email with soft copies of the student and instructor surveys was sent out to the
data collection facilitator. The facilitator printed out the surveys and handed them
out to 20 students and 10 instructors. A total number of 15 student responses and
5 instructor responses were collected (a response rate of 67%).
The respondents’ feedback helped to improve the quality of the surveys in terms
of the content and comprehensibility of the scales. For example, referring to
available answers, an amendment was required in Section 3 (‘Use of Technology’/
of both surveys, as the majority of participants did not respond to (إستخدام التكنولوجيا
several questions in this section. Upon review, a new option, ‘I do not know this
technology’, was included.
The pilot survey also enabled improvements to the Arabic version of the
questionnaires. In translating the survey from English to Arabic, the researcher
endeavoured to select expressions in Arabic which best represented the intended
English meaning and applied to the local Libyan context. However, the pilot
survey helped to reveal some translational shortcomings. For example, the term “I
believe / أؤمن” used in 5TSection 7 5T (‘Attitude towards ICT and e-learning’/ موقفك اتجاه
was translated verbatim, without ,(تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصاالت والتعليم اإللكتروني
paying special attention to the selection of an appropriate choice. One of the
respondents suggested that this Arabic term in the Libyan culture was mostly used
80
in a religious context, and that the term “I believe/ أثق” should be used instead; the
survey was amended accordingly.
3.4.4. Survey validity and reliability
Validity and reliability are considered two vital criteria and fundamental
measurements to evaluate the quality of a survey instrument (Cohen et al., 2000;
Merriam, 2001).
Validity
Measurement validity refers to the extent to which an instrument measures what it
is intended to measure. Validity places an emphasis on the objective of an
instrument and the ability of the researcher to make inferences from the collected
measurements. Any one test may have many forms of validity; however, content
validity is particularly important form the research point of view (DeVellis, 2012;
Knapp, & Mueller, 2010). Content validity concerns the appropriateness of the
content of an instrument (questions) to obtain the required information. It calls for
the questionnaire to be free from items that are irrelevant to the purpose of
measurement. Content validity is most often determined on the basis of expert
judgement (Mertens, 1999). In this study, the instrument items were reviewed by
two researchers with domain expertise and knowledge of the cultural context.
Another form of validity that deserves mention in the context of this research is
external validity, which refers to the extent to which the results of a study can be
generalised to another study. According to Martens (1998), if the “findings from
one study are observed in another situation, the results are said to be generalizable
or externally valid” (p. 67). Determining external validity for an instrument
follows directly from sampling, as a sample should be an accurate representation
of a population. In this study, the use of non-random samples limited the
generalisability of the findings.
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Reliability
Reliability is the extent to which tests elicit consistent responses (Ary, Jacobs, &
Razavieh, 1990; de Vaus, 2002; Miller, n.d.). Reliability is directly related to the
validity of the measure (as shown in Figure 3.2). It is important to note that a test
can be considered reliable but not valid. Generally, validity is considered more
important than reliability, although the most useful instruments are both valid and
reliable.
(a) reliable and valid (b) reliable and invalid
(c) ureliable but valid (d) both unreliable and invalid
Figure 3.2. The relationship between reliability and validity (sourced from de
Vaus, 2002, p. 26).
Cronbach’s Alpha (α) is the most commonly applied statistical index used to
measure the internal consistency reliability (Aron, Aron & Coups, 2005). The
index can be used for scales with items that are dichotomous (yes/no), or for
scales with more than two response choices, for example Likert scales. As with
other correlation statistics, Alpha coefficient ranges in value from 0 to 1 and the
higher the value of the index, the more reliable the generated scale. A minimum
recommended standard of Cronbach’s alpha is 0.7 and preferably closer to 0.9
(Aron et al., 2005; Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 2006).
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The reliability of the quantitative data in this study was determined by finding
Cronbach’s Alpha of the pilot survey data using IBM SPSS v. 21. The reliability
results for the pilot survey are presented in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5. Reliability of pilot survey – assessment of Cronbach’s Alpha.
Scale Number of survey items Cronbach’s Alpha
Access to technology 10 0.75
Use of and skill in technology 25 0.93
Usefulness of technology 22 0.89
Satisfaction with technology 9 0.86
Attitude towards technology 8 0.86
3.4.5. Survey data collection
An email with soft copies of student and instructor surveys was sent out to data
collection facilitator in Libya. The facilitator first distributed letters of invitation
to participate in the survey to all students and instructors in the selected
departments. The facilitator printed out 800 student surveys and 125 instructor
surveys, and handed them out to a total number of 925 participants in December
2011 (shortly after the cessation of the armed conflict in Libya). Participants were
informed in writing of the purpose of the research, conditions of participation, and
that their decision to complete the questionnaire signified agreement to participate
(Appendix A).
Data was collected in 2011/2012. Participants were asked to either fill out the
questionnaire during class time, or return it later to a provided collection box. The
survey took approximately twenty minutes to complete. A total number of 348
surveys from students and 43 from instructors were received (response rates of
44% and 34%, respectively), as presented in Table 3.6.
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Table 3.6. Usable survey numbers in the selected programmes.
University Group Number of student surveys
Number of instructor surveys
Tripoli Group A, Elec. Eng. 125 24 Group B, Petr. Eng. 105 6
Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi Group C, Elec. Eng. 45 7 Group D, Petr. Eng. 73 6
3.4.6. Interviews
Following the analysis of survey results, short phone interviews were conducted
with instructors to obtain a deeper understanding and elaboration of issues arising
from survey responses. To ensure that instructors in Libya would completely
understand the interview questions, the interview questions were translated from
English to Arabic (see Appendix G), and the interviews were conducted in Arabic.
Instructors who had completed the survey were invited to participate in the
interviews; only six instructors accepted the invitation. Instructors who agreed to
be interviewed were asked to email the researcher directly to set-up a mutually
convenient time to conduct the interview. A consent form (Appendix E),
translated into Arabic, was emailed to the instructors with a request to return via
email a signed copy of the form before the interview. The researcher conducted
the interviews herself to be able to monitor the key themes and identify any
problems if such emerged. She took notes in Arabic to best capture the
respondents’ answers, and then translated the Arabic answers into English.
3.5. ETHICAL CONSIDERATION
Permission was obtained from the Human Research Committee at Victoria
University to conduct this research; requisite approvals from the participating
Libyan universities were obtained as part of the Ethics application. A copy of the
approval letter is provided in Appendix H.
84
Participants were informed in writing of the purpose and duration of the research
and the benefits of participation. They were assured of the confidentiality of their
responses and their right to withdraw from the research at any point. An
explanation of whom to contact for answers to pertinent questions about the
research and a statement that participation was voluntary were also included. All
forms with information to participants, as well as consent forms, were provided in
English and in Arabic (Appendices A, D, and E).
Transcriptions of the phone interviews were assigned codes to de-identify
interview participants. Ensuring anonymity was a priority, given the sometimes
sensitive nature of individual opinions and beliefs about particular subjects, and
the researcher’s interest to extract complete and honest information.
3.6. DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURES
The quantitative data from the surveys was analysed using IBM SPSS v. 21.
Descriptive statistics were used to summarise and describe the data collected from
the respondents in the four participating groups. Several statistical models were
developed to relate the response variables to a number of student demographics.
In addition, Pearson Product Moment correlations were used to examine the
relationships between the dependent variable and independent variables that were
measured on an interval scale.
3.6.1. Multiple linear regression model
For response variables measured on an interval scale, a multiple linear regression
model was used:
𝑦𝑖 = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1𝑥1𝑖 + ⋯+ 𝛽𝑘𝑖𝑥 + 𝜀𝑖
where
85
𝑦𝑖 = response variable for the ith respondent𝑥𝑗𝑖 = 𝑗th explanatory variable for the 𝑖th respondent𝜀𝑖 = random error for the 𝑖th respondent, assumed to be Normally distributed
with mean 0 and variance 𝜎2𝛽0 = Intercept, the expected value of 𝑦 when all the explanatory
variables are 0𝛽𝑗 = The regression coefficient for the 𝑗th variable, the expected increase
in 𝑦 for a unit increase in the 𝑗th explanatory variable,holding all other variables constant.
In this study, the explanatory variables were represented as dummy variables. For
example, Gender had two levels Male and Female and the explanatory variable for
Gender was given as:
𝑥1 = �0 if participant is a Female1 if participant is a Male
The regression coefficient for Gender, 𝛽1, represented the expected increase in the
response for Male participants as compared to Female participants. A positive
coefficient meant that Male participants provided higher responses than Female
participants. A negative coefficient indicated that Male participants gave lower
responses than Female participants.
Another variable used in the regression modelling was the Group, i.e. A, B, C, or
D. In this case three dummy variables were formed as follows:
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥3𝐴 0 0 0𝐵 1 0 0𝐶 0 1 0𝐷 0 0 1
The regression coefficient for 𝑥2 was the difference in the expected response
between the participants in Group B as compared to the participants in Group A;
the regression coefficient for 𝑥3 was the difference in the expected response
between the participants in Group C as compared to Group A; and the regression
86
coefficient for 𝑥4 represented the difference in the expected response between
Group D and Group A.
The regression models were fitted using IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 21).
Besides the estimated regression coefficients, the program provided standard
errors, so that statistical significance could be assessed, as well as diagnostic plots
to assess the validity of the model assumptions.
In addition, the Adjusted R-squared was used to assess the goodness of fit of the
multiple linear regression models; it examined how well the models fitted the
data. The Adjusted R-squared represents the proportion of the dependent variable
(Y) variance, which is accounted by the linear combination of the independent
variables (𝑋1, 𝑋2, ..., 𝑋𝑘) (Stevens, 1990). The Adjusted R-squared increases only
if the independent variables improve the model more than would be expected by
chance. R-squared on the other hand provides a useful summary of the proportion
of the variation in a data set explained by a regression.
𝑅𝑎2 = 1 − (1 − 𝑅2) �𝑛 − 1𝑛 − 𝑝
�,
where n is the number of parameters and n−p is the number of residual degrees of
freedom (Bingham & Fry, 2010).
3.6.2. Binary logistic regression model
For dichotomous (binary) responses, logistic regression models were used to
examine the relationship between a number of response variables and a set of
explanatory variables 𝑋1… 𝑋𝑘. The binary responses in this study represented
student use of various technology tools for learning, expressed as two values
coded numerically as 0 (not used for learning) and 1 (used for learning).
87
Letting probability of success (used for learning) be p(x) = P(Y = 1 | X = x) = 1 -
P(Y = 0 | X = x), the logistic regression model is:
')exp(1
)exp()(110
110
kk
kk
xxxxxpβββ
βββ+++=
+++=
or equivalently:
[ ] ,)(1
)(log)(logit 110 kk xxxp
xpxp βββ +++=
−
=
(Agresti, 2002).
Dummy variables on the left hand side of the equation were set up similarly to
those for multiple linear regression. However, the interpretation of the regression
coefficients was different.
In general, the odds of the dependent variable taking the value of 1, as compared
to taking the value of 0 is defined to be:
𝑝(𝒙)1 − 𝑝(𝒙)
where x is the vector of explanatory variables and the log of the odds is:
log �𝑝(𝒙)
1 − 𝑝(𝒙)�.
If 𝑥𝑗 increases by one unit, then the log of the odds increases by 𝛽𝑗. Equivalently,
the odds is multiplied by exp (𝛽𝑗). For example, if the coefficient for Gender was
𝛽𝑗 = 0.7, then the odds would be exp (𝛽𝑗) ≈ 2, indicating that Males were “twice
as likely” to experience an event as Females.
3.6.3. Proportional-odds model
For ordinal responses, a proportional-odds model was used to determine what
demographic characteristics of students were associated with the response
variable. In this study access to technology was measured on the ordinal scale.
88
For each technology, separate models were developed, using:
logit ( ) ,| ηζ −=≤ kxkYP
where the logit transformation:
−
=)(1
)(log])(logit[xp
xpxp
ensures the estimated probabilities lie between 0 and 1; Y is the response variable
with K levels, 1,2,…, K; x is the vector of explanatory variables; kζ (pronounced
`zeta'), with ∞=<<<−∞= Kζζζ 10 , are estimated thresholds, discussed
below; and η (pronounced ‘eta’) is the estimated linear predictor of the
explanatory variables, kk xx βββ +++ 110 (Venables & Ripley, 2002, pp. 204-
205).
One way to think about the model is to imagine that there is an unobserved (or
latent) response variable for each student. If this response variable for a particular
student is less than 1ζ , then the students selects the first response category; if the
response variable is between 1ζ and 2ζ , then the student selects the second
response category; and so on. If the response variable is above Kζ , then the
student selects the highest response category. Technically, the distribution of the
latent variable follows a standard logistic distribution, which is almost the same as
a normal distribution but with a standard deviation of 1.6.
In this study, dummy variables on the right hand side of the equation were set up
similarly to those of the multiple linear regression and binary logistic regression
models discussed in Section 3.6.1 and Section 3.6.2. If the jth explanatory
variable increased by one unit then the odds of being in a higher category is
multiplied by exp (𝛽𝑗).
89
3.6.4. Interpreting the models
Line Graphs were used to fully understand relationships between dependent and
independent variables. Predicted values of dependent variables were plotted
against levels of independent variables to illustrate the patterns of significant
relationships depicted by statistical models.
3.6.5. Analysis and interpretation of qualitative data
Full interview transcripts were analysed in Arabic, the findings were translated to
English, and the translation reviewed by the researcher and a native Arabic
speaker. It is argued that there are distinct advantages working in the original
language and only translating the relatively few chosen passages into English
(Vallance & Lee, 2005). Translation of transcripts to English is costly and time
consuming, and meaning is easily distorted in translation (Smith, Chen & Liu,
2008; Tsai et al., 2004). Furthermore, the grammatical structure of Arabic differs
substantially from that of the English language, which means that the narrative of
an interview might not be reflected accurately. In addition, there are words in
Arabic for which there is no direct English translation, and other words that can
carry several different meanings, rendering the translation task particularly
difficult.
Qualitative data can be analysed by browsing, highlighting, coding, developing
categories and reducing the information to a meaningful analysis (Creswell,
2005). In this study, interview transcripts were coded and analysed manually. The
data was reduced to themes and then interpreted.
3.7. CONCLUSION
This mainly quantitative study utilised a survey methodology to understand the
experiences and perceptions of ICT and e-learning of university students and
instructors in two Libyan universities; the survey was supplemented by short
90
phone interviews with instructors. Quantitative data was analysed using
descriptive statistics, regression analysis (binary logistic, ordinal, and multiple
regression models), and correlation analysis. Qualitative data, collected from
open-ended questions and phone interviews, was analysed using hand coding.
The findings of this research study are presented in the following chapter (Chapter
4).
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Chapter 4
STUDENT AND INSTRUCTOR EXPERIENCES AND PERCEPTIONS
4.1. INTRODUCTION
Chapter 3 described methods used to generate data on student and instructor
experiences and perceptions with respect to ICT and e-learning. This chapter goes
on to present a synthesis of the corresponding data collected from students and
instructors at two Libyan universities: the urban University of Tripoli, and the
regional University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi. Section 4.2 describes participant
demographics. The following sections present descriptive analyses of student and
instructor responses in relation to: participant access to different types of
technologies (Section 4.3); the purpose of use of various technologies and the
participants’ level of skill in these technologies (Section 4.4); the usefulness of
technology in learning/teaching (Section 4.5); satisfaction with the available ICT
environment (Section 4.6); attitudes and beliefs towards ICT and e-learning
(Section 4.7); and, challenges faced by participants when using ICT and e-
learning (Section 4.8). Finally, Section 4.9 summarises the chapter.
92
4.2. PARTICIPANT DEMOGRAPHICS
Table 4.1. Demographic characteristics of participating students. University of Tripoli
(Urban) University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi
(Regional)
Demographic
Group A Elec. Eng.
N=125 n (%)
Group B Petr. Eng.
N=105 n (%)
Group C Elec. Eng.
N=45 n (%)
Group D Petr. Eng.
N=73 n (%)
Gender
Female 77 (62) 49 (47) 21 (47) 56 (77)
Male 48 (38) 56 (53) 24 (53) 17 (23)
Age
18 - 20 20 (16) 11 (11) 9 (20) 28 (38)
21 - 22 46 (37) 32 (30) 20 (44) 24 (33)
≥ 23 59 (47) 62 (59) 16 (36) 21 (29)
Study Year
1 9 ( 7) 13 (12) 4 ( 9) 17 (23)
2 13 (10) 7 ( 7) 17 (38) 24 (33)
3 41 (33) 40 (38) 12 (27) 12 (16)
≥ 4 62 (50) 45 (43) 12 (26) 20 (28)
As presented in Table 4.1, the number of participating urban students was greater
than the regional students, and divided nearly equally between groups A and B.
Group D represented almost two thirds of all the regional participants. Both
genders were well represented in all groups; however, more than three quarters of
students in Group D were female. The proportion of participants in their first year
of study was considerably lower in groups A, B, and C; this could be attributed to
lower enrolment numbers in 2011 and 2012, caused by the outbreak of the armed
conflict in Libya in 2011.
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Table 4.2. Demographic characteristics of participating instructors. University of Tripoli
(Urban) University of Al-Jabal Al-
Gharbi (Regional)
Demographic Group A Elec. Eng.
N=125 n (%)
Group B Petr. Eng.
N=105 n (%)
Group C Elec. Eng.
N=45 n (%)
Group D Petr. Eng.
N=73 n (%)
Gender
Female 1 2 0 2
Male 23 4 7 4
Age
25 - 35 1 2 2 1
36 - 50 14 2 5 5
≥ 51 9 2 0 0
Level of education
Bachelor 0 0 0 0
Master 11 5 5 6
PhD 13 1 2 0
There were 24 instructors in Group A and 6 in Group B; Group A respondents
represented 80% of participants from the University of Tripoli. Instructors from
the University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi were represented evenly between groups C
and D. The majority of participating instructors in all groups were male. While all
instructors in three groups A, B and C had either Master or PhD degrees, there
were no PhD holders in Group D.
4.3. ACCESS TO TECHNOLOGIES
Participants were asked to indicate their level of access (‘no access’, ‘limited
access’, or ‘unrestricted access’) to a range of technologies including mobile
phones, computers, memory sticks, digital cameras, video (3G) and web cam, and
the Internet.
