NSS  NewS,October�008 11

Our March, 2007 issue featured a caver rapelling over a sea cave arch. While many sea caves are probably much more easily accessed by rapelling down a cliff to reach them, in only a few instances can one actually rappel IN to them. Vertical entrances to see caves are a rare phenomenon. But with over 20+ years of surveying hundreds of sea caves, I’ve encountered and surveyed some fairly spectacular ones.

Littoralpseudokarst,whichisultimatelyaproductofmarineerosion,ismosttypi-callycharacterizedbythelittoralsinkhole.This issimplyanopeningtothesurfaceformedbycollapseorgradualerosionintoaseacavechamberorpassagebeneath.Unlikeitskininsolublerocks,thelittoralsinkalmostalwaysformsbyerosionandcollapseratherthandissolution.I’venevernotedshallow,doline-likefeaturesaboveseacaves,thoughI’venotseenmanyseacavesinsolublerocks.Inmostcasestheauthorhasobserved,thecavechamberinquestionhasaseawardentranceandthecollapsetendstooccuratthemostdistalregionofthecave.Sinkholeshaveformedinbothsedimentaryandvolcanicrocks.

Twoothernamescommonlyappliedtolittoralsinkholesare“punchbowls”and“blowholes.”Thelattertermmoreproperlyappliestocavesthatejectspraywithincom-ingwaves,aphenomenondependentonbothtidelevelandswellconditions.Itmayoccur througheitherapassageconstric-tioninasingle-entrancecave(suchasthefamous“LaBufadora”nearEnsenada inBaja,Mexico)orthroughsmallopeningsinseacaveroofs.Thelatterprocesswillobvi-ouslytendtoenlargesuchanopeningovertime.IrecentlydescribedsuchafeatureinSamoa,whereawomanhadfallenintoasinkopeningintothemiddleofacave(�).Inthiscavethesinkfilledwithwaterbutdidn’teject,geyser-like,intothesky(atleast,undernormalseaconditions).Mostnewsaccountsreferredtoitasa“blowhole,”however,nodoubttoemphasizethesevereconditionsthewomanhadtocontendwith.Nothavingseenit,Ialsocan’tsaywhetherthiswasaskylightcollapseintoalavatubeoracollapseintoawave-cutcave,whichismyfocushere.ButthereareapparentlyanumberofsuchfeaturesonSamoa.

InthecourseofsurveyingseacavesinCalifornia,Hawaii,andotherpartsofthe

world,I’veencounteredsomeveryimpres-sivelittoralsinkholes,someofthemakintotheopen-airpitsofTAG,albeitnotnearlysodeep.Indeed,theveryfirstcavewesurveyedinCalifornia(CavernsofMysteryinShellBeach,California)hadsuchanentrance,witha�5-foot sheerdrop to the floorpossible.Thisismyfirstattempt,perhapsanybody’s,tocompilealistofknownseacaveswiththesefeatures.Foreachentryin thetableonpage1� I’vedetermineddiameterofthecollapse,theroughareaoftheopening,thedepthofthedrop,andthecave’soveralllength.

Mendocino county, califoRniaBillHalliday,inhisdescriptionofthe

cavesofMendocinoCounty inCaves of California,describedthecountyasbeing“themostextensivelocalityoflittoralpseu-dokarstonthePacificcoast.”AsnearasI’vedetermined,heisquiterightinthatassess-ment,thoughSantaRosaIsland,asnotedbelow,comesclose.

Bymyreckoningtherearesix,possiblysevenmajor littoralsinksassociatedwithcavesinMendocino.Twoarequiteacces-sible.There isahundred-foot-diameter,circularcollapsepit,70-feetdeep,intoaseacaveatRussianGulchStatePark.Wehaven’tsoughtpermissiontorappelintothisforasurvey,especiallysincetheseatendstobesoroughhere.Butthecavepassagelead-ingintoitcovers�50feet,basedonsurfacesurveybyBruceRogers(5),whonotedthatthepredominentrocktypeinthisareaisa“Cretaceous-ageFranciscanterranegray-wackeandthecaveisformedalongaseriesofprominentnearverticaljoints.”Fromthephotoonpage16itisclearthatthebedrockdoesnotextendallthewaytothesurface,whichprobablyhelpsaccountforitsdepth.Alsoseenbymanytourists,thepunchbowlatMendocinoHeadlandsStateParkisanimpressivefeaturewitha�0+footfreefalldroptothewaterbelow.ThreeofusdonnedwetsuitsoneFallday,climbeddownthecliffsononeendoftheheadlands,andsurveyedthecavetoalengthof���feet.Thisoneissomewhatunusualinthatitisinthemiddleofapassagethatopensatbothends.Wehadfunduringthesurveywhilewavingattouristslookingdownatusfromtheholeabove.