94
4.3.1. Student access to technologies
Table 4.3. Student access to technologies (represented as observed percentages). University of Tripoli
(Urban) University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi
(Regional) Group A
Elec. Eng. N=125
Group B Petr. Eng.
N=105
Group C Elec. Eng.
N=45
Group D Petr. Eng.
N=73 NA LA UA NA LA UA NA LA UA NA LA UA
Desktop computer 2 18 80 1 17 82 4 27 69 13 7 80
Portable computer 14 30 56 7 30 64 11 31 58 19 25 56
Memory stick
9 24 67 5 23 72 18 22 60 8 14 78
Digital camera
26 35 39 15 38 47 9 53 38 25 22 53
Web camera
43 22 35 24 40 36 38 38 24 31 35 35
Mobile phone
1 5 94 0 6 94 4 22 74 4 8 88
Video 3G
22 30 47 17 28 55 27 24 49 10 23 67
Dial-up Internet 21 29 50 19 37 44 16 47 38 21 40 39
High-speed Internet
9 13 78 6 19 75 11 29 60 7 25 68
NA: no access, LA: limited access, UA: unrestricted access. (Note: Access to high-speed Internet represents access to either broadband or wireless Internet.)
A high proportion of students in Group A and Group B had unrestricted access to
a desktop computer: 80% and 82% respectively. Students in the regional
university reported slightly lower levels of unrestricted access to a desktop
computer: 69% in Group C and 80% in Group D. More than half of students in all
groups reported having unrestricted access to a portable computer.
To determine what demographic characteristics of students were associated with
their levels of access to technology, ordinal logistic regression was used (a
mathematical description of the model used is provided in Chapter 3, Section
3.6.3). There were five response variables that reflected student access to
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technology: (1) access to desktop computer, (2) access to laptop computer, (3)
access to mobile phone, (4) access to video 3G, and (5) access to high-speed
Internet. The levels of response variables were: 0 – ‘no access’, 1 – ‘limited
access’, and 2 – ‘unrestricted access’. The results of the ordinal regression models
are presented in Table 4.4 and Figure 4.1.
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Table 4.4. Proportional odds models for access to technologies.
Desktop Laptop Memory Stick Digital Camera Web Camera
Variable B SE OR B SE OR B SE OR B SE OR B SE OR
Threshold NA vs LA -2.77 0.50 -0.82 0.38 -1.50 0. 42 -0.07 0.35 0.20 0.36
LA vs UA -0.91 0.45 0.88 0.37 0.13 0.40 1.62 0.37 1.62 0.37
Gender (Male) 0.64 0.30 1.89 * 0.87 0.24 2.39 *** 1.13 0.28 3.10 *** 0.39 0.22 1.48 0.89 0.22 2.44 *** Group B 0.12 0.35 1.12 0.30 0.28 1.35 0.18 0.30 1.20 0.38 0.26 1.47 0.29 0.25 1.33 Group C -0.66 0.41 0.52 0.03 0.36 1.03 -0.56 0.38 0.57 0.18 0.33 1.20 -0.26 0.34 0.77 Group D 0.00 0.40 1.00 0.19 0.32 1.21 0.80 0.37 2.22 * 0.50 0.30 1.65 0.44 0.30 1.55 Age 21-22 0.29 0.49 1.34 0.32 0.39 1.37 0.40 0.43 1.50 0.24 0.37 1.27 0.40 0.37 1.50 Age ≥ 23 -0.35 0.53 0.70 0.43 0.43 1.53 -0.01 0.47 0.99 0.39 0.41 0.48 0.63 0.42 1.87 Year 2 0.18 0.53 1.20 0.64 0.42 1.89 0.11 0.47 1.11 1.21 0.42 3.34 ** 0.23 0.42 1.26 Year 3 0.39 0.59 1.48 0.39 0.47 1.48 -0.07 0.52 0.93 0.71 0.45 2.03 -0.16 0.46 0.85 Year 4 0.42 0.61 1.52 0.54 0.49 1.71 0.83 0.56 2.28 0.66 0.47 1.94 -0.10 0.48 0.91
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001 NA: no access, LA: limited access, UA: unrestricted access
97
Table 4.4. Proportional odds models for access to technologies – continued.
Dial-up Internet Mobile Phone Video 3G High Speed Internet
Variable B SE OR B SE OR B SE OR B SE OR
Threshold NA vs LA -1.18 0.37 -4.37 0.74 -1.56 0.39 -2.69 0.47
LA vs UA 0.51 0.36 -2.46 0.63 -0.20 0.38 -1.15 0.44
Gender (Male) 0.45 0.22 1.57 * 0.53 0.42 1.70 0.12 0.23 1.13 0.70 0.27 2.02 ** Group B -0.27 0.26 0.76 0.03 0.58 1.03 0.30 0.26 1.34 -0.20 0.32 0.82 Group C -0.37 0.33 0.69 -2.11 0.55 0.12 *** -0.23 0.35 0.80 -1.15 0.39 0.32 ** Group D 0.26 0.29 0.77 -1.00 0.56 0.37 0.65 0.32 1.91 * -0.56 0.35 0.57 Age 21-22 0.48 0.38 1.62 -0.36 0.77 0.70 0.28 0.40 1.32 0.63 0.47 1.88 Age ≥ 23 0.87 0.42 2.38 * -0.67 0.83 0.51 -0.18 0.43 0.84 0.01 0.51 1.01 Year 2 0.02 0.42 1.02 1.38 0.80 3.97 -0.05 0.45 0.95 0.19 0.52 1.20 Year 3 -0.60 0.46 0.55 0.43 0.85 1.53 -0.34 0.48 0.71 -0.77 0.57 0.47 Year 4 -0.32 0.48 0.72 0.82 0.89 2.27 -0.51 0.50 0.60 -0.22 0.60 0.80
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001 NA: no access, LA: limited access, UA: unrestricted access
98
(a) desktop computer (b) portable computer
(c) memory stick (d) web camera
(e) dial-up Internet (f) high-speed Internet
Figure 4.1. Predicted probability for level of access by gender to: (a) desktop computer, (b) portable computer, (c) memory stick, (d) web camera, (e) dial-up Internet, and (f) high-speed Internet.
99
The results presented in Table 4.4 and Figure 4.1 show that there were significant
differences in the reported level of access between females and males for a number of
technologies:
• female students were less likely than male students to have unrestricted access
to a desktop computer; they were more likely to report ‘no access’ or ‘limited
access’ to a desktop computer – Figure 4.1. (a);
• female students were more likely to report ‘no access’ to a laptop computer –
Figure 4.1. (b);
• female students were less likely than male students to have unrestricted access
to a memory stick; they were more likely to report ‘no access’ or ‘limited
access’ to a memory stick – Figure 4.1. (c);
• female students were less likely to have unrestricted access to a web camera
and more likely to report ‘no access’ to one – Figure 4.1. (d);
• female students were less likely than male students to have unrestricted access
to dial-up Internet; they were more likely to report ‘no access’ or ‘limited
access’ to dial-up Internet – Figure 4.1. (e);
• female students were less likely to have unrestricted access to high-speed
Internet; they were more likely to report ‘no access’ or ‘limited access’ to
high-speed Internet – Figure 4.1. (f).
100
(a) memory stick (b) mobile phone
(c) video 3G (d) high-speed Internet
Figure 4.2. Predicted probability for level of access by group to: (a) memory stick, (b) mobile phone, (c) video 3G, and (d) high-speed Internet.
The results in Table 4.4 and Figure 4.2 also show that there were significant
differences in the reported level of access between students from the urban university
(groups A and B) and the regional university (groups C and D):
• students in Group C were less likely than students in other groups to have
unrestricted access to a memory stick; they were more likely to report ‘no
access’ or ‘limited access’ to a memory stick – Figure 4.2. (a);
• regional students were less likely than urban students to have unrestricted
access to a mobile phone, with students in Group C being least likely to have
101
unrestricted access to a mobile phone and most likely to report ‘limited
access’ – Figure 4.2. (b);
• students in Group D were most likely to report unrestricted access to Video
3G technology – Figure 4.2. (c);
• students in Group C were less likely to report unrestricted access to high-
speed Internet; they were more likely to report ‘no access’ or ‘limited access’
to high-speed Internet than students in other groups – Figure 4.2. (d).
4.3.2. Instructor access to technologies
Due to a low response rate, instructor data in Table 4.5 is reported only as actual
numbers.
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Table 4.5. Instructor access to technologies (represented as actual numbers). University of Tripoli
(Urban) University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi
(Regional) Group A
Elec. Eng. N=24
Group B Petr. Eng.
N=6
Group C Elec. Eng.
N=7
Group D Petr. Eng.
N=6 NA LA UA NA LA UA NA LA UA NA LA UA
Desktop computer 0 13 11 0 0 6 0 4 3 0 1 5
Portable computer 2 8 14 0 0 6 0 1 6 0 1 5
Memory stick 0 8 16 0 0 6 0 4 3 0 2 4
Digital camera 1 14 9 0 0 6 1 4 2 1 1 4
Web camera 1 9 14 0 1 5 3 3 1 1 1 4
Mobile phone 0 6 18 0 0 6 0 4 3 0 2 4
Video 3G 2 13 9 0 0 6 2 4 1 2 2 2
Dial-up Internet 3 8 13 0 1 5 0 5 2 1 2 3
High-speed Internet
0 13 11 0 0 6 0 4 3 0 1 5
NA: no access, LA: limited access, UA: unrestricted access. (Note: Access to high-speed Internet represents access to either broadband or wireless Internet.)
The majority of participating instructors in all groups reported having unrestricted or
limited access to most technology-based tools, the Internet, and a mobile phone.
4.4. TECHNOLOGIES: PURPOSE OF USE AND LEVEL OF SKILL
Participants were asked about the purpose of using the various technologies and their
levels of skill with these technologies. In particular, they were asked to indicate if
they used these technologies ‘for learning[teaching] purposes’, ‘for other purposes’,
or if they ‘did not know this technology’. Participants were allowed to select both ‘for
103
learning [teaching]’ and ‘for other purposes’, if both options applied to them. They
were also asked to apply a rating scale (from “1” ‘not skilled at all’; to “5” ‘very
skilled’) to indicate their levels of skill in using these technologies.
4.4.1. Student use of computer-based technologies
Table 4.6. Percentage of students who used computer-based technologies for learning purposes, and their average level of skill.
University of Tripoli (Urban)
University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi (Regional)
Group A Elec. Eng.
N=125
Group B Petr. Eng.
N=105
Group C Elec. Eng.
N=45
Group D Petr. Eng.
N=73
Use %
Skill �̅�
Use %
Skill �̅�
Use %
Skill �̅�
Use %
Skill �̅�
Use a computer to manage or manipulate digital photos (e.g. using iPhoto, Dig. Image)
52 3.00 36 3.26 45 2.67 35 2.79
Use a computer to create presentations (e.g. PowerPoint) 91 3.14 94 3.28 77 2.55 60 2.93
Use a computer to create or edit audio & video (e.g. iMovie, Movie Maker)
55 2.48 22 2.76 14 3.50 24 2.54
Use a computer to play games 29 3.53 2 3.50 5 3.83 6 3.25
Use the Internet/web or a LAN to play Network games 29 3.44 6 2.60 5 2.50 10 3.43
Use a hand-held computer (e.g. a PDA) as a Personal organiser (e.g. diary, address book)
50 3.23 61 3.32 61 2.90 45 2.83
As shown in Table 4.6, on average, urban students from Group A reported higher
levels of use of computer-based technologies for learning purposes. However, urban
students from Group B, on average, reported higher levels of skills in computer-based
technologies than other groups. All urban students reported quite high levels of using
computers to create presentations; their level of skill in using this technology was
also relatively high. While almost a third of Group A students reported using
104
computers for playing games in relation to learning, an overwhelming majority of
students in all groups reported playing games for other purposes.
To determine how student gender and location affected their levels of use of
computer-based technologies for learning, binary logistic regression was used (Table
4.7). Other variables, such as age and year of study were also included in the models
to control for possible confounding influence of these variables; a mathematical
description of the models used is provided in Chapter 3, Section 3.6.2. For the
purpose of statistical modelling, the response variables were reduced to a
dichotomous form (0 - not used for learning, and 1 - used for learning). A value of
“0” was assigned to participants who reported that they did not know a technology
and those who reported using it for other purposes.
Table 4.7. Logistic regression models for student use of computer-based technologies for learning.
Manage/manipulate digital photos
Create presentations Create/edit audio & video
Variable B SE B SE B SE
(Intercept) 0.206 0.413 2.510 0.685 -0.020 0.488 Gender (Male) -0.073 0.257 -0.513 0.684 0.834 0.435 *
Group B -0.677 0.292 * -0.057 0.706 -1.186 0.453 ***
Group C -0.235 0.386 -1.145 0.756 -2.563 1.075 **
Group D -0.729 0.354 * -2.283 0.608 *** -1.284 0.510 **
Age 21-22 0.039 0.450 -0.187 0.672 -0.448 0.567
Age ≥ 23 0.148 0.488 -0.569 0.721 0.262 0.581
Year 2 -0.292 0.504 0.294 0.697 -0.531 0.618
Year 3 -0.228 0.528 -0.115 0.771 0.317 0.632
Year ≥ 4 -0.139 0.540 0.851 0.795 -0.246 0.637
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001
105
Table 4.7. – continued.
Play games Play Network games Use as personal organiser
Variable B SE B SE B SE
(Intercept) -1.463 0.653 -1.109 0.551 0.963 0.461 Gender (Male) 0.943 0.386 ** 0.685 0.353 * 0.034 0.298
Group B -3.244 0.755 *** -1.978 0.484 *** 0.449 0.348
Group C -2.426 0.781 *** -2.209 0.775 *** 0.545 0.462
Group D -1.852 0.575 *** -1.207 0.473 ** -0.392 0.390
Age 21-22 0.501 0.703 0.111 0.655 -1.365 0.513 ***
Age ≥ 23 0.680 0.733 0.505 0.677 -0.695 0.584
Year 2 -0.034 0.825 -0.315 0.716 -0.247 0.541
Year 3 -0.505 0.863 -0.658 0.759 -0.130 0.613
Year ≥ 4 -0.355 0.861 -0.340 0.751 * -0.266 0.645
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001
The results provided in Table 4.7 show that there was a significant difference
between female and male students with respect to creating/editing audio or video,
playing games, and playing Network games. Male students were more likely to report
using these tools for learning; estimated probabilities for female and male students
are presented in Figure 4.3.
106
Figure 4.3. Predicted probability of computer use for learning by gender.
As shown in Table 4.7 and Figure 4.4, there were significant differences in the level
of use of computer-based technologies for learning between student groups:
• students in groups B and D were less likely than students in groups A and C to
use a computer to manage/manipulate digital photos for learning purposes.
• students in regional groups C and D were less likely than students in urban
groups A and B to use a computer to create presentations.
• students in the urban Group A were more likely to use a computer to
create/edit audio and video for learning than students in groups B, C and D.
• similarly, students in Group A reported the highest levels of playing computer
games and Network games for learning.
107
Figure 4.4. Predicted probability of computer use for learning by group.
In addition, the results in Table 4.7 show that fourth year students were significantly
more likely to play Network games for learning than first year students. Age was also
found to be significant with respect to using a computer as a personal organiser;
younger students, those aged 18-20, were more likely to use this technology for
learning.
4.4.2. Instructor use of computer-based technologies
Table 4.8 presents instructor responses; due to a low response rate, instructor data is
reported only as actual numbers.
108
Table 4.8. Purpose of use and level of skill in computer-based technologies: Instructors.
University of Tripoli (Urban)
Group A, Elec. Eng. N=24
Group B, Petr. Eng. N=6
Purpose of use Level of skill Purpose of use Level of skill
Teaching
Other
Both
Do not
know
Not skilled
at all
Not skilled
Neutral
Skilled
Very
Skilled
Mean
Teaching
Other
Both
Do not
know
Not skilled
at all
Not skilled
Neutral
Skilled
Very
Skilled
Mean
Use a computer to manage or manipulate digital photos (e.g. using iPhoto, Dig. Image) 5 10 8 1 1 3 6 11 2 3.43 1 5 0 0 0 0 1 3 2 4.17
Use a computer to create presentations (e.g. PowerPoint) 16 3 4 1 1 0 5 13 5 3.88 5 0 1 0 0 0 1 4 1 4.00
Use a computer to create or edit audio & video (e.g. iMovie, Movie Maker) 3 13 3 3 4 6 7 3 1 2.57 1 5 0 0 0 0 0 4 2 4.33
Use a computer to play games 0 17 3 2 1 4 10 5 2 3.14 1 5 0 0 0 1 2 2 1 3.50
Use the Internet/web or a LAN to play Network games 0 17 1 4 1 7 7 3 2 2.90 1 5 0 0 0 0 2 4 0 3.67
Use a hand-held computer (e.g. a PDA) as a Personal organiser (e.g. diary, address book) 4 6 7 5 2 3 5 4 4 3.28 1 3 2 0 0 0 1 4 0 3.80
109
Table 4.8. Continued.
University Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi (Regional)
Group C, Elec. Eng. N=7
Group D, Petr. Eng. N=6
Purpose of use Level of skill Purpose of use Level of skill
Teaching
Other
Both
Do not
know
Not skilled
at all
Not skilled
Neutral
Skilled
Very
Skilled
Mean
Teaching
Other
Both
Do not
know
Not skilled
at all
Not skilled
Neutral
Skilled
Very
Skilled
Mean
Use a computer to manage or manipulate digital photos (e.g. using iPhoto, Dig. Image) 0 6 0 1 1 1 1 3 0 3.00 2 3 1 0 0 2 0 4 0 3.33
Use a computer to create presentations (e.g. PowerPoint) 4 1 2 0 0 0 5 2 0 3.29 3 0 3 0 0 0 2 2 1 3.80
Use a computer to create or edit audio & video (e.g. iMovie, Movie Maker) 2 5 0 0 3 0 2 2 0 2.43 0 3 2 1 0 1 1 3 0 3.40
Use a computer to play games 0 6 1 0 0 1 1 4 1 3.71 0 4 2 0 0 1 2 3 0 3.33
Use the Internet/web or a LAN to play Network games 0 7 0 0 1 1 3 1 1 3.00 0 5 1 0 1 1 2 1 1 3.00
Use a hand-held computer (e.g. a PDA) as a Personal organiser (e.g. diary, address book) 3 1 2 1 0 0 2 3 1 3.83 1 2 2 1 0 1 3 1 0 3.00
110
Results shown in Table 4.8 show that, overall, instructors did not identify teaching as
the main purpose for using computer-based technologies; other purposes, such as
entertainment, dominated the responses in all groups of respondents. Only
presentation software was used mainly for teaching purposes and the self-reported
level of skill in using the software was relatively high among most instructors. Hand
held computers were also reported to be used mostly for teaching purposes, although
there were some instructors who did not know about the technology.
Most instructors in all groups reported using computers for playing games and
Network games for other purposes (e.g. entertainment) and most of them were
confident in their ability to use a computer for playing games. Similarly, most
instructors used a computer to manage or process digital photos for other purposes
(e.g. entertainment).
4.4.3. Student use of web-based technologies
Students were asked about the ways in which they used various web-based
technologies and their levels of skill with these technologies. To ensure smooth
analysis and interpretation of the large number of web-based technology items in the
survey (16), the items were grouped into three clusters of loosely related items:
• Cluster 1 – Accessing information and communicating (accessing LMSs, and
communicating via email, instant messaging and videoconferencing)
• Cluster 2 – Podcasting and socialising (authoring and use of podcasts, sharing
of photographs, and networking via social media)
• Cluster 3 – Web publishing (authoring and use of websites, blogs, vlogs, and
wikis)
For each of the clusters, the descriptive results are presented for those students who
selected ‘for learning’ as a purpose for using a web-based technology; the mean
111
values for their self-reported levels of skill in using each technology are also
included.
To determine how demographic characteristics affect levels of use of web-based
technologies for learning, a similar analysis was performed as that for modelling
student use of computer-based technologies. Again, variables considered were gender
and location, as well as the confouding variables, such as age and year of study.
Logistic regression models for student use of web-based technologies for learning are
presented for each of the clusters.
Cluster 1 – Accessing information and communicating
Table 4.9. Student use of Cluster 1 technologies for learning: percentage of users and their average level of skill.
University of Tripoli (Urban)
University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi (Regional)
Group A Elec. Eng.
N=125
Group B Petr. Eng.
N=105
Group C Elec. Eng.
N=45
Group D Petr. Eng.
N=73
Use %
Skill �̅�
Use %
Skill �̅�
Use %
Skill �̅�
Use %
Skill �̅�
Use the web to access a portal, CMS or LMS 90 2.64 93 2.81 90 2.69 64 2.83
Use the web to look up reference information (e.g. online dictionaries)
97 3.61 93 3.71 98 3.31 90 3.25
Use the web/Internet to send or receive email (e.g. Hotmail, Yahoo, Outlook)
85 3.76 66 4.19 21 3.78 24 3.25
Use the web/Internet for instant messaging / Chat (e.g. MSN, Yahoo)
81 3.69 54 3.94 23 3.40 23 3.21
Use the web to make phone calls (e.g. VoIP using Skype) 77 3.47 22 3.57 17 3.29 15 2.89
Use the web for web conferencing (e.g. using a webcam with Skype) 79 3.01 53 3.18 19 3.00 20 2.73
112
The results in Table 4.9 indicate that, overall, urban students (groups A and B) were
more likely to use most Cluster 1 web-based technologies for learning. While
students from Group A reported higher level of use, Group B students reported the
highest level of skill. In all groups students reported quite high levels of use of the
web to access a portal, CMS/LMS, and online dictionaries.
Table 4.10. Logistic regression models for student use of Cluster 1 technologies for learning.
Access a portal (CMS) Access online dictionaries Send/receive email
Variable B SE B SE B SE
(Intercept) 2.270 0.673 2.554 0.773 2.250 0.495 Gender (Male) -0.008 0.448 0.431 0.592 0.136 0.290
Group B 0.465 0.618 -1.131 0.689 -1.108 0.349 ***
Group C -0.115 0.764 0.675 1.174 -3.028 0.476 ***
Group D -1.694 0.552 *** -0.605 0.696 -2.959 0.416 ***
Age 21-22 -0.237 0.749 0.715 0.725 -0.673 0.535
Age ≥ 23 -0.493 0.799 1.213 0.960 0.460 0.577
Year 2 0.566 0.764 -0.855 0.750 -0.549 0.546
Year 3 -0.174 0.819 0.511 0.997 -0.237 0.610
Year ≥ 4 0.477 0.844 ** -0.063 1.029 0.201 0.627
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001
113
Table 4.10. Continued.
Instant messaging/MSN Phone calls, Skype Web conferencing, Skype
Variable B SE B SE B SE
(Intercept) 2.339 0.481 0.737 0.515 1.582 0.490 Gender (Male) 0.183 0.278 0.419 0.316 0.286 0.304
Group B -1.466 0.326 *** -2.548 0.362 *** -1.342 0.353 ***
Group C -2.706 0.458 *** -2.838 0.506 *** -2.778 0.513 ***
Group D -2.804 0.409 *** -2.895 0.444 *** -2.669 0.437 ***
Age 21-22 0.029 0.506 0.675 0.571 -0.355 0.564
Age ≥ 23 0.551 0.551 -0.234 0.611 -0.034 0.609
Year 2 -1.315 0.557 * 0.698 0.627 -0.540 0.578
Year 3 -1.448 0.599 * 0.493 0.686 -0.002 0.638
Year ≥ 4 -1.212 0.620 * 0.941 0.692 -0.231 0.653
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001
The results in Table 4.10 and Figure 4.5 show that urban students in groups A and B
reported a significantly higher level of using Cluster 1 web-based technologies for
learning than regional students in groups C and D. There was no significant
difference between male and female students in the level of use of those technologies.
Students in the rural Group D were significantly less likely to use the web to access
CMS/LMS than other students. There was also a significant difference in using the
web for accessing CMS/LMS between students in various year levels; fourth year
students were more likely to use the web for this purpose than students in earlier
years. Year of study was also found to be significant with respect to using the web for
instant messaging (MSN); first year students were more likely to use this technology
for learning.
There were significant differences in the reported level of using the web for sending
and receiving emails and MSNs; urban students in Group A were more likely to use
114
this technology for learning than other students. Group A students were also more
likely than other students to use the web for videoconferencing and making phone
calls via Skype.
Figure 4.5. Predicted probability of web use for learning (Cluster 1 – Accessing
information and communicating) by group.
115
Cluster 2 – Podcasting and socialising
Table 4.11. Student use of Cluster 2 technologies for learning: percentage of users and their average level of skill.
University of Tripoli (Urban)
University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi (Regional)
Group A Elec. Eng.
N=125
Group B Petr. Eng.
N=105
Group C Elec. Eng.
N=45
Group D Petr. Eng.
N=73
Use %
Skill �̅�
Use %
Skill �̅�
Use %
Skill �̅�
Use %
Skill �̅�
Use social networking software on the web (e.g. Facebook) 82 3.65 68 3.66 21 3.25 18 3.40
Use the web to download podcasts (e.g. using Juice, iTunes) 70 2.98 34 3.19 30 3.36 26 3.00
Use the web to publish podcasts (e.g. using Podifier, Podcaster, PodProducer)
66 2.66 27 2.32 10 3.33 24 2.44
Use the web to share photographs or other Digital material (e.g. using blinklist, Flickr)
76 3.36 33 3.66 12 3.60 10 3.00
Use the web for pastimes (e.g. for leisure activities) 13 3.73 5 3.20 7 4.00 10 3.00
The results in Table 4.11 indicate that urban students in Group A reported the highest
level of using Cluster 2 technologies for learning purposes. Regional students in
groups C and D were less likely than urban students to use most of the web-based
technologies for learning. The majority of students in all groups felt skilled in using
those technologies; the range of mean values was between 2.3 and 4 on a 5-point
scale.
116
Table 4.12. Logistic regression models for student use of Cluster 2 technologies for learning.
Social networking Download podcast Publish podcast
Variable B SE B SE B SE
(Intercept) 1.389 0.500 0.019 0.504 -0.079 0.593 Gender (Male) 0.197 0.306 0.541 0.296 1.168 0.355 ***
Group B -0.778 0.365 * -1.566 0.351 *** -1.845 0.391 ***
Group C -2.839 0.499 *** -1.798 0.458 *** -3.151 0.686 ***
Group D -3.015 0.451 *** -1.810 0.409 *** -1.663 0.480 ***
Age 21-22 -0.403 0.602 -0.183 0.511 -0.493 0.642
Age ≥ 23 -0.211 0.631 0.035 0.562 -0.451 0.676
Year 2 -0.009 0.606 0.783 0.598 0.892 0.728
Year 3 0.202 0.661 0.858 0.631 0.846 0.763
Year ≥ 4 0.541 0.675 0.615 0.659 0.653 0.771
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001
Table 4.12. Continued.
Share digital material For pastimes
Variable B SE B SE
(Intercept) 1.378 0.494 -1.176 0.562 Gender (Male) 0.220 0.309 0.318 0.424
Group B -2.235 0.358 *** -1.257 0.558 *
Group C -3.377 0.565 *** -1.043 0.692
Group D -3.482 0.492 *** -0.581 0.528
Age 21-22 0.132 0.552 0.374 0.661
Age ≥ 23 1.173 0.600 * 0.820 0.708
Year 2 -0.614 0.617 -0.609 0.674
Year 3 -0.544 0.622 -1.493 0.759 *
Year ≥ 4 -1.113 0.655 -1.888 0.780 *
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001
117
The results in Table 4.12 show male students were significantly more likely than
female students to publish podcasts for learning. Figure 4.6 displays estimated
probabilities of using web to publishing podcasts for learning for female and male
students.
Figure 4.6. Predicted probability of web use to publish podcasts for learning by
gender.
Table 4.12 and Figure 4.7 also show that there was a significant difference in the
level of use of Cluster 2 web-based technologies for learning between the urban and
regional students:
• regional students in groups C and D were less likely than urban students in
groups A and B to use social networking for learning;
• regional students reported particularly low levels of downloading podcasts for
learning;
• urban students in Group A were more likely than students in other groups to
publish podcasts for learning. Regional Group C was the least likely of all;
118
• similarly, students in Group A reported the highest levels of using the web to
share digital materials for learning. Regional students in groups C and D used
these technologies least.
Figure 4.7. Predicted probability of web use (Cluster 2 – Podcasting and socialising)
for learning by group.
119
Cluster 3 – Web publishing
Table 4.13. Student use of Cluster 3 technologies for learning: percentage of users and their average level of skill.
University of Tripoli (Urban)
University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi (Regional)
Group A Elec. Eng.
N=125
Group B Petr. Eng.
N=105
Group C Elec. Eng.
N=45
Group D Petr. Eng.
N=73
Use %
Skill �̅�
Use %
Skill �̅�
Use %
Skill �̅�
Use %
Skill �̅�
Use the web to build & maintain a website 78 2.46 77 2.35 44 1.64 43 2.13
Use the web to keep your own blog or vlog 54 2.70 23 2.77 6 2.07 15 2.67
Use the web to read other peoples’ blogs or vlogs 56 2.71 18 2.33 17 3.00 17 2.00
Use the web to comment on blogs or vlogs 56 2.71 19 2.80 6 2.33 13 2.33
Use the web to contribute to the development of a Wiki 75 2.52 36 1.94 18 1.89 46 1.60
The results in Table 4.13 indicate that urban students in Groups A reported the
highest levels of using Cluster 3 web-based technologies for learning. Students in all
groups were most likely to use the web to build and maintain a website. The reported
level of skill in using these technologies was relatively low; the range of mean scores
was between 1.6 and 3.0 on a 5-point scale.
120
Table 4.14. Logistic regression models for student use of Cluster 3 technologies for learning.
Build and maintain a website Keep a blog/vlog Read others’ blogs/vlogs
Variable B SE B SE B SE
(Intercept) 1.110 0.502 0.648 0.623 1.014 0.617 Gender (Male) 0.039 0.344 -0.317 0.455 -0.690 0.469
Group B -0.149 0.412 -1.343 0.464 *** -1.801 0.488 ***
Group C -1.448 0.482 *** -2.907 1.102 *** -1.805 0.738 ***
Group D -1.482 0.460 *** -2.065 0.660 *** -2.072 0.670 ***
Age 21-22 0.688 0.592 0.050 0.724 -0.370 0.733
Age ≥ 23 0.689 0.642 0.673 0.767 0.542 0.758
Year 2 -0.578 0.624 -0.466 0.772 -0.619 0.765
Year 3 -0.411 0.670 -1.295 0.823 -0.926 0.839
Year ≥ 4 -0.531 0.685 -0.696 0.805 -0.675 0.811
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001
Table 4.14. Continued.
Comment on blogs/vlogs
Contribute to a Wiki
Variable B SE B SE
(Intercept) 1.066 0.654 1.211 0.675 Gender (Male) -0.706 0.491 -0.252 0.435
Group B -1.745 0.490 *** -1.699 0.513 ***
Group C -2.927 1.103 *** -2.702 0.917 ***
Group D -2.421 0.725 *** -1.360 0.600 *
Age 21-22 -0.823 0.810 0.605 0.876
Age ≥ 23 0.232 0.803 1.236 0.903
Year 2 -0.316 0.849 -0.379 0.901
Year 3 -0.586 .0893 -1.579 0.979
Year ≥ 4 -0.437 0.865 -0.790 0.953
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001
121
The results in Table 4.14 show that there was no significant difference between
female and male students in using the Cluster 3 web-based technologies for learning.
The results in Table 4.14 and Figure 4.8 show that there were significant differences
in the level of use of Cluster 3 technologies between the urban and regional students:
• regional students (groups C and D) were less likely than urban students to use
the web to build and maintain websites for learning purposes;
• regional students reported particularly low levels of using the web to keep
their own blogs;
• urban students from Group A reported the highest levels of using the web to
read and comment on other peoples’ blogs;
• Group A students were more likely than students in other groups to contribute
to the development of Wiki for learning purposes.
Figure 4.8. Predicted probability of web use (Cluster 3 – Web publishing) for
learning by group.
122
4.4.4. Instructor use of web-based technologies
Instructor responses, grouped into clusters, are reported only as actual numbers, due
to a low response rate.
123
Table 4.15. Purpose of use and level of skill in Cluster 1 technologies (Accessing information and communicating): Instructors.
University of Tripoli (Urban)
Group A, Elec. Eng. N=24
Group B, Petr. Eng. N=6
Purpose of use Level of skill Purpose of use Level of skill
Teaching
Other
Both
Do not
know
Not skilled
at all
Not skilled
Neutral
Skilled
Very
Skilled
Mean
Teaching
Other
Both
Do not
know
Not skilled
at all
Not skilled
Neutral
Skilled
Very
Skilled
Mean
Use the web to access a portal, CMS or LMS 16 0 1 4 2 1 5 9 2 3.42 3 0 3 0 0 1 2 3 0 3.33
Use the web to look up reference information (e.g. online dictionaries) 10 2 10 1 1 0 3 13 6 4.04 4 0 2 0 0 0 1 4 1 4.00
Use the web/Internet to send or receive email (e.g. Hotmail, Yahoo, Outlook) 2 8 13 0 1 0 2 9 11 4.30 0 3 3 0 1 0 0 3 2 4.00
Use the web/Internet for instant messaging / Chat (e.g. MSN, Yahoo) 1 13 9 0 3 0 5 11 5 3.75 0 6 0 0 1 0 0 4 1 3.83
Use the web to make phone calls (e.g. VoIP using Skype) 0 13 9 1 1 2 7 8 4 3.55 1 4 1 0 0 0 3 3 0 3.50
Use the web for web conferencing (e.g. using a webcam with Skype) 4 4 9 5 3 5 5 3 3 2.89 2 3 1 0 0 1 1 3 1 3.67
124
Table 4.15. Continued.
University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi (Regional)
Group C, Elec. Eng. N=7
Group D, Petr. Eng. N=6
Purpose of use Level of skill Purpose of use Level of skill
Teaching
Other
Both
Do not
know
Not skilled
at all
Not skilled
Neutral
Skilled
Very
Skilled
Mean
Teaching
Other
Both
Do not
know
Not skilled
at all
Not skilled
Neutral
Skilled
Very
Skilled
Mean
Use the web to access a portal, CMS or LMS 5 1 0 1 0 1 1 3 1 3.67 4 0 2 0 0 2 3 1 0 2.83
Use the web to look up reference information (e.g. online dictionaries) 3 0 4 0 0 0 1 4 2 4.14 2 0 4 0 0 0 2 2 2 4.00
Use the web/Internet to send or receive email (e.g. Hotmail, Yahoo, Outlook) 0 3 4 0 1 0 0 1 5 4.43 1 2 3 0 0 0 2 2 2 4.00
Use the web/Internet for instant messaging / Chat (e.g. MSN, Yahoo) 0 7 0 0 2 0 1 1 3 3.71 0 3 3 0 0 0 3 3 0 3.50
Use the web to make phone calls (e.g. VoIP using Skype) 0 7 0 0 0 1 2 2 2 3.71 0 4 2 0 0 1 1 4 0 3.50
Use the web for web conferencing (e.g. using a webcam with Skype) 0 4 0 3 0 4 0 0 0 2.00 2 1 3 0 0 1 1 3 1 3.67
125
Table 4.16. Purpose of use and level of skill in Cluster 2 technologies (Podcasting and socialising): Instructors.
University of Tripoli (Urban)
Group A, Elec. Eng. N=24
Group B, Petr. Eng. N=6
Purpose of use Level of skill Purpose of use Level of skill
Teaching
Other
Both
Do not
know
Not skilled
at all
Not skilled
Neutral
Skilled
Very
Skilled
Mean
Teaching
Other
Both
Do not
know
Not skilled
at all
Not skilled
Neutral
Skilled
Very
Skilled
Mean
Use social networking software on the web (e.g. Facebook) 2 6 13 2 0 4 6 9 3 3.50 2 1 3 0 1 0 1 4 0 3.33
Use the web to download podcasts (e.g. using Juice, iTunes) 3 11 2 6 4 4 7 2 1 2.56 1 3 0 2 0 0 2 4 0 3.67
Use the web to publish podcasts (e.g. using Podifier, Podcaster, PodProducer) 1 10 2 9 6 3 4 1 0 2.00 1 5 0 0 0 2 1 3 0 3.17
Use the web to share photographs or other Digital material (e.g. using blinklist, Flickr) 0 13 5 4 1 4 8 6 1 3.10 1 5 0 0 1 2 1 2 0 2.67
Use the web for pastimes (e.g. for leisure activities) 0 18 1 3 1 5 4 7 3 3.30 0 4 2 0 0 1 2 3 0 3.33
126
Table 4.16. Continued.