Anothermonstersink,similarinsizeanddepthtotheoneatRussianGulch,isfoundonthesouthsideofLittleRiver.AgroupofusfromtheMotherLodeGrottoalongwithlocalcaverDerekHoylesurveyedthisoverthecourseofthreetrips(itwastooroughtofinishthefirstvisit).Thisisperhapsthebest

surveyedlittoralsinkwehave(seepage15)sinceasurfacesurveycircumnavigatesit.Itis1�0x1�0feetand70feetdeep.Thisonehasalotofslopetoit,asmuchofitiswalledonlyinsoil.Indeed,onlythesideleadingintothecaveshowsmuchbedrock,anditextendsonlyabouthalfwayuptheside.This isaverypopularattractionwiththelocals,whosometimesuseaknottedclotheslinetoreachthebottom.Agroupofthemwhoarrivedduringoursurveywascertainlyamusedbyouroverly-cautiousdescentwithhelmetsandfullverticalgearonproperrope,butdisap-pointedthatwehadnobeertoshare…

Theviewfromthebackisveryimpres-sive,withtwolargetunnelsinersectingtoformthemaincave.Asunbeamentersfromtherighthandtunnelandlightsuptheinteriorofthecavenicely.Enteringaseacavefromitsbackendisn’tsomethingyoucandoinmanyplaces,andinfact,theviewaffordedbythissinkaccesswouldbeunlikelyonanybutafewespeciallycalmdaysatthisspot.It’soneofthemorescenicseacavesI’vevisitedandoneofthebest“sportvertical”seacavetripsaround.

TherearethreemoresitesinMendocinowhereI’veobservedlargelittoralsinks,butaccessforsurveymaybeproblematic.OneoftheseisvisibleonthetipofPointArenafromthelighthouse.Wehaven’tapproachedthecoastguardaboutlettingusrappelintothatone,whichisacaveperhapsmorepitthancave. Ialso locatedwhatmaybeapossibledouble-sinkcavejustsouthofhere,onGoogleEarth,whilepreparingthisarticle!Oneofthesemaybeanintermediatestagebetweenpartialandfullcollapse,somethingIhaven’tseenelsewhere.ThethirdsiteisasinkonthepeninsulaatFortBragg,buton

Littoral Pseudokarst

Vertical Sea CavingDave Bunnell1

1 Photos were taken by the author unless otherwise credited.

Descending into a sea cave pit at the rear of a cove in Shell Beach, CA

1� NSS  NewS,October�008

privateproperty.Wehopetosurveysomeoftheseinthefuture.

TherearenumerouscircularcovesalongtheMendocinocoastwhichmaywellhaveresultedfromthecollapseofotherlittoralsinksovertime.

elsewheRe in califoRniaCaveswithlittoralsinksarecompara-

tivelyrareintherestofCalifornia.Onesuchcave is foundineachof�counties,SanDiego,SanLuisObispo,andSantaCruz.

SanDiego’sSunsetCliffsregionispock-markedwithadenseseriesofcaves.Onthebluffsaboveisastrikinglycircularcollapsepitsurroundedbyafence,justastone’sthrowfromSunsetCliffsBoulevard.Itdropsabout�0feetintoashortseacavewithasingleseawardentrance.Thecaveisinthin-beddedmarinesiltstonesandsandstonesknownasthePointLomaformation,andformedalongverticaljoints.Furthernorth,alargerlittoralsinkknownastheDevil’sPotwasatouristattractionformanyyears,andispicturedona1910hand-coloredpostcard.Itcollapsed,wellbeforeoursurveysofadjacentseacavesintheearly1980s,leavingacircularcove.

SanLuisObispoisaveryseacave-richcountyincentralCalifornia.AtShellBeachisaprominentcollapseintoaseacavewithtwoentrances,inwhatistodayknownasMargoDoddpark.Thiscavewasoncecommercializedunderthename“CavernsofMystery”(postcardsfromtheredateto19�8)andtherearestepsleadingdownonesideofthesinkintoachamberwithtwoentrances.Oneleadsintoacircularcovethatmaywellbecollapseofaformerportionofthecave.Afewtenthsofamileaway,backin1986,

wehadrappelledintoanothercaveindentedintoacove.Asatestamenttoerosionrateshere,muchofthiscaveandthecoveitselfseemtohavevanished instorms in theinterveningyears.Atleast,theydon’tshowoneitherGoogleEarthortheCaliforniaCoastalProject’sdetailedaerialimagesofthecoast.ThesecavesareincolorfulPleistocenesandstones.