University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi (Regional)
Group C, Elec. Eng. N=7
Group D, Petr. Eng. N=6
Purpose of use Level of skill Purpose of use Level of skill
Teaching
Other
Both
Do not
know
Not skilled
at all
Not skilled
Neutral
Skilled
Very
Skilled
Mean
Teaching
Other
Both
Do not
know
Not skilled
at all
Not skilled
Neutral
Skilled
Very
Skilled
Mean
Use social networking software on the web (e.g. Facebook) 0 3 3 1 1 0 1 4 0 3.33 0 4 2 0 0 1 2 3 0 3.00
Use the web to download podcasts (e.g. using Juice, iTunes) 0 4 1 2 0 4 0 0 1 2.60 0 4 1 1 0 3 1 1 0 2.60
Use the web to publish podcasts (e.g. using Podifier, Podcaster, PodProducer) 0 4 1 2 0 4 0 0 1 2.60 1 3 1 1 1 2 1 1 0 2.40
Use the web to share photographs or other Digital material (e.g. using blinklist, Flickr) 0 4 1 2 0 4 0 1 0 2.40 0 4 2 0 0 1 2 3 0 3.33
Use the web for pastimes (e.g. for leisure activities) 0 7 0 0 0 0 4 3 0 3.43 0 5 1 0 0 1 3 1 1 3.33
127
Table 4.17. Purpose of use and level of skill in Cluster 3 technologies (Web publishing): Instructors.
University of Tripoli (Urban)
Group A, Elec. Eng. N=24
Group B, Petr. Eng. N=6
Purpose of use Level of skill Purpose of use Level of skill
Teaching
Other
Both
Do not
know
Not skilled
at all
Not skilled
Neutral
Skilled
Very
Skilled
Mean
Teaching
Other
Both
Do not
know
Not skilled
at all
Not skilled
Neutral
Skilled
Very
Skilled
Mean
Use the web to build & maintain a website 7 5 2 7 3 6 2 4 2 2.76 3 3 0 0 0 1 2 2 1 3.50
Use the web to keep your own blog or vlog 0 6 5 9 5 2 5 1 1 2.36 0 3 1 2 0 2 4 0 0 2.67
Use the web to read other peoples’ blogs or vlogs 0 12 1 8 4 5 4 3 0 2.38 0 1 3 2 0 2 2 2 0 3.00
Use the web to comment on blogs or vlogs 0 11 1 8 6 4 3 2 0 2.07 0 2 3 1 0 2 3 1 0 2.83
Use the web to contribute to the development of a Wiki 0 10 1 8 7 2 3 1 0 1.85 0 3 0 3 0 2 3 1 0 2.83
128
Table 4.17. Continued.
University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi (Regional)
Group C, Elec. Eng. N=7
Group D, Petr. Eng. N=6
Purpose of use Level of skill Purpose of use Level of skill
Teaching
Other
Both
Do not
know
Not skilled
at all
Not skilled
Neutral
Skilled
Very
Skilled
Mean
Teaching
Other
Both
Do not
know
Not skilled
at all
Not skilled
Neutral
Skilled
Very
Skilled
Mean
Use the web to build & maintain a website 2 2 0 3 2 1 1 0 0 1.75 0 2 4 0 0 2 2 2 0 3.33
Use the web to keep your own blog or vlog 0 3 0 4 1 1 1 0 0 2.00 0 3 0 3 0 0 2 1 0 3.33
Use the web to read other peoples’ blogs or vlogs 0 3 0 4 0 1 2 1 0 3.00 0 3 0 3 0 1 0 2 0 3.33
Use the web to comment on blogs or vlogs 0 3 0 4 1 1 1 0 0 2.00 0 1 1 4 0 1 1 0 0 3.50
Use the web to contribute to the development of a Wiki 0 1 0 6 0 1 0 0 0 2.00 0 2 0 4 0 2 0 0 0 2.00
129
Findings presented in tables 4.15, 4.16, and 4.17 show that, overall, teaching was not
the main purpose for which instructors used web-based technologies in all clusters;
other purposes dominated the responses in all groups of respondents. However, there
were exceptions. In relation to Cluster 1 technologies (Accessing information and
communicating – Table 4.15), online dictionaries were used mainly for teaching
purposes and the instructors’ self-reported level of skill in using the web to look up
reference information was high. Likewise, teaching was the main purpose of using
the web to access a CMS or LMS for most instructors. While teaching was not the
primary purpose, all instructors used the web to send and receive emails, and reported
high levels of skill in using this technology; the use of instant messaging was equally
prevalent. Most instructors used Skype for making phone calls for other purposes.
Interestingly, although 4 instructors in regional Group C used a webcam with Skype,
all of them rated themselves as unskilled in using this technology.
With regards to Cluster 2 technologies (Podcasting and socialising – Table 4.16),
most instructors reported using social networking software such as Facebook for
purposes other than teaching; instructors’ self-reported level of skill in using this
technology was relatively high. Sharing photos and digital materials was a popular
activity; just 4 instructors in Group A and 2 instructors in regional Group C reported
that they had never heard of this activity.
Cluster 3 technologies (Web publishing – Table 4.17) represented a group of
technologies which the biggest number of instructors did not use (they responded ‘do
not know’ this technology). Most instructors reported that they had never heard of
blogs, and those who used them, lacked confidence in their skills. Overall, wikis were
the least used technology; most instructors indicated that they had never contributed
to this type of web publishing tool. The instructors who used Wikis, did so for
purposes other than teaching and rated themselves as unskilled in using this
technology.
130
4.4.5. Student use of mobile phone technologies
Table 4.18. Percentage of students who used mobile phone functions for learning and their average level of skill.
University of Tripoli (Urban)
University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi (Regional)
Group A Elec. Eng.
N=125
Group B Petr. Eng.
N=105
Group C Elec. Eng.
N=45
Group D Petr. Eng.
N=73
Use %
Skill �̅�
Use %
Skill �̅�
Use %
Skill �̅�
Use %
Skill �̅�
Use a mobile phone to text/SMS people 98 4.52 88 4.68 75 4.45 86 4.62
Use a mobile phone to access information/ services on the web 95 3.99 86 4.00 40 4.24 32 4.14
Use a mobile phone to send or receive email
94 3.68 87 3.62 33 3.86 13 4.29
Results presented in Table 4.18 show that students in all groups reported quite high
levels of using mobile phones to send text messages or SMSs in relation to learning;
their reported level of skill in using this technology was also high. While the urban
students (groups A and B) were more likely to use their mobile phones to access web
information, or send and receive emails, regional students (groups C and D) were
more confident of their ability to use mobile phones to engage in these activities.
131
Table 4.19. Logistic regression models for student use of mobile phone functions for learning.
Text/SMS Access web info/service Send/receive email
Variable B SE B SE B SE
(Intercept) 4.21 0.87 2.96 0.62 2.74 0.66
Gender (Male) 0.88 0.43 * 0.00 0.34 0.16 0.37
Group B -1.89 0.67 ** -1.34 0.53 * -0.99 0.51
Group C -3.01 0.72 *** -3.44 0.55 *** -3.55 0.54 ***
Group D -2.11 0.70 ** -3.69 0.52 *** -4.67 0.56 ***
Age 21-22 0.19 0.73 0.26 0.57 0.51 0.67
Age ≥ 23 0.14 0.81 0.98 0.67 0.90 0.75
Year 2 -0.30 0.82 -0.42 0.60 -0.47 0.74
Year 3 -0.99 0.93 -0.10 0.71 -0.70 0.82
Year ≥ 4 -1.02 0.96 -0.84 0.76 -0.76 0.87
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001
The results provided in Table 4.19 show that there was a significant difference
between female and male students with respect to sending text messages or SMSs;
male students were more likely to use this tool for learning.
As shown in Table 4.19 and Figure 4.9, there was also a significant difference in the
level of use of mobile phone functions for learning between the urban and regional
students. Urban students from Group A were most likely to use the various mobile
phone functions for learning. Although all other students were less likely to use these
functions than students in Group A, regional students in groups C and D reported
particularly low levels of using mobile phones for learning.
132
Figure 4.9. Predicted probability of mobile phone use for learning by group.
4.4.6. Instructor use of mobile phone technologies
Instructor responses are reported only as actual numbers, due to a low response rate.
133
Table 4.20. Purpose of use and level of skill in mobile phone technologies: Instructors.
University of Tripoli (Urban)
Group A, Elec. Eng. N=24
Group B, Petr. Eng. N=6
Purpose of use Level of skill Purpose of use Level of skill
Teaching
Other
Both
Do not
know
Not skilled
at all
Not skilled
Neutral
Skilled
Very
Skilled
Mean
Teaching
Other
Both
Do not
know
Not skilled
at all
Not skilled
Neutral
Skilled
Very
Skilled
Mean
Use a mobile phone to text/SMS people 0 10 12 0 0 1 1 8 14 4.46 0 2 4 0 0 0 0 2 4 4.67
Use a mobile phone to access web info/services 0 15 5 2 3 1 5 8 5 3.50 0 4 2 0 0 0 0 3 3 4.50
Use a mobile phone to send or receive email 0 15 5 2 4 2 6 6 4 3.18 0 3 3 0 0 0 1 3 2 4.17
Table 4.20. Continued.
University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi (Regional)
Group C, Elec. Eng. N=7
Group D, Petr. Eng. N=6
Purpose of use Level of skill Purpose of use Level of skill
Teaching
Other
Both
Do not
know
Not skilled
at all
Not skilled
Neutral
Skilled
Very
Skilled
Mean
Teaching
Other
Both
Do not
know
Not skilled
at all
Not skilled
Neutral
Skilled
Very
Skilled
Mean
Use a mobile phone to text/SMS people 0 3 4 0 1 0 0 2 4 4.14 0 3 3 0 0 0 3 1 2 3.83
Use a mobile phone to access web info/services 0 7 0 0 0 1 2 2 2 3.71 0 3 3 0 0 1 2 1 2 3.67
Use a mobile phone to send or receive email 0 7 0 0 0 1 1 4 1 3.71 0 4 2 0 0 1 3 1 1 3.33
134
Results presented in Table 4.20 show that, while instructors reported a high level of mobile
phone usage and skill, their level of use for teaching purposes was moderate.
4.5. USEFULNESS OF TECHNOLOGY IN LEARNING AND TEACHING
Participants were provided with a list of technology based tools that might be used in their
learning/teaching. They were asked to apply a rating scale (from “1” ‘strongly disagree’ to
“5” ‘strongly agree’) to indicate their agreement with how useful each of these technologies
would be in supporting their learning/teaching. If the participants were not sure about a
particular technology, they were asked to select the ‘do not know’ option.
To facilitate statistical analysis and ease of interpretation, the categories ‘strongly disagree’
and ‘disagree’ were merged into a single category, ‘disagree’ and, the categories ‘agree’ and
‘strongly agree’ were combined into a single category, ‘agree’.
4.5.1. Usefulness of technology in learning – student perceptions
Students were asked to indicate whether they perceived technologies useful in supporting
their learning; they were provided with a selection of common ways in which a technology
could be utilised in a learning environment. The results are reported as a percentage of those
respondents who disagreed, agreed, or were neutral toward each of the technologies (the
percentages have been rounded to the nearest integer). Respondents who indicated that they
did not know a technology are not included in this analysis.
135
Usefulness of computer-based technologies
Table 4.21. Percentage of students who found computer-based technologies useful for learning.
University of Tripoli
(Urban) University of Al-Jabal Al-
Gharbi (Regional)
Group A Elec. Eng
% (N)
Group B Petr. Eng
% (N)
Group C Elec. Eng
% (N)
Group D Petr. Eng
% (N)
Create and present multimedia shows (e.g. Power Point)
Agree 89 (96) 85 (79) 83 (30) 81 (46)
Neutral 8 (9) 14 (13) 17 (6) 18 (10)
Disagree 3 (3) 1 (1) 0 (0) 1 (1)
Create and present audio/video (e.g. iMovie, Movie Maker)
Agree 73 (80) 81 (75) 78 (31) 76 (45)
Neutral 22 (24) 16 (15) 20 (8) 19 (11)
Disagree 5 (5) 3 (3) 2 (1) 5 (3)
Create spreadsheets (Excel, etc.)
Agree 82 (87) 90 (86) 88 (37) 76 (44)
Neutral 15 (16) 10 (10) 10 (4) 22 (13)
Disagree 3 (3) 0 (0) 2 (1) 2 (1)
Use programming languages (C++, Java, etc.)
Agree 73 (71) 78 (72) 93 (38) 69 (40)
Neutral 18 (18) 20 (19) 7 (3) 26 (15)
Disagree 9 (9) 2 (2) 0 (0) 5 (3)
Use Matlab to simplify the implementation of numerical linear algebra routines
Agree 75 (68) 82 (65) 94 (30) 73 (40)
Neutral 21 (19) 14 (11) 3 (1) 26 (14)
Disagree 4 (4) 4 (3) 3 (1) 1 (1)
Use Labview to develop high-performance applications
Agree 69 (52) 78 (59) 78 (21) 68 (29)
Neutral 24 (18) 18 (14) 15 (4) 30 (13)
Disagree 7 (5) 4 (3) 7 (2) 2 (1)
As shown in Table 4.21, overall, students in all groups perceived computer-based
technologies as useful for learning. In particular, creating Power Point presentations was seen
as very useful – more than 80% of respondents in each group agreed. All groups perceived
using Excel to create spreadsheets as very useful, with students in Group D indicating
somewhat lower levels of usefulness as compared to other students. The highest levels of
usefulness were attributed by students in Group C to the use of Matlab (94% of students
136
agreed), and to the use of programming languages (93% of students agreed). Using Labview
to develop high-performance applications was perceived least favourably by all groups of
students.
Usefulness of web-based technologies
Table 4.22. Percentage of students who found web-based technologies useful for learning.
University of Tripoli
(Urban) University of Al-Jabal Al-
Gharbi (Regional)
Group A Elec. Eng
% (N)
Group B Petr. Eng
% (N)
Group C Elec. Eng
% (N)
Group D Petr. Eng
% (N)
Download or access online audio/video recordings of lectures
Agree 85 (96) 92 (87) 93 (37) 82 (54)
Neutral 11 (12) 7 (7) 5 (2) 14 (9)
Disagree 4 (5) 1 (1) 2 (1) 4 (3)
Download or access online audio/video recordings of supplementary content material
Agree 91 (105) 88 (85) 98 (41) 80 (53)
Neutral 5 (6) 10 (10) 0 (0) 17 (11)
Disagree 4 (5) 2 (2) 2 (1) 3 (2)
Use the web to access University based services (e.g. enrolment, sign up for tutes, pay fees)
Agree 93 (109) 95 (95) 95 (39) 90 (57)
Neutral 4 (5) 5 (5) 0 (0) 5 (4)
Disagree 3 (4) 0 (0) 5 (2) 5 (3)
Use the web to share digital files related to your course (e.g. sharing photos, audio files, movies, websites, etc.)
Agree 86 (97) 88 (89) 81 (34) 72 (47)
Neutral 12 (13) 10 (10) 19 (8) 25 (16)
Disagree 2 (3) 2 (2) 0 (0) 3 (2)
Overall, students in all groups perceived web-based technologies as very useful technologies
in learning (Table 4.22). In particular, using the web to access university based services (e.g.
enrolment, payment of fees) was seen as useful by over 90% of respondents in each group.
Also, downloading or accessing online audio/video recordings of lectures and downloading
or accessing online audio/video recordings of supplementary content material were perceived
as most useful – over 80% of respondents in each group agreed.
137
Usefulness of web-based communication
Table 4.23. Percentage of students who found web-based communication useful for learning.
University of Tripoli
(Urban) University of Al-Jabal Al-
Gharbi (Regional)
Group A Elec. Eng
% (N)
Group B Petr. Eng
% (N)
Group C Elec. Eng
% (N)
Group D Petr. Eng
% (N)
Use instant messaging/chat (e.g. MSN, Yahoo, ICQ) on the web to communicate/ collaborate with other students in the course
Agree 83 (97) 83 (84) 70 (28) 64 (40)
Neutral 13 (15) 15 (15) 25 (10) 33 (21)
Disagree 4 (5) 2 (2) 5 (2) 3 (2)
Use instant messaging/chat (e.g. MSN, Yahoo) on the web to communicate with lecturing and administrative staff
Agree 81 (96) 81 (81) 77 (29) 63 (40)
Neutral 16 (19) 15 (15) 18 (7) 31 (20)
Disagree 3 (4) 4 (4) 5 (2) 6 (4)
Use social networking software (e.g. Facebook) on the web to communicate/collaborate with other students
Agree 83 (96) 75 (73) 69 (27) 64 (43)
Neutral 15 (17) 19 (18) 23 (9) 28 (19)
Disagree 2 (3) 6 (6) 8 (3) 8 (5)
Use web conferencing or video chat to communicate/ collaborate with other students
Agree 76 (84) 68 (65) 68 (27) 62 (40)
Neutral 19 (21) 24 (23) 25 (10) 30 (20)
Disagree 5 (5) 8 (8) 7 (3) 8 (5)
As shown in Table 4.23, all students perceived the web as a useful tool for communication in
relation to learning with urban students rating its usefulness somewhat higher than their
regional counterparts. In particular, using instant messaging/chat to communicate/collaborate
with other students in the course or with lecturing and administrative staff were seen by the
urban students as very useful – more than 80% of respondents agreed. Students in urban
Group A perceived using social networking software to communicate/collaborate with other
students as very useful; however, students in regional Group D reported the lowest levels of
usefulness of this technology. Using web conferencing or video chat to
communicate/collaborate with other students was perceived least favourably by students in
all groups.
138
Usefulness of blogs, Wikis and web pages
Table 4.24. Percentage of students who found blogs, Wikis, and web pages useful for learning.
University of Tripoli
(Urban) University of Al-Jabal Al-
Gharbi (Regional)
Group A Elec. Eng
% (N)
Group B Petr. Eng
% (N)
Group C Elec. Eng
% (N)
Group D Petr. Eng
% (N)
Keep your own blogs as part of your course requirements
Agree 66 (42) 65 (43) 65 (11) 43 (15)
Neutral 27 (17) 32 (21) 24 (4) 54 (19)
Disagree 7 (5) 3 (2) 11 (2) 3 (1)
Contribute to a blog as part of your course requirements
Agree 56 (35) 72 (45) 82 (14) 53 (18)
Neutral 32 (20) 25 (16) 18 (3) 47 (13)
Disagree 12 (8) 3 (2) 0 (0) 0 (0)
Contribute with other students to the development of wiki as part of your course requirements
Agree 60 (44) 75 (50) 68 (15) 65 (24)
Neutral 30 (23) 24 (16) 27 (6) 35 (13)
Disagree 10 (7) 1 (1) 5 (1) 0 (0)
Design and build web pages Agree 80 (83) 84 (75) 74 (29) 74 (45)
Neutral 15 (16) 14 (12) 23 (9) 26 (16)
Disagree 5 (5) 2 (2) 3 (1) 0 (0)
The results presented in Table 4.24 show that designing and building web pages was
perceived most useful of all the options provided, particularly by the urban students. On the
other hand, keeping blogs as part of the course requirements was perceived as least useful.
Contributing to blogs and Wikis as part of the course requirements was regarded as relatively
useful, although student perceptions of the usefulness of such activities varied somewhat
between the groups.
139
Usefulness of mobile phones
Table 4.25. Percentage of students who found mobile phones useful for learning.
University of Tripoli
(Urban) University of Al-Jabal Al-
Gharbi (Regional)
Group A Elec. Eng
% (N)
Group B Petr. Eng
% (N)
Group C Elec. Eng
% (N)
Group D Petr. Eng
% (N)
Use your mobile phone to access web-based University services information or services
Agree 89 (105) 86 (85) 91 (38) 78 (52)
Neutral 9 (10) 10 (10) 7 (3) 16 (11)
Disagree 2 (3) 4 (4) 2 (1) 6 (4)
Receive grades/marks from your Lecturer via text message on your mobile phone
Agree 92 (100) 87 (87) 81 (35) 90 (61)
Neutral 5 (6) 7 (7) 14 (6) 4 (3)
Disagree 3 (4) 6 (6) 5 (2) 6 (4)
Receive pre-class discussion questions from your Lecturer via text message on your mobile phone
Agree 79 (93) 73 (73) 64 (31) 88 (61)
Neutral 13 (15) 18 (18) 19 (8) 9 (6)
Disagree 8 (10) 9 (9) 7 (3) 3 (2)
Receive administrative information about the course via text message on your mobile phone
Agree 87 (104) 91 (93) 91 (38) 87 (60)
Neutral 9 (11) 6 (6) 9 (4) 12 (8)
Disagree 4 (4) 3 (3) 0 (0) 1 (1)
Results presented in Table 4.25 show that students in all groups perceived mobile phones as
very useful, particularly with respect to administrative tasks related to their studies; over 80%
of students in each group regarded as useful the ability to receive grades and course
information via text messages. While receiving pre-class discussion questions via text
message was perceived relatively useful, this application of mobile phones was rated lowest
in comparison to the other applications.
Overall usefulness of technology
The level of overall usefulness of technology was determined by finding the average of items
discussed in previous subsections; the dependent variable had an approximate normal
distribution (skewness statistic = 0.363, SE=0.131; kurtosis statistic = 0.644, SE=0.262).
Multiple linear regression was used to determine how the overall usefulness of a technology
140
was related to student gender and location, as well as other independent variables such as age,
year of study, student access to technology, student use of technology for learning, student
skill in technology, and student satisfaction with technology (a mathematical description of
the model used is presented in Chapter 3, Section 3.6.1). The model was not statistically
significant (F(14,45)=0.803, p=0.661), and none of the independent variables were significantly
related to the overall usefulness of technology (details are presented in Appendix I).
4.5.2. Usefulness of technology in teaching – instructor perceptions
Instructors were asked to indicate whether they perceived technologies useful in supporting
their teaching. The results are reported as actual numbers of those instructors who disagreed,
agreed, or were neutral toward each of the technologies included in the survey. Respondents
who indicated that they did not know a technology are not included in this analysis.
141
Usefulness of computer-based technologies
Table 4.26. Number of instructors who found computer-based technologies useful for teaching.
University of Tripoli
(Urban) University of Al-Jabal Al-
Gharbi (Regional)
Group A Elec. Eng
N=24
Group B Petr. Eng
N=6
Group C Elec. Eng
N=7
Group D Petr. Eng
N=6
Create and present multimedia shows (e.g. Power Point)
Agree 20 5 7 4 Neutral 2 1 0 2 Disagree 0 0 0 0
Create and present audio/video (e.g. iMovie, Movie Maker)
Agree 16 5 6 3 Neutral 4 1 0 2 Disagree 0 0 0 0
Create spreadsheets (Excel, etc.) Agree 21 5 3 3 Neutral 1 0 3 2 Disagree 0 0 0 0
Use programming languages (C++, Java, etc.)
Agree 19 5 2 3 Neutral 2 1 0 2 Disagree 0 0 1 0
Use Matlab to simplify the implementation of numerical algebra routines
Agree 17 5 5 3 Neutral 2 0 1 2 Disagree 0 0 1 0
Use Labview to develop high-performance applications
Agree 14 4 2 3 Neutral 3 0 0 2 Disagree 0 0 1 0
Overall, instructors in all groups perceived computer-based technologies as a useful tool in
teaching (Table 4.26); creating Power Point presentations was regarded as particularly useful.
Using Excel to create spreadsheets was perceived as very useful too, although instructors in
regional groups reported lower levels of usefulness of this technology. Using Labview to
develop high-performance applications was perceived least favourably of all technologies.
142
Usefulness of the web-based technologies
Table 4.27. Number of instructors who found web-based technologies useful for teaching.
University of Tripoli
(Urban) University of Al-Jabal Al-
Gharbi (Regional)
Group A Elec. Eng
N=24
Group B Petr. Eng
N=6
Group C Elec. Eng
N=7
Group D Petr. Eng
N=6
Upload online audio/video recordings of lectures
Agree 15 5 2 3 Neutral 4 1 0 2 Disagree 1 0 1 0
Upload online audio/video recordings of supplementary content material
Agree 14 5 2 3 Neutral 7 1 3 2 Disagree 0 0 1 0
Use the web to share digital files related to your course (e.g. sharing photos, audio files, movies, websites)
Agree 16 5 6 3 Neutral 5 0 1 3 Disagree 0 0 0 0
All the web-based technologies presented for the instructors' consideration were regarded by
them as useful in teaching (Table 4.27). While the levels of perceived usefulness were similar
for all the technologies, using the web to share digital files related to courses was seen as
most useful.
143
Usefulness of web for communication
Table 4.28. Number of instructors who found web-based communication useful for teaching.
University of Tripoli
(Urban) University of Al-Jabal Al-
Gharbi (Regional)
Group A Elec. Eng
N=24
Group B Petr. Eng
N=6
Group C Elec. Eng
N=7
Group D Petr. Eng
N=6
Use instant messaging/chat (e.g. MSN, Yahoo, ICQ) on the web to communicate with students
Agree 11 2 5 3 Neutral 6 2 0 2 Disagree 4 1 1 0
Use instant messaging/chat (e.g. MSN, Yahoo) on the web to communicate with other instructors & administrators
Agree 18 4 4 3 Neutral 3 1 0 2 Disagree 2 0 1 0
Use social networking software (e.g. Facebook) on the web to communicate with students
Agree 16 3 6 3 Neutral 4 1 1 3 Disagree 4 1 0 0
Use web conferencing or video chat to communicate with students
Agree 14 2 3 2 Neutral 5 4 4 4 Disagree 1 0 0 0
Overall, instructors in all groups perceived the web as a useful tool for communication in
relation to teaching (Table 4.28). Using instant messaging/chat to communicate with other
instructors and administrative staff was seen by instructors as particularly useful. Instructors
in all groups perceived the use of web conferencing or video chat to communicate with
students as relatively less useful than the other web-based communication options.
144
Usefulness of blogs, Wikis and web pages
Table 4.29. Number of instructors who found blogs, Wikis and web pages useful for teaching.
University of Tripoli
(Urban) University of Al-Jabal Al-
Gharbi (Regional)
Group A Elec. Eng
N=24
Group B Petr. Eng
N=6
Group C Elec. Eng
N=7
Group D Petr. Eng
N=6
Keep your own blogs as part of the course
Agree 9 3 2 1 Neutral 3 1 2 4 Disagree 1 0 0 0
Keep a Wiki as part of the course Agree 7 2 2 2 Neutral 3 2 1 3 Disagree 1 0 0 0
Design and build web pages Agree 17 4 5 4 Neutral 4 1 1 2 Disagree 0 0 1 0
Instructors in all groups perceived designing and building web pages as very useful to support
their teaching (Table 4.29). Blogs and Wikis were regarded to be of lesser usefulness.
Usefulness of mobile phones
Table 4.30. Number of instructors who found mobile phones useful for teaching.
University of Tripoli
(Urban) University of Al-Jabal Al-
Gharbi (Regional)
Group A Elec. Eng
N=24
Group B Petr. Eng
N=6
Group C Elec. Eng
N=7
Group D Petr. Eng
N=6
Receive grades/marks for students via text message through mobile phone
Agree 9 1 4 3 Neutral 7 3 1 3 Disagree 6 2 1 0
Provide pre-class discussion questions for students via text message through mobile phone
Agree 8 1 2 4 Neutral 9 2 3 1 Disagree 6 2 1 1
The results provided in Table 4.30 show that the urban instructors’ views on the usefulness of
mobile phones for teaching were divided; just as many of them agreed as disagreed with the
usefulness of this technology. Regional instructors regarded the usefulness of mobile phones
more favourably.
145
4.6. SATISFACTION WITH THE AVAILABLE ICT ENVIRONMENT
Participants were asked to indicate their level of satisfaction with the various aspects of the
available ICT environment using a rating scale (from “1” ‘very poor’ to “5” ‘very good’). To
facilitate statistical analysis and ease of interpretation, the categories ‘very good’ and ‘good’
were merged into a single category, ‘good’ and, the categories ‘poor’ and ‘very poor’ were
combined into a single category, ‘poor’.
4.6.1. Student satisfaction
Table 4.31. Student satisfaction with the available ICT environment (represented as observed percentages).
University of Tripoli
(Urban) University of Al-Jabal Al-
Gharbi (Regional)
Group A Elec. Eng
N=125
Group B Petr. Eng
N=105
Group C Elec. Eng
N=45
Group D Petr. Eng
N=73 The quality of the Internet access in the institute
Good 16 10 7 2 Average 16 27 26 8 Poor 68 63 67 90
The necessary ICT infrastructure Good 10 10 13 0 Average 27 26 18 16 Poor 63 64 69 84
The quality of the technology used in classes
Good 8 8 2 4 Average 25 23 29 11 Poor 67 69 69 85
The ease of use of technology Good 20 20 13 3 Average 37 34 40 38 Poor 43 46 47 59
The extent to which the courses relied on the use of technology in the classrooms
Good 2 11 5 7 Average 19 26 24 18 Poor 69 63 71 75
The extent to which the courses relied on the use of technology at home
Good 22 36 22 28 Average 39 37 49 46 Poor 39 27 29 26
The degree of confidence you had that classes would not be interrupted or cancelled due to technical problems
Good 34 22 5 12 Average 31 44 46 46 Poor 35 34 49 42
The quality of technical support provided
Good 10 11 5 6 Average 31 33 20 19 Poor 59 56 75 75
The overall usefulness of technology used in classes
Good 31 31 27 21 Average 22 31 22 23 Poor 47 38 51 56
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As shown in Table 4.31, student satisfaction with the available ICT environment was
generally low among all groups of participants. Satisfaction was particularly low among
regional students from Group D. These students were least satisfied with the quality of the
Internet access (90% of students rated it ‘poor’), the ICT infrastructure (84% of ‘poor’
responses), and the quality of technology used in classes (85% of ‘poor’ responses). Students
in all groups found the quality of technical support lacking. While more than half of the
students in urban groups A and B felt dissatisfied with the quality of technical support
provided, the level of dissatisfaction among the regional students was even higher (75% of
‘poor’ responses).
In addition to student satisfaction with the ICT environment, their interest in studying courses
that use e-learning was also gauged.
Table 4.32. Student interest in studying courses that use e-learning (represented as observed percentages).
University of Tripoli (Urban) University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi (Regional)
Group A Elec. Eng N=125
Group B Petr. Eng N=105
Group C Elec. Eng
N=45
Group D Petr. Eng N=73
Agree 85 89 78 94 Neutral 9 6 18 6 Disagree 6 5 4 0
As shown in Table 4.32 student interest in an e-learning mode of study was high across all
groups, and it was highest among regional students from Group D (94% of respondents
agreed).
The average level of student interest in studying a course that uses e-learning was also
compared with their average level of satisfaction with the various aspects of the available ICT
environment (Figure 4.10).
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Figure 4.10. Student interest in studying e-learning courses and their satisfaction with the
available ICT environment (represented as mean scores).
As illustrated in Figure 4.10., the high level of student interest in studying courses that use e-
learning did not seem to be affected by their level of satisfaction with the ICT environment,
which was generally low among all groups of participants. Interest was high even among
students in Group D, although their levels of satisfaction were particularly low.
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4.6.2. Instructor satisfaction
Table 4.33. Instructor satisfaction with the available ICT environment (represented as actual numbers).
University of Tripoli
(Urban) University of Al-Jabal Al-
Gharbi (Regional)
Group A Elec. Eng
N=24
Group B Petr. Eng
N=6
Group C Elec. Eng
N=7
Group D Petr. Eng
N=6 The quality of the Internet access in the institute
Good 2 3 0 1 Average 5 3 0 1 Poor 17 0 7 4
The necessary ICT infrastructure Good 2 0 0 1 Average 5 4 1 1 Poor 17 2 6 4
The quality of the technology used in classes
Good 1 3 0 2 Average 5 3 1 4 Poor 18 0 6 0
The ease of use of technology Good 7 1 2 3 Average 7 5 3 3 Poor 9 0 2 0
The degree of confidence you had that classes would not be interrupted or cancelled due to technical problems
Good 6 2 1 2 Average 10 4 3 3 Poor 8 0 3 1
The quality of technical support provided
Good 1 2 0 1 Average 5 3 3 3 Poor 17 1 4 2
The overall usefulness of technology used in classes
Good 16 1 6 2 Average 5 5 0 4 Poor 3 0 1 0
The participating instructors reported low levels of satisfaction with the available ICT
environment (Table 4.33). The aspects that were rated lowest included the quality of the
Internet access, the ICT infrastructure, the quality of technology used in classes, and the
quality of technical support; instructors in Group C reported the lowest levels of satisfaction
among all groups. However, instructors in all groups were relatively satisfied with the overall
usefulness of technology use in classes.
Instructor interest in providing e-learning courses was also gauged (Table 4.34) and
compared with their satisfaction with the available ICT environment (Figure 4.12).
149
Table 4.34. Number of instructors interested in providing e-learning courses.
University of Tripoli (Urban) University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi (Regional)
Group A Elec. Eng
N=24
Group B Petr. Eng
N=6
Group C Elec. Eng
N=7
Group D Petr. Eng
N=6 Agree 20 6 5 2 Neutral 4 0 1 4 Disagree 0 0 1 0
Instructor interest in providing e-learning courses was high, particularly among the urban
groups A and B (Table 4.34). As illustrated in Figure 4.11, instructor interest was high in
spite of their low levels of satisfaction with the available ICT environment.
Figure 4.11. Instructor interest in providing e-learning courses and their satisfaction with the available ICT environment (represented as mean scores).
Elaborating about the reasons behind their willingness to provide e-learning in the future,
instructors identified e-learning’s capacity to improve communication, facilitate student
learning, and enable incorporation of new teaching methods:
“Yes, I am highly interested to use e-learning because it strengthens and makes communication
more convenient among students and colleagues. It also allows students to access materials
anytime and anywhere; I believe that this will have a huge positive impact on students’ learning
and instructors’ teaching.”
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“Yes, because teaching in e-learning will allow me to use new technologies and try new methods
for teaching.”
“Yes, of course I would like to use e-learning in my teaching because of its benefits for both the
instructor and the student. It increases and facilitates communication between students and
colleagues, while also helping them to exchange information, opinions and ideas that serve the
educational process.”
“Yes, I would like to use e-learning for my teaching because I believed that e-learning would
make the education and training more accessible for all Libyans; it will increase the number of
educated people who in turn participate in the development of the new Libya.”
4.7. ATTITUDES AND BELIEFS TOWARDS ICT AND E-LEARNING
Participants were asked to indicate their level of agreement with various statements related to
attitudes and beliefs using a rating scale (from “1” ‘strongly disagree’ to “5” ‘strongly
agree’). To facilitate statistical analysis and ease of interpretation, the categories ‘strongly
agree’ and ‘agree’ were merged into a single category, ‘agree’ and, the categories ‘disagree’
and ‘strongly disagree’ were combined into a single category, ‘disagree’.
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4.7.1. Student attitudes and beliefs
Table 4.35. Student attitudes and beliefs towards ICT and e-learning (represented as observed percentages).
University of Tripoli
(Urban) University of Al-Jabal Al-
Gharbi (Regional)
Group A Elec. Eng
N=125
Group B Petr. Eng
N=105
Group C Elec. Eng
N=45
Group D Petr. Eng
N=73 I feel confident in using computers Agree 71 87 89 82
Neutral 22 10 7 16 Disagree 7 3 4 2
I enjoy using ICT for my studies Agree 63 70 73 69 Neutral 27 21 18 19 Disagree 10 9 9 12
I believe that e-learning gives me the opportunity to acquire new knowledge
Agree 86 93 91 88 Neutral 10 7 5 10 Disagree 4 0 4 2
I believe that e-learning enhances my learning experience
Agree 86 93 90 89 Neutral 12 7 9 11 Disagree 2 0 1 0
I believe that convenience is an important feature of e-learning
Agree 76 91 87 88 Neutral 21 8 9 11 Disagree 3 1 4 1
E-learning increases the quality of learning because it integrates all forms of media
Agree 80 87 78 85 Neutral 17 10 15 12 Disagree 3 3 7 3
Adopting ICT and e-learning allows for increased student satisfaction
Agree 79 83 84 89 Neutral 17 14 11 11 Disagree 4 3 5 0
The results presented in Table 4.35 reveal that students in all groups felt confident in using
computers, enjoyed using computers in their studies, and believed in the benefits of e-
learning. Most students held positive beliefs about the capabilities of e-learning; they
believed particularly strongly that e-learning facilitates better acquisition of new knowledge
and enhances learning experience. Among all the groups, students from the urban Group A
were somewhat less likely to believe in the convenience of e-learning and its capacity to
increase their learning satisfaction.
Student attitudes and beliefs were also checked against their overall levels of access to
technology, skill, and satisfaction to explore possible relationships.
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Figure 4.12. Scatterplots (lower triangle), histograms (diagonal), and correlations
with 95% confidence intervals (upper triangle) for student average scores on attitudes/beliefs, access, skill and satisfaction levels.
As illustrated in Figure 4.12, the relationships were approximately linear between student
attitudes/beliefs and other variables: student access to technologies, student use of technology
for learning, student skill in technologies, and student satisfaction with technologies. The
Pearson Product Moment correlation coefficients were used to measure the relationships
between the variables. The correlation coefficients were interpreted by using Davis (1971)
descriptors (negligible = 0.00 to 0.09; low =0.10 to 0.29; moderate = 0.30 to 0.49; substantial
=0.50 to 0.69; very strong = 0.70 to 1.00). There was a moderate positive relationship (r
=0.45, p<0.01) between student attitudes/beliefs towards ICT and e-learning and their levels
of skills in technology-based tools. The results also show a moderate positive correlation
between student attitudes/beliefs and their levels of access to various technologies (r =0.30,
p<0.01). Moreover, a substantial positive relationship (r =0.56, p<0.01) was found between
student level of skill in technology-based tools and their level of access to a range of
technologies.
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To study the relationships between student attitudes/beliefs (the dependent variable) and their
characteristics including gender, study group, age, year level, level of access to technology,
use of technology for learning, level of skill in technology, and satisfaction with technology,
a multiple regression analysis was conducted (Table 4.36). The dependent variable was
moderately skewed to the left (skewness statistic = -1.086, SE=0.132; kurtosis statistic =
2.787, SE=0.263).
Table 4.36. Multiple regression model for student attitudes/beliefs towards ICT and e-learning.
Variable B SE
Constant 2. 27 0.52
Gender (Male) - 0.10 0.16
Group B 0.18 0.19
Group C 0.08 0.33
Group D 0.01 0.30
Age 21-22 -0.08 0.33
Age ≥ 23 -0.52 0.36
Year 2 0.26 0.31
Year 3 0.41 0.37
Year ≥ 4 0.58 0.37
Access 0.09 0.25
Use 0.49 0.40
Skill 0.32 0.11 *
Satisfaction 0.13 0.11
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001
Table 4.36 shows that only the level of skill was statistically significant (t = 2.822; p =
0.007). There was no significant difference between female and male students, or between
urban and regional students with respect to their attitudes towards ICT and e-learning. While
the model was significant at the 0.05 level of significance (F(4, 54) =5.73; p=0.001), only 25%
of the variance in student attitudes and beliefs was explained by the independent variables
included in this model (Adjusted R Square=0.246) – further details are presented in Appendix
J.
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4.7.2. Instructor attitudes and beliefs
Table 4.37. Instructor attitudes and beliefs towards ICT and e-learning (represented as actual numbers).
University of Tripoli
(Urban) University of Al-Jabal Al-
Gharbi (Regional)
Group A Elec. Eng
N=24
Group B Petr. Eng
N=6
Group C Elec. Eng
N=7
Group D Petr. Eng
N=6 I feel confident in using computers Agree 23 6 7 5
Neutral 1 0 0 1 Disagree 0 0 0 0
I enjoy using ICT for my teaching Agree 16 5 6 5 Neutral 7 0 0 1 Disagree 1 1 1 0
I believe that e-learning gives me the opportunity to better convey new knowledge
Agree 19 6 5 4 Neutral 5 0 2 2 Disagree 0 0 0 0
I believe that e-learning enhances my teaching capacity
Agree 16 6 6 4 Neutral 8 0 1 2 Disagree 0 0 0 0
I believe that convenience is an important feature of e-learning
Agree 17 6 3 2 Neutral 6 0 4 3 Disagree 1 0 0 1
E-learning increases the quality of teaching because it integrates all forms of media
Agree 19 6 6 4 Neutral 4 0 1 1 Disagree 1 0 0 1
The results presented in Table 4.37 show that the majority of instructors in all groups felt
confident in using computers, enjoyed using ICT for teaching, and believed in the benefits of
e-learning in relation to teaching. Instructors who participated in the phone interviews
confirmed these beliefs with the following comments:
“E-learning can improve my ability to use new technology and multimedia facilities to adapt to
this ‘information age’. It could also improve student learning outcomes by providing more
resources and support”.
“Via the Web, I will exchange ideas and experiences with my colleagues and other instructors
from other institutions. This will help me and my fellow instructors to enhance our teaching”.
“E-learning enables students to learn collaboratively from one another; this is significant for their
learning. I believe that students become more motivated and will make better progress”.
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4.8. CHALLENGES FACED WHEN USING ICT AND E-LEARNING
Students and instructors were asked to list three challenges that they faced when using ICT
and e-learning. Qualitative data was collected from student and instructor responses to the
open-ended questions in the surveys and from short phone interviews with instructors.
4.8.1. Challenges faced by students
Table 4.38. Perceived challenges of ICT and e-learning faced by students (as observed percentages).
University of Tripoli
(Urban) University of Al-Jabal Al-
Gharbi (Regional)
Group A Elec. Eng
N=125
Group B Petr. Eng
N=105
Group C Elec. Eng
N=45
Group D Petr. Eng
N=73
Individual challenges
Lack of knowledge and experience 15 12 11 16
Lack of necessary technology skills 13 7 0 0
Contextual challenges
Lack of training 9 7 0 3
Limited command of English 4 6 3 13
Limited awareness of technology-based learning 11 4 11 2
Technological challenges
Lack of infrastructure 39 18 7 7
Limited Internet access 36 34 34 48
Computer storage 4 2 3 2
Pedagogical challenges Traditional ways of teaching 14 7 0 15
Four dominant types of challenges were synthesised from the student responses including
individual, contextual, technological, and pedagogical challenges (Table 4.38). The majority
of students in all groups regarded technological challenges as the most dominant obstacle
with the urban students identifying the lack of infrastructure and limited Internet access as the
biggest challenge; this might be explained by the destruction of the educational infrastructure,
particularly in the urban areas, during the 2011 armed conflict.
156
4.8.2. Challenges faced by instructors
Table 4.39. Perceived challenges of ICT and e-learning faced by instructors (as actual numbers).
University of Tripoli
(Urban) University of Al-Jabal Al-
Gharbi (Regional)
Group A Elec. Eng
N=24
Group B Petr. Eng
N=6
Group C Elec. Eng
N=7
Group D Petr. Eng
N=6
Individual challenges
Lack of experience 1 0 0 0
Limited awareness of technology-based learning 3 1 0 1
Contextual challenges
Lack of motivation among students 4 1 2 2
Shortage of student’s self-efficacy 2 0 0 0
Shortage of e-learning developers and teachers 2 2 0 0
Lack of training 3 2 0 0
Lack of budget & resources 10 1 0 0
Lack of adequate administrative support 1 0 0 0
Technological challenges
Lack of infrastructure 17 4 5 6
Limited Internet access 15 4 5 6
Computer storage 1 0 0 0
Pedagogical challenges
New curriculum design 6 0 2 1
New teaching methods 7 3 2 2
Similar to student responses, four types of challenges emerged from instructor responses
including individual, contextual, technological, and pedagogical challenges (Table 4.39).
Like the students, the majority of instructors in all groups regarded technological challenges
as the most dominant obstacle. The instructors who participated in the phone interviews
further reiterated these views:
“The network systems should be improved; internet speed should be fast during the day to
accommodate an increased number of students that are using the internet during the day. This
seems to be a challenge that is affecting most of the instructors and students”.
“Computers and networks have either worked badly or encountered low bandwidth connections
with frequent breakdowns”.
“Instructors and students face limited Internet access, an insufficient number of computers to use,
and unsuitable computers in terms of their capacity and speed”.
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“Due to a shortage of computers, instructors have to share one computer in an office with many
officemates, and for students the situation is worse”.
Lack of experience and computer skills was mentioned as a potential challenge to engaging in
e-learning: “I struggle with computers. I do not have computer literacy skills and feel a sense of
incompetence. Thus I tend to feel anxious and even worried about engaging in e-learning”.
Among the contextual challenges, inadequate technical support, lack of training, lack of
motivation among some students, and a lack of experts and university support were also
emphasised by interview participants:
“When technical problems arise, I get frustrated. Each time I need technical assistance, I go to the
help desk, but no one is available. This inhibits the use of e-learning”.
“I lacked confidence that technical support would be available and able to solve the technical
problem when I needed it. I see this as a great barrier. Also, training is not available at all. I still
rely on the training courses such as the modern teaching methods, and use the online feedback and
e-assessment that I received in the UK while I was doing my PhD study”.
“Some students lack good technical knowledge and skills to access online materials and tests; they
therefore do not participate in learning activities. This challenge hinders student engagement in e-
learning”.
“Good e-learning course illustrations are necessary to learn how to design good e-learning courses
and share experiences. E-learning experts are needed to assist instructors with solving all e-
learning related problems. Also, the university should provide some awards for those instructors
involved in e-learning teaching to encourage others to engage in e-learning teaching”.
Commenting on the pedagogical challenges, the interviewed instructors noted that some of
the engineering courses they taught seemed unsuitable for e-learning settings:
“Some engineering laboratory courses are complicated and difficult to design and upload online”.
“I need to provide various types of e-content online, so I had to learn new curriculum design and
new teaching methods for my e-learning courses; this takes so much of my time and effort, it is
time consuming”.
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4.9. CONCLUSION
This chapter provided results of the main study. The survey data analysis was presented
beginning with descriptive statistics of student and instructors’ demographic characteristics,
and then statistical analysis of student and instructor experiences and perceptions of
technology based tools, and an analysis of the qualitative data were presented.
Chapter 5 presents the conclusions and limitations related to this research study, contributions
of the research, and recommendations for future research related to understanding of the
issues related to the introduction and adoption of ICT and e-learning in Libyan higher
education.
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Chapter 5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1. INTRODUCTION
E-learning is increasingly becoming a vital modern model of education
worldwide, including developing countries. In Libya, e-learning has been a major
focus of the e-Libya policy which gives it the potential to play a vital role in re-
developing the country’s higher education system. Using student and instructor
perceptions as a framework, this research study has identified the characteristics,
enablers, and challenges of educational settings as related to ICT and e-learning in
higher education in Libya and has developed a set of recommendations for the
advancement of e-learning in the country.
This chapter begins with a summary of my thesis in Section 5.2, with each chapter
summarised. Section 5.3 addresses the major findings of my study which led to
the development of recommendations for the integration of e-learning into Libyan
higher education system, outlined in Section 5.4. Section 5.5 describes the
contributions of my study, and Section 5.6 summarises its constraints and
limitations. Recommendations for future studies related to my research are
outlined in Section 5.7.
5.2. OVERVIEW OF THE THESIS
The first chapter of this thesis provides a general background to the evolution of
e-learning in higher education, in addition to presenting the aims and significance
of this study. The overview of e-learning (Section 1.1) focuses on its development
in higher education in developing countries in general and, in particular, in Libya.
I highlight the progress made so far; identify the challenges for integrating e-
learning in higher education in those countries, and underline the potential of e-
learning in re-building and re-developing the higher education system in post-war
Libya. I identify the research problem and questions (Section 1.2), followed by an
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outline of methods and significance of this study (Sections 1.3 & 1.4). The aims
of my study are: (1) to determine the preparedness for e-learning of students and
instructors at two typical Libyan public universities by investigating their
experiences and perceptions of ICT and e-learning; and, (2) to develop a set of
recommendations that will assist Libyan higher education institutions in
developing future e-learning initiatives. Finally, I point out the significance of this
study.
Chapter 2 provides a review of literature in five areas related to this research
study: higher education context in Libya; e-learning in Libyan higher education;
challenges and prospects for e-learning in Libya; success of e-learning in higher
education; and, the main factors contributing to e-learning success. Sections 2.2
and 2.3 give an overview of higher education in developing countries and describe
the higher education context in Libya. The following section (Section 2.4)
explores the fundamental role that ICT and e-learning have played in education.
Section 2.5 presents the applications of ICT and e-learning in developing
countries, and discusses the challenges and prospects for e-learning in those
countries. Following on, Section 2.6 focuses on e-learning in Libyan higher
education and discusses the issues that need to be considered and addressed in
adapting ICT for learning and teaching including technological infrastructure,
curriculum development, cultural and linguistic aspects, and administrative
support. Then, Section 2.7 examines the success of e-learning in higher education
including the determinants and measures of success. As this research study
investigated the readiness for adopting e-learning among students and instructors
in selected higher education programmes in Libya, Section 2.8 considers how
student and instructor experiences and perspectives of e-learning influence the
success of e-learning programmes.
Chapter 3 discusses the research methodology that I used in this study; it
describes the research design, the participants and settings, instrumentation, data
collection, and data analyses. Section 3.2 outlines the research design and goals.
Section 3.3 provides a description of data sources. Sections 3.4 and 3.5 describe
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the means by which the data was collected, as well as the ethical considerations
associated with data collection. Finally, Section 3.6 describes the methods used
for data analysis.
Chapter 4 presents a synthesis of the collected data regarding student and
instructor experiences and perceptions of ICT and e-learning in the participating
Libyan universities. Section 4.2 outlines participant demographics. The following
sections present analyses of student and instructor responses for each of the
components of this study: access to technologies (Section 4.3); purpose of use of
technologies and the participants’ level of skill in using those technologies
(Section 4.4); usefulness of technology in learning and teaching (Section 4.5);
satisfaction with the available ICT environment (Section 4.6); attitudes and beliefs
towards ICT and e-learning (Section 4.7); and, challenges faced by students and
instructors when using ICT for learning and teaching.
5.3. MAJOR FINDINGS
The overall goal of this research was to gain a better understanding of the
experiences and perceptions of ICT and e-learning among students and instructors
in higher education engineering programmes in Libya. It fills an identified
research gap regarding the student and instructor experiences and perceptions of
ICT and e-learning in higher education in Libya. The following research questions
guided the collection and analysis of data:
1. What are the differences in the participant access to technologies?
2. What are the differences in the participant levels of use of ICTs for
learning/teaching?
3. Given the participants’ experiences with ICT, what are their perceptions
of the usefulness of technology for learning/teaching?
4. What is the participants’ satisfaction with the available institutional ICT
infrastructure?
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5. Given the participants’ experiences with ICT, what are their attitudes
towards ICT and e-learning?
6. What are the challenges faced by the participants when using ICT and e-
learning?
Participants in this research study were students and instructors from four
engineering departments in two Libyan higher education institutions, the
University of Tripoli and the University of Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi. Data were
collected through a survey administered to 800 students and 125 instructors (348
student surveys and 43 instructor surveys were returned), and through short phone
interviews with six instructors.
The following sections describe the major findings emerging from this research
study; the findings are framed around the research questions which guided the
investigation. The findings are comparable to the findings of other research
studies in various developing countries. The recommendations for future
integration of e-learning in the Libyan higher education that have been developed
on the basis of these findings are also included.
5.3.1. Access to technologies
Overall, student access to key technologies including desktop computers, laptops,
high-speed Internet, and mobile phones was relatively high among both urban and
regional participants. In particular, almost all urban students had unrestricted
access to a mobile phone. While access to a mobile phone was also relatively high
among regional students, it was significantly lower than that for their urban peers.
The reported high levels of mobile phone penetration, as well as differences
between urban and regional users, concur with the findings on access to mobile
phones in developing countries reported in the literature (Andrews et al., 2011;
Cherrayil, 2010; Gallup, 2011; Muttoo, 2011; UNESCO, 2012; Uys et al., 2012;
Zuckerman, 2009). It is anticipated that the high level of mobile phone access can
163
assist in making future learning/teaching more effective in Libyan higher
education institutions.
Female students reported significantly lower levels of access to the majority of
technologies, including desktop and laptop computers, and high-speed Internet, as
compared to their male counterparts. The identified gender inequalities in access
to technology align with the findings of other studies on access to technology in
developing countries (Gill, Brooks, Dougall, Patel, & Kes, 2010; Gillwald, Milek,
& Stork, 2010; UNESCO, 2012). However, the role of gender was not significant
with respect to student access to a mobile phone; Sabry, Al-Nakeeb, and Alrawi
(2011) came to a similar conclusion in their study conducted in the Gulf region.
5.3.2. Use of ICTs for learning/teaching
Participants reported the purpose for which they used various ICTs including
computer-based technologies, web-based technologies, and mobile phones; this
indicates a degree of familiarity with these technologies and skills needed for
using them. With respect to computer-based technologies, learning and teaching
was not identified by the students and instructors as the main purpose of use, with
the exception of creating presentations (e.g. PowerPoint).
On the other hand, web-based technologies facilitating access to information
(using the web to access LMSs or online dictionaries) were used for learning and
teaching purposes by a majority of students and instructors. While the use of web-
based communication technologies (e.g. email, MSN, Skype) was relatively high
among urban students, it was significantly lower among their regional
counterparts. Similarly, the use of social networking, podcasting, and web
publishing for learning was high among urban students and significantly lower
among regional students. It is expected that the high level of using technologies,
mainly social networking and email, can assist in sharing learning information and
materials. There were no significant differences in the use of web-based
technologies for learning between male and female students; this aligns with Kuo
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and Kuo (2013) who contend that gender has an impact on using web-based
technologies. Most instructors used social networking software for purposes other
than teaching and reported lack of familiarity with web publishing technologies.
Participating students and instructors reported quite low levels of using blogs and
Wikis activities, which could be attributed to poor familiarity with technologies in
the Libyan society. This concurs with the findings of a study conducted by Tyagi
(2012) in six Indian universities in the National Capital Region of India. On the
other hand, Chen and Bonk (2008) found that blogs are widely used in China for
student assessments as well as facilitating communication and sharing of ideas
among students and their instructors in terms of receiving feedback and questions.
With respect to mobile phone functions, a vast majority of students reported using
text and SMS communication to support their learning. However, while a great
majority of urban students used Internet-enabled mobile phone functions (e.g.
accessing information on the web, communicating via email) for learning,
regional students were significantly less likely to use these functions. The high
level of usage of mobile phones reported in this study confirms that fast
communication and convenient access to information and services is of great
importance to students (Williams & Ng’ambi, 2009). While instructors used
mobile phones extensively, their level of use for teaching purposes was moderate.
5.3.3. Usefulness of technology for learning/teaching
Overall, all participating students and instructors perceived computer, web, and
mobile phone technologies as useful, and most of the participants indicated that
they would like to use these technologies in learning and teaching; these
perceptions align with the findings of similar studies including Buabeng-Andoh
(2012), Nihuka (2011), and Tagoe (2012). These positive perceptions were held
by urban and regional, and male and female, participants alike.
Students regarded as particularly useful the web-based technologies that could
facilitate access to university-based services (e.g. enrolment, payment of fees) and
165
Internet-based course materials (e.g. recordings of lectures). Technologies
enabling web-based communication (e.g. instant messaging, social networking)
were also regarded as very useful, particularly by urban students; this might be
attributed to the higher level of usage of such technologies for learning by urban
students. In addition, a large proportion of all students considered designing and
building web pages for learning as useful.
Mobile phone technologies were rated as very useful by most students,
particularly for the purpose of receiving grades and course information via text
messaging, and communicating with the university on course-related
administrative issues.
Overall, instructors in both urban and regional areas perceived most technologies
as useful for teaching. They found the tools for creating presentations and
spreadsheets, and web-technologies to share digital files particularly useful. Like
the students, the instructors also rated web-based technologies facilitating
communication highly, and viewed designing and building web pages for teaching
as useful. Instructors were unsure about the usefulness of mobile phone
technologies for teaching. Unlike the students, who expressed an almost universal
approval, instructors’ views were divided: just as many of them agreed as
disagreed with the usefulness of mobile phones for teaching. Such reservations
about the usefulness of mobile phones for teaching were also reported in other
studies including Campbell (2005), Smith (2006), and UNESCO (2012).
5.3.4. Satisfaction with technology
Satisfaction with the available institutional technological infrastructure was very
low among all the participating students and instructors in both urban and regional
areas; the quality of the Internet access was rated particularly low. This concurs
with the findings of a study conducted by Asunka (2008) in a Ghanaian private
university. The author found that the students did not respond favourably to e-
learning courses, and perceived online learning as a more complex and demanding
166
process than face-to-face learning. The latter suggested that the lack of adequate
access to computer and Internet facilities could have contributed in making
students less satisfied and enthusiastic about technologies.
The low level of satisfaction could be attributed to the considerable damage to the
educational infrastructure caused by the 2011 armed conflict in Libya. In addition
to the low levels of satisfaction with the quality of the available infrastructure, the
quality of technical support was also found wanting, particularly by students in
the regional university.
In spite of the low level of satisfaction with the available technological
infrastructure, an overwhelming majority of students and instructors expressed
their interest in studying and providing courses that use e-learning in the future.
Elaborating on their willingness for e-learning provision, instructors identified as
the main reasons e-learning’s capacity to improve communication, to facilitate
student learning, and to enable incorporation of new teaching methods. Similar
findings were reported by Rahamat, Shah, Din, Puteh, Aziz, Norman and Embi
(2012). In this study, students viewed e-learning as an enjoyable environment. It
was also revealed that students reported greater satisfaction with the new learning
environment. Nihuka and Voogt (2012) also found that instructors at Open
University of Tanzania were motivated to and satisfied with delivering courses via
e-learning medium.
5.3.5. Attitudes towards ICT and e-learning
The majority of all the participating students and instructors were in favour of e-
learning and believed in its benefits. Participants believed particularly strongly in
e-learning’s potential to facilitate better acquisition of new knowledge and to
enhance the learning experience. These findings align with the findings of other
studies including a study conducted in India by Suri and Sharma (2013), a study
conducted in the Gulf region by Al-Doub, Goodwin and Al-Hunaiyyan (2008),
and a Saudi Arabian study reported by Hussain (2011).
167
Students who reported higher levels of skill in technologies were more likely to
hold positive attitudes towards e-leaning; the level of skill was found to be the
most significant predictor of student attitudes. These results support findings from
previous research studies on the relationships between skills and attitudes (Liaw,
Chang, Hung, & Huang, 2006; Liaw & Huang, 2003; Liaw & Huang, 2011). A
moderate positive correlation was also found between students’ access to
technology and their attitudes towards e-learning. This finding agrees with the
results of studies by Papaioannou and Charalambous (2011), Paris (2004), and
Sweeney and Geer (2010).
There were no significant differences between female and male students in respect
of their attitudes towards ICT and e-learning; this finding aligns with Hussein
(2011) who reported similar results in Saudi universities. Likewise, other
demographic characteristics such as student location (urban/regional), age, or year
of study were not significant predictors of student attitudes.
5.3.6. Challenges faced by e-learning users
Four types of challenges were synthesised from student and instructor responses,
namely individual, contextual, technological, and pedagogical challenges.
Technological challenges, particularly limited Internet access and a lack of ICT
infrastructure, were identified as the most dominant impediment to the use of e-
learning. This finding mirrors the findings about participant satisfaction with
technology (Section 5.3.4) and could be one of the consequences of the 2011
armed conflict.
Students regarded individual challenges such as the lack of knowledge and
experience, and the lack of necessary technology skills, as a major hindrance
when using ICT and e-learning. However, instructors identified pedagogical
challenges, such as the demands of new curriculum design and new teaching
methods, as the second most dominant obstacle. For students, the prevalence of
traditional teaching methods was the only important pedagogical barrier. Among
168
the contextual challenges, limited awareness of technology-based learning and
limited command of English were pointed out by students. Instructors identified
the lack of motivation among students as the main contextual barrier.
The above findings concur with the results of a number of studies conducted in
Nigeria (Ajadi et al., 2008), in Tanzania (Sife et al., 2007; Nyandara, 2012), in
Egypt (El-Gamal, 2005), and in Sri Lanka (Andersson, 2008).
5.4. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE INTEGRATION OF E-LEARNING INTO LIBYAN HIGHER EDUCATION
The findings of this research study indicate that most of the participating students
and instructors have good levels of use and skill in ICTs, have positive attitudes
towards e-learning, and are willing to engage in e-learning programmes. This
holds promise for further integration of e-learning in Libyan higher education, as
students and instructors have recognised the benefits of e-learning.
This study provides evidence-based information that could be useful to be
considered by administrators, decision-makers, and instructors when
implementing the new Libyan government’s plans of advancing the integration of
e-learning in the Libyan higher education. Based on the study findings, it is
recommended that:
1. Access to the fixed ICT infrastructure and the Internet be improved, with a
focus on alleviating gender and regional inequalities. Increased student
and instructor access to ICTs and the Internet would improve their
technology use and skills and would positively influence their attitudes
towards technology and e-learning.
2. Mobile phone technologies be promoted as a viable e-learning platform,
especially at a time when the available Internet infrastructure is limited
and unreliable. This could provide new means for communication, open up
accessible educational opportunities, and improve access to educational
materials.
169
3. Web-based technologies and applications that facilitate access to
university-based information and services be continually developed and
improved. Such technologies have been considered as particularly useful
by students and instructors, and their further development could lead to
increased interest in, and consequent acceptance of, e-learning.
4. Initiatives be launched to improve the English language skills of students
and instructors to facilitate their access to internationally available
resources, including the all-important freeware. The ability to utilise
resources in English would help address the current lack of such resources
in Arabic.
5. Development of local e-learning content be promoted with a view to
generating materials that are culturally appropriate and accessible to all
Libyan users (i.e. available in Arabic). Improved availability of suitable
Arabic resources would engage a wider population of students and
instructors in e-learning. The ability to create such content would also
improve Libya’s standing as a provider of e-learning.
6. Training be provided to instructors for developing the necessary ICT and
e-learning skills. ICT competent instructors could champion the e-learning
cause and motivate their students. In addition, ICT capacity building in
instructors could assist in enabling a shift from teacher-centred pedagogy
to a more effective learner-centred pedagogy.
7. Adequate technical support be provided to e-learning users in higher
education institutions. The lack of such support is of major concern to
students and instructors at present, because the provision of adequate
technical support is undoubtedly essential for the success of e-learning
initiatives.
170
8. Collaborations be forged with neighbouring Arab countries, and a wider
international community, to draw upon their e-learning experience and
expertise to facilitate and accelerate the advancement of e-learning in
Libya.
5.5. CONTRIBUTIONS OF THIS STUDY
My study, the first of its kind in Libya, offers contributions in three areas. First,
the study extends the existing research on e-learning in higher education in
developing countries, and in Libya, by providing a broader evidence base.
Second, in terms of contributing to knowledge regarding the preparedness for e-
learning adoption, it incorporates much needed student and instructor perceptions
into the framework. Third, by identifying specific attributes and enablers of
successful e-learning settings and experiences, it provides a source of information
that can facilitate the design, development and review of e-learning programmes
in higher education in Libya.
5.6. CONSTRAINTS AND LIMITATIONS
With any research study there is a possibility of flaws in design, and data
collection and interpretation. In my study, the data was collected in 2011/2012
shortly after the cessation of the armed conflict in Libya and the timing of this
collection may have influenced participant responses. Most of the survey
questions were related to participant access and use of technology, and their
satisfaction with the available ICT infrastructure, and since at that time Libya’s
ICT infrastructure was suffering from post-war destruction, the responses could
be biased.
It is important to note that the findings of my research are based on a study of
only engineering students in two Libyan universities. Engineering students may
be regarded as more progressive in ICT adoption than other student groups; this
might also limit the generalisation of my research findings.
171
Another potential limitation comes from the use of a paper-based survey
questionnaire. As reported in the literature, such questionnaires may suffer from
low response rates and misinterpretation issues. In this study, the questionnaire
was distributed to all accessible participants in the selected institutions and the
response rates were 44% for students and 34% for instructors. The low response
rates and the use of non-random samples allow only limited generalisability of the
findings (Hibberts, Johnson, & Hudson, 2012; Kelley, Clark, Brown, & Sitzia,
2003; Schutt, 2011; Temple, 2001; Visser, Krosnick, & Lavrakas, nd).
Lastly, the survey questions referred to technologies and tools which were current
at the time of survey design. Given the rapid advances in ICTs, these technologies
and tools might have been superseded by the time of data collection.
5.7. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
To facilitate the planning, integration, and implementation of e-learning in Libyan
higher education, it is necessary to gain a comprehensive nation-wide
understanding of student and instructor preparedness to engage in e-learning.
Thus, there is a need for large scale studies that would involve participants from
more higher education institutions and different disciplines, and would employ a
variety of data collection methods.
In addition, an investigation of the existing views on ICT and e-learning among
administrative and technical staff in Libyan higher education institutions could be
carried out to gain a fuller perspective of the prospects of e-learning advancement
in Libya. Such an investigation could also illuminate the reasons behind the low
levels of institutional support reported by instructors in this research study.
Finally, as mobile technologies can offer a much more accessible and affordable
alternative to land-line and Internet-based infrastructure, further research could be
172
carried out to investigate the prospects of adoption of m-learning in Libyan higher
education institutions.
5.8. CONCLUDING REMARKS
While e-learning is increasingly considered as an important success factor in
building the new Libya, research pertinent to ICT-supported learning in Libya is
scarce. Educational institutions in developing countries, including Libya, face
unique challenges in comparison to developed countries and must understand
what drives students and instructors towards e-learning. A better understanding of
these challenges allows for taking appropriate actions to ensure e-learning
success. Thus, it is hoped that the findings of this research will provide a useful
evidence-based source of information for academics, administrators, and other
decision-makers involved in planning, design and implementation of e-learning in
Libya.
173
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Appendix A
Information for survey participants
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Information for Participants Dear Participant, You have been kindly requested to participate in a research – “An analysis of experiences and perceptions of ICT in higher education institutions in Libya: informing the advancement of e-learning in Engineering through case studies”. Over the last twenty years, information and communication technologies (ICT) have been widely used in all sectors of society including the educational sector. However, there is little information about the adoption of ICT and e-learning in Libyan higher education institutions. This research aims to collect this information. It will study and document the experiences and perceptions of ICT and e-learning among students and educators in selected Libyan higher education institutions to determine their preparedness to adopt e-learning. Following the collection of data, set of recommendations for successful implementation and further integration of e-learning in Libyan higher education will be developed. The attached survey aims to collect information about your experiences and perceptions of ICT and e-learning.
Your participation in this study is voluntary, and your decision to complete the survey means that you have read this document and agreed to participate. Please note that participation in this survey will not affect you in any way whatsoever. Your responses will be anonymous and results will not be released in any identifiable form.
Procedures: If you are willing to participate, please complete the survey and drop it in the “Survey collection box” available in the Administration Office (Office number XXX). The survey should take about twenty minutes to complete. Please complete all sections printed on each page. The study is undertaken by research student, Mrs Amal Rhema, as part of her PhD research in the School of Engineering and Science at Victoria University in Melbourne, Australia. Thanking you in advance for your time and helpful participation. Any queries about your participation in this study may be directed to the researcher (Amal Rhema: [email protected] or Prof. Richard Thorn: [email protected] or Assoc. Prof. Iwona Miliszewska: [email protected] or Dr. Ewa M. Sztendur: [email protected]. If you have any queries or complaints about the way you have been treated, you may contact the Secretary, University Human Research Ethics Committee, Victoria University, PO Box 14428, Melbourne, 8001 (telephone no: +613-9919 4710).
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2T(Arabic Version)
معلومات حول البحث للمشاركين
عزيزي المشارك ،
أود أن أدعوك للمشاركة في دراسة بعنوان "-- تحليل الخبرات و التصورات نحو تكنولوجيا االتصاالت والمعلومات في مؤسسات التعليم العالي في ليبيا : اعالم تطورات التعليم االلكتروني في االقسام الهندسية من
خالل منهج دراسة الحالة".
على مدى السنوات العشرين الماضية ، تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصاالت استخدمت على نطاق واسع في جميع قطاعات المجتمع بما فيها القطاع التعليمي. ومع ذلك ، هناك القليل من المعلومات حول اعتماد
تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصاالت والتعليم اإللكتروني في المؤسسات الليبية للتعليم العالي. هذا البحث يهدف إلى جمع هذه المعلومات. وسوف يتم دراسة وتوثيق خبرات وتصورات الطالب والمعلمين في مجموعة
مختارة من مؤسسات التعليم العالي الليبي نحو تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصاالت والتعليم اإللكتروني لتحديد استعدادها العتماد التعليم اإللكتروني. بعد تجميع البيانات، سيقدم البحث مجموعة من التوصيات و
المقترحات لدعم تنفيذ وزيادة تطويرالتعليم اإللكتروني في التعليم العالي في ليبيا.
االستبيان المرفق يهدف إلى جمع معلومات عن خبراتك مع وتصوراتك حول تكنولوجيا االتصاالت والمعلومات والتعليم اإللكتروني. مشاركتك في هذه الدراسة اختيارية وطوعية. وقرارك الخاص إلكمال
االستبيان يعني أنك قد قرأت هذه الوثيقة و وافقت على المشاركة. الرجاء مالحظة أن مشاركتك في هذه الدراسة ال تؤثر عليك بأي شكل من األشكال. ومن المؤكد أن اجاباتك
ستكون سرية، ولن يتم ذكر اسمك في النتائج في أي شكل يمكن التعرف عليك.
اإلجراءات :
إذا كنت على استعداد للمشاركة ، يرجى إكمال االستبيان و ترجيعه في صندوق تجميع االستبيانات " المتاحة في مكتب اإلدارة (مكتب رقم ....)". ملئ االستبيان لن يستغرق اكثر من حوالى عشرين دقيقة.
يرجى استكمال جميع األجزاء في كل صفحة مطبوعة.
هذه الدراسه تعد استكماال لمتطلبات الحصول على درجه الدكتوراه في كلية العلوم و الهندسة في جامعة فيكتوريا - ملبورن - استراليا، مقدمة من قبل الطالبة أمل ناجي رحيمة.
تقبلوا مني فائق الشكر واالحترام على تقديم هذه المعلومات.
استفسارات عن مشاركتك في هذه الدراسة إلى الباحث :يمكنك توجيه أي Amal Rhema: [email protected] or
Prof. Richard Thorn: [email protected] or Assoc. Prof. Iwona Miliszewska: [email protected] or
Dr. Ewa M. Sztendur: [email protected]. وإذا كان لديك أي استفسارات أو شكاوى حول الطريقة التي تم التعامل بها معك ، يمكنك االتصال ب: University Human Research Ethics Committee, Victoria University, PO Box
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Appendix B
Survey instrument for students
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207
208
209
210
Survey instrument for students - Arabic Version
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212
213
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Appendix C
Survey instrument for instructors
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216
217
218
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Survey instrument for instructors - Arabic Version
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221
222
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Appendix D
Information for interview participants
224
Information for Interview Participants (English version) I would like to invite you to participate in a study, titled “An analysis of experiences and perceptions of ICT in higher education institutions in Libya: informing the advancement of e-learning in Engineering through case studies”, conducted by a PhD candidate Mrs Amal Rhema from the School of Engineering and Science at Victoria University in Melbourne, Australia. In the interview, of approximately an hour’s duration, you will be asked to talk about your experiences and perceptions of ICT and e-learning, as well as discuss your preferences for ICT and e-learning. Please note, that during the interview session, you do not have to answer any questions that you do not wish to answer. You will also be free to leave the interview at any time. You can also request that the recording be erased, and that your feedback not be used as data for this research. You may also ask questions about research procedures at any time and these questions will be answered. You may direct further questions to the researchers (refer to the contact details provided at the bottom of this page). Taking part in this research is voluntary. All discussions in the interview and the audiotape of it will be kept totally confidential and anonymous, and these materials will only be accessed by the researchers. The information will not jeopardise you in any way. You will be instructed on confidentiality obligations at the commencement of the interview. To maintain the accuracy of your statements, digital recording and notes of the discussion will be taken. The information that you give will be confidential. To protect your identity, you will not be identified personally in any way. The notes will be kept under lock and key until the completion of data analysis. Upon completion of the analysis, the digital recordings will be destroyed. The notes will be coded for themes in the comments. It is possible that specific comments will be reported in relation to a particular theme. Real names will not be tied to these comments. In the event of publication of this research, no personally identifying information will be disclosed. Any queries about your participation in this study may be directed to the researcher (Amal Rhema: [email protected] or Prof. Richard Thorn: [email protected] or Assoc. Prof. Iwona Miliszewska: [email protected] or Dr. Ewa M. Sztendur: [email protected]. If you have any queries or complaints about the way you have been treated, you may contact the Secretary, University Human Research Ethics Committee, Victoria University, PO Box 14428, Melbourne, 8001 (telephone no: +613-9919 4710).
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Information for Interview Participants (Arabic version)
معلومات حول البحث للمشاركين في المقابالت الشخصية
أود أن أدعوك للمشاركة في دراسة بعنوان "-- تحليل الخبرات و التصورات نحو تكنولوجيا االتصاالت والمعلومات في مؤسسات التعليم العالي في ليبيا : اعالم تطورات التعليم االلكتروني في االقسام الهندسية من
خالل منهج دراسة الحالة". التي تعد استكماال لمتطلبات الحصول على درجه الدكتوراه في كلية العلوم و الهندسة في جامعة فيكتوريا - ملبورن - استراليا، مقدمة من الطالبة أمل ناجي رحيمة.
في المقابلة التي تستغرق حوالي ساعة من الزمن ، سوف يطلب منك التحدث عن تجاربك مع وتصوراتك
حول تكنولوجيا االتصاالت والمعلومات والتعليم اإللكتروني. يرجى مالحظة أنه خالل المقابلة، يمكنك عدم الرد على أي أسئلة ال ترغب في اإلجابة عنها، و لديك الحرية التامة في مغادرة المقابلة في أي وقت، و
يمكنك أيضا طلب محى تسجيلك الصوتي ، وأن ال يستخدم ردك كبيانات لهذا البحث. ويمكنك أيضا طرح أسئلة حول إجراءات البحث في أي وقت وهذه األسئلة سوف يتم الرد عليها من قبل الباحثة.
ويجوز لك توجيه المزيد من األسئلة المباشرة للباحثين (يرجى الرجوع إلى المعلومات المتاحة لالتصال بالباحثين المدونة في الجزء السفلي من هذه الصفحة).
مشاركتك في هذه الدراسة اختيارية وطوعية. وستعامل جميع المناقشات التي دارت في المقابلة والتسجيل
الصوتي بسرية تامة، ولن تكون متاحة اال للباحثين فقط، ولن تعرضك الي مساءلة بأي شكل من األشكال. ومن أجل الحفاظ على دقة البيانات الخاصة بك سيتم استخدام مسجل صوتي باالضافة الى كتابة بعض
المالحظات من قبل الباحثة. ولحماية هويتك ، لن يذكر اسمك و لن يكون ممكنا التعرف عليك شخصيا بأي شكل من األشكال. وستحفظ كافة البيانات في مكان آمن إلى حين االنتهاء من تحليلها، و عند االنتهاء من
التحليل ، سيتم إتالف كافة التسجيالت الصوتية.
وفي حالة نشرهذا البحث، من الممكن أن يتم نشر تعليقات محددة ولكن لن تكون مرتبطة باألسماء الحقيقية ألصحاب هذه التعليقات.
يمكنك توجيه أي استفسارات عن مشاركتك في هذه الدراسة إلى الباحث :Amal Rhema: [email protected] or
Prof. Richard Thorn: [email protected] or Assoc. Prof. Iwona Miliszewska: [email protected] or
Dr. Ewa M. Sztendur: [email protected]. تصال ب: وإذا كان لديك أي استفسارات أو شكاوى حول الطريقة التي تم التعامل بها معك ، يمكنك اال
University Human Research Ethics Committee, Victoria University, PO Box
226
Appendix E
Consent form for interview participants
227
Consent Form for Interview Participants (English version)
INFORMATION TO PARTICIPANTS: The interview in which you will be participating is part of a research study investigating the experiences with, and perceptions of, ICT among students, academics, administrators, and technical support staff in selected higher education institutions in Libya (engineering programs) to determine their preparedness to adopt ICT and e-learning in teaching and learning.
Your participation in the interview is strictly voluntary and anonymous. Neither you nor your answers will be identifiable in any way, and all the information gathered in this study will be confidential.
CERTIFICATION BY PARTICIPANT I, --------------------------------------------------------------------------, of --------------------------------------- Certify that I am at least 18 years old and that I am voluntarily giving my consent to participate in the research study entitled: “An analysis of experiences and perceptions of ICT in higher education institutions in Libya: informing the advancement of e-learning in Engineering through case studies”, that is being conducted in the School of Engineering and Science at Victoria University in Melbourne, Australia by PhD student Mrs Amal Rhema.
I certify that the objectives of the study, together with any risks have been fully explained to me by Mrs Amal Rhema, and that I freely consent to participation by being interviewed by Mrs Amal Rhema. I certify that I have had the opportunity to have any questions answered and that I understand that I can withdraw from this study at any time and that this withdrawal will not jeopardise me in any way. I have been informed that the information I provide will be kept confidential Sign: --------------------------------- Date: ------------------------- Any queries about your participation in this study may be directed to the researcher (Amal Rhema: [email protected] or Prof. Richard Thorn: [email protected] or Assoc. Prof. Iwona Miliszewska: [email protected] or Dr. Ewa M. Sztendur: [email protected]. If you have any queries or complaints about the way you have been treated, you may contact the Secretary, University Human Research Ethics Committee, Victoria University, PO Box 14428, Melbourne, 8001 (telephone no: +613-9919 4710).
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Consent Form for Interview Participants (Arabic version)
موافقة للمشاركين في المقابالت الشخصيةنموذج
المقابله الشخصية التي ستشارك فيها هي جزء من دراسة بحثية لمعرفة تجارب وتصورات الطالب والمدرسين واإلداريين وموظفي الدعم التقني في مجموعة االقسام الهندسية المختارة من مؤسسات التعليم
اعتماد تكنولوجيا المعلومات واالتصاالت والتعليم اإللكتروني في التعليم العالي في ليبيا ، لتحديد تأهبها على والتعلم.
مشاركتك في هذه الدراسة اختيارية وطوعية. وستعامل جميع المناقشات التي ستدور في المقابلة والتسجيل الصوتي بسرية تامة، ولن تكون متاحة اال للباحثين فقط، ولن تعرضك الي مساءلة بأي شكل من األشكال.
اقرار المشارك:
أنا---------------------------------------، من قسم -----------------------------------
أقر أن عمري ال يقل عن 18 سنة وأنني موافق/ موافقة على المشاركة في الدراسة البحثية بعنوان : " تحليل الخبرات و التصورات نحو تكنولوجيا االتصاالت والمعلومات في مؤسسات التعليم العالي في ليبيا : اعالم تطورات التعليم االلكتروني في االقسام الهندسية من خالل منهج دراسة الحالة"، التي تجرى حاليا في كلية
العلوم و الهندسة في جامعة فيكتوريا - ملبورن - استراليا، مقدمة من الطالبة أمل ناجي رحيمة.
و أقر أن أهداف الدراسة وكذلك كل المخاطرالمتوقعة قد أوضحت لي تماما من قبل الباحثة أمل رحيمة ، وانني بحرية تامة موافق / موافقة على أن (يتم سؤالي) اكون مستجوبه من قبلها.
وأقركذلك أنه يمكني طرح أسئلة حول إجراءات البحث في أي وقت وهذه األسئلة سوف يتم الرد عليها من قبل الباحثة، وأنني أستطيع االنسحاب من هذه الدراسة في أي وقت ، وأن هذا االنسحاب لن يعرضني ألي
مسآلة بأي شكل من األشكال.
وأقرانه قد تم إبالغي ان كل المعلومات التي سأقدمها ستعامل بسرية تامة.
---------------------------التاريخ -------------------------------التوقيع
يمكنك توجيه أي استفسارات عن مشاركتك في هذه الدراسة إلى الباحث :Amal Rhema: [email protected] or
Prof. Richard Thorn: [email protected] or Assoc. Prof. Iwona Miliszewska: [email protected] or
Dr. Ewa M. Sztendur: [email protected]. وإذا كان لديك أي استفسارات أو شكاوى حول الطريقة التي تم التعامل بها معك ، يمكنك االتصال ب:
University Human Research Ethics Committee, Victoria University, PO Box 14428,
229
Appendix F
Obtaining informed consent - procedure
230
Obtaining Informed Consent – Procedure
1. Translation of “Information to Interview Participants” and “Consent Form for
Interview Participants” into Arabic; verification of translation. 2. Call for volunteers to participate in interview (an Arabic version of
“Information to Interview Participants” will be included in the call); announcements will be made via faculty email and posted on departmental noticeboards to reach students and instructors; emails will be issued to administrators and technical staff to invite them to participate in interviews.
3. Collection of responses from volunteers; information about interview dates
and times will be provided to the volunteer participants at this stage. To allow the volunteers adequate time to carefully consider their participation, an Arabic version of “Consent Form for Interview Participants” will also be sent.
4. At the time of the interview:
• The interviewer will explain the study to potential participants verbally, providing all pertinent information (purpose, procedures, risks, benefits, and alternatives to participation), allowing the potential participants ample opportunity to ask questions.
• Following verbal explanation, the potential participants will be asked to read the study information sheet (“Information to Interview Participants”) again, and having been given sufficient time to consider their participation, they will make a decision.
• Individuals who agree to participate in the interview will be given the opportunity to ask additional questions; the interviewer will provide responses.
• Once the potential participants have had all their questions answered and have agreed to participate in the study, they should sign, date, and return the consent form to the interviewer.
• The participants will be provided with a copy of the consent form.
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Appendix G
Interview questions
232
Interview Instrument (English Version)
1. What kind of teaching methods have you used in your teaching? (e.g.
traditional, blended, fully online)
2. Do you use ICT in your teaching? (Yes/No)
If ‘Yes’, please answer questions 3, 4, 5. If ‘No’, please answer question 6, 7.
8. What kind of training have you received to deliver e-learning, if any?
9. Please make any other comments/suggestions.
3. To what extent have you used ICT in your teaching? (What types of technologies have you used and for how long?)
4. What kind of experiences have you gained when using ICT for teaching? (e.g. successful implementation without any technical issues, implementation with technical problems which do not interrupt the class, continuous technical support)?
5. Do you find the application of ICT for teaching purposes useful and beneficial for you and your students? Why?/Why not?
Continue with questions 8 and 9.
6. Would you like to use ICT for teaching? Why? Why not?
7. What benefits and challenges would you expect to gain and face if you started using it? What is about your students?
Continue with questions 8 and 9.
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Interview Instrument (Arabic Version)
مزيج -اي طريقة من طرق التدريس تستخدم في تدريسك للمنهج؟ (على سبيل المثال التعليم التقليدي )1
التعليم االلكتروني فقط)؟ -من التعليم التقليدي و االلكتروني اجبت بنعم ارجوا االجابة على هل تستخدم تقنية المعلوماتيه و االتصاالت اثناء تدريسك للمنهج؟ إذا )2
؟9و 8و 7و 6؟ و إذا اجبت بال ارجوا االجابة على السؤال 9و 8و 5و 4و 3السؤال
نعم / ال س ارجو اإلجابه على السؤال الساد ارجو اإلجابه على السؤال الثالث و الرابع و الخامس
و السابع
االلكتروني؟ اذا اجبت بنعم اي نوع من التدريب تلقيت؟ بالتعليم صلة ذا تدريب أي تلقيت هل )8 آخر؟ شيء أي إضافة في ترغب هل )9
) إلى اي مدى استخدت تقنية المعلومات واإلتصاالت 3في التدريس؟ واي نوع من التكنولوجيات استخدمت؟ و
وجيا؟لكم المدة التي مضت على استخدامك لهذه التكنو) أي نوع من الخبرات والتجارب اكتسبت نتيجة 4
في التدريس؟ استخدامك تقنية المعلومات واالتصاالت –تقنية (علي سبيل المثال تجربة ناجحة و بدون مشاكل
-يتم التوقف اثناء الدرس نتيجة مشاكل تقنية هل المساعدة التقنية متوفرة دائما)؟
) من وجهة نظرك هل استخدامك لتقنية المعلومات و 5اإلتصاالت كان ناجحا و مفيدا لك كأستاذ و للطلبه ؟
السؤال عن ارجو اإلستمرار لإلجابه لماذا؟ و لماذا ال؟ الثامن و التاسع؟
) هل ترغب في استخدام تقنية المعلومات و 6 اإلتصاالت في التدريس؟ لماذا ؟ و لماذا ال؟
) ماهي الفوائد الالتي تتوقع اكتسابها والصعوبات 7تقنية لالالتي تتوقع مواجهتها عند استخدامك
المعلومات و اإلتصاالت؟ وماذا كذلك عن طالبك؟ على السؤال الثامن و ارجو اإلستمرار لإلجابه
التاسع؟
234
Appendix H
Ethics application approval letter
235
MEMO TO
Prof Richard Thorn School of Engineering and Science Footscray Park Campus A/Prof Iwona Miliszewska School of Engineering and Science Footscray Park Campus Dr Ewa Sztendur CILT Newport Campus
DATE 28/2/2011
FROM
Dr Josef Rojter Acting Deputy Chair Faculty of Health, Engineering and Science Human Research Ethics Committee
SUBJECT Ethics Application – HRETH 10/177 Dear Prof Thorn, A/Prof Miliszewska and Dr Sztendur, Thank you for submitting this application for ethical approval of the project: HRETH 10/177 An analysis of experiences and perceptions of ICT in higher education institutions in
Libya: informing the advancement of e-learning in Engineering through case studies The proposed research project has been accepted and deemed to meet the requirements of the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) ‘National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research (2007)’ by the Faculty of Health, Engineering and Science Human Research Ethics Committee. Approval has been granted from 28th February 2011 to 30th December 2012. Continued approval of this research project by the Faculty of Health, Engineering and Science Human Research Ethics Committee is conditional upon the provision of a report within 12 months of the above approval date (by 28th February 2012) or upon the completion of the project (if earlier). A report proforma may be downloaded from the VUHREC web site at: http://research.vu.edu.au/hrec.php Please note that the Human Research Ethics Committee must be informed of the following: any changes to the approved research protocol, project timelines, any serious events or adverse and/or unforeseen events that may affect continued ethical acceptability of the project. In these unlikely events, researchers must immediately cease all data collection until the Committee has approved the changes. Researchers are also reminded of the need to notify the approving HREC of changes to personnel in research projects via a request for a minor amendment.
236
If you have any further queries please do not hesitate to contact me on 9919 2252. On behalf of the Committee, I wish you all the best for the conduct of the project. Kind regards, Dr Josef Rojter Acting Deputy Chair Faculty of Health, Engineering and Science Human Research Ethics Committee
The above electronic approval was received from the University Ethics Officer via the following email:
237
Appendix I
Model of student perceptions of usefulness of technology
238
Model Summary
Model R R Square Adjusted R
Square
Std. Error of the
Estimate
1 .447a .200 -.049 .606
a. Predictors: (Constant), Average_attitude, Y4, Gender, DummyB,
DummyC, DummyD, D21_22, Y2, Average_Access, Average_satisfaction,
Purpose_of_use, Y3, Averagr_Level_of_skill, D23_and_more
ANOVAa
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1
Regression 4.126 14 .295 .803 .661b
Residual 16.514 45 .367
Total 20.640 59
a. Dependent Variable: Usefulness_of_technology
b. Predictors: (Constant), Average_attitude, Y4, Gender, DummyB, DummyC, DummyD, D21_22, Y2,
Average_Access, Average_satisfaction, Purpose_of_use, Y3, Averagr_Level_of_skill, D23_and_more
Coefficientsa
Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized
Coefficients
t Sig.
B Std. Error Beta
1
(Constant) 3.394 .896 3.788 .000
Gender -.246 .180 -.209 -1.364 .179
DummyB .199 .215 .168 .928 .359
DummyC -.237 .340 -.112 -.696 .490
DummyD .062 .331 .032 .187 .852
D21_22 -.397 .362 -.299 -1.097 .279
D23_and_more -.657 .399 -.560 -1.646 .107
Y2 -.034 .345 -.020 -.099 .921
Y3 .361 .388 .260 .931 .357
Y4 .453 .394 .383 1.151 .256
Average_Access .019 .297 .012 .063 .950
Purpose_of_use .436 .349 .232 1.250 .218
Averagr_Level_of_skill -.067 .150 -.091 -.445 .659
Average_satisfaction .015 .134 .020 .114 .910
Average_attitude .072 .172 .072 .419 .677
a. Dependent Variable: Usefulness_of_technology
239
Appendix J
Model of student attitudes towards ICT and e-learning
240
Model Summary Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the
Estimate 1 .546a .298 .246 .511 a. Dependent variable: Attitude towards ICT and e-learning b. Predictors: (Constant), Use for learning, Level of skill, satisfaction, Access
ANOVAa Model Sum of
Squares df Mean
Square F Sig.
1 Regression 5.987 4 1.497 5.730 .001b Residual 14.105 54 .261 Total 20.093 58
a. Dependent Variable: Attitude towards ICT and e-learning b. Predictors: (Constant), Use for learning, Level of skill, satisfaction, Access
Coefficientsa Model Unstandardized
Coefficients Standardized Coefficients
t Sig.
B Std. Error Beta
1
(Constant) 2.619 .370 7.087 .000 Access .051 .226 .032 .227 .821 Level of skill .327 .102 .453 3.195 .002 satisfaction .081 .100 .101 .811 .421 Use for learning .363 .278 .156 1.306 .197
a. Dependent Variable: Attitude towards ICT and e-learning