AcaveinSantaCruznearDavenport(Basketball,seemapinref.#�))haswhatmightbeearly-stagelittoralsinkholeswithtwoseparatebutsmallverticalentrancesinadditiontoitsseawardentrance.Inthiscaseitisprobablymoreacaseofthehillsideabovethecavehavingerodedintothecave,ratherthanacollapsedrivenbyremovalofmaterialbelow.Asmallentranceattheverytopyieldsarappelthroughasmallhole�0feettothefloorofthecave.Dependingonthetide level, thismaybeasandybeachorthrashingsurf,soonemustbepreparedtodoachangover!Amorerecentsecondcollapseonthesideofthecavewallyieldeda15-footdrop.Thiscaveisinsedimentarymarinemudstonesandsiltstones.

califoRnia channel islandsSeveralofCalifornia’sChannelislands

containnumerouslargeandsignificantseacaves,thelargestoftheminbasaltandothersinsedimentaryrocks.NolittoralsinksareknownonSantaCruzIsland(whichcontainsthelargestcaves),butvirtuallyallofitscavesareinbasalt,withoften100feetormoreofhostrockoverburden.AnacapaIslandhostsonecavewithalittoralsinkresultingfromthecollapseofaboutathirdofthecave’spassage,pessimisticallynamedHalf

Gone.Theseacliffshereareonlysome50feethigh,sothecavehaddevelopedceil-ingshighenoughtointersectthesurface.Unfortunately,inthedaysofCoastGuardoperationthissinkwasseenasaconvenienttrashdump.Aside from twoonKauai,discussedbelow,thisistheonlylittoralsinkseeninigneousrocks.

SantaRosa Island,whichhascavesinavarietyofsedimentarymarinerocks,hostsfourcaveswithlittoralsinks,threeofthemquitesizable.Thesethreeareonthenorthshore,thetwobiggestonthemostwave-batteredportionsoftheisland.Oneisonthesouthshore,andsubjecttothesoutheastswell thatsometimesdevelops.We’vemanagedtosurveyallofthesecaves:Becher’sChasm,PuenteLobos,Revelations,andtheWitch’sCauldron.Twoofthesearestrikinglycircular.Witch’sCauldronisthemostcomplex,withtunnelsfeedingoffinthreedirections(four,ifyoucounttheportionaccessedbeneaththenaturalbridgeformingtheseawardsideofthesink).PuenteLobosandRevelationare insedimentaryrocksandbothhaveimpressivesinks.Becher’sChasm, theonlyone inbasalt,has thesmallestofopeningsandtheshortestdroptothewater.

oRegon coastTwostateparks inOregon feature

littoralsinksaspartoftheirattraction.TheDevil’sPunchbowl lies inastatepark8milesnorthofNewport.Itisanearlycircularcollapseintoachambermeasuringabout90x80,withthreeseparateshorttunnelsopeningtotheocean.Nodoubtthepres-enceofsomanypointsofattackhelped

Cave Name Location Diameter (feet) area (sf) Depth (feet) Surveyed Length Little River Pit Mendocino County, CA 166 x 150 24,900 78 365 Mendocino Punchbowl Mendocino County, CA 46 x 40 1,840 40 233 Point Arena Lighthouse Mendocino County, CA 153 x 96 14,688 ? NS Double Sinks Mendocino County, CA 97 x 86 8,342 ? NS Russian Gulch Pit Mendocino County, CA 130 x 120 15,600 ~70 ~250 Ft. Bragg Mill Pit Mendocino County, CA 75 x 52 3,900 ~60 NS Basketball Cave Santa Cruz County, CA 5 x 3 15 50 220 Big Blowhole Cave San Diego County, CA 30 x 30 900 35 92 Caverns of Mystery San Luis Obispo County, CA 52 x 46 2,392 30 230 Fault Cove Cave San Luis Obispo County, CA 20 x 10 200 60/12 230 Half Gone Cave Anacapa Island, CA 62 x 21 1,302 ~40 279 Becher's Chasm Santa Rosa Island, CA 40 x 15 600 20 187 Puente Lobos Cave Santa Rosa Island, CA 130 x 100 13,000 32 250 Revelation Cave Santa Rosa Island, CA 150 x 135 20,250 50 230 Witches's Caldron Santa Rosa Island, CA 112 x 86 9,632 28 455 Waiahuakua Cave Kauai, Hawaii 24 x 20 480 65 1155 Queen's Bath Kauai, Hawaii 214 x 157 33,598 65+ 369 Devil's Punchbowl Oregon 87 x 82 7,134 70 NS Boardman SP Oregon 203 x 181 37,648 ? NS Punakaiki Punchbowl South Island, New Zealand 135 x 55 7,425 97 NS Whenuakura Island North Island, New Zealand 60 x 30 1,800 40 ~150', NS

Table 1: Caves with pit entrances. NS=not surveyed. Pit diameters estimated from aerial photos.

NSS  NewS,October�008 1�

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2008, California Sea Cave SurveyCartography by Bob Richards

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Compass and Tape Survey by:

Dave Bunnell, Phil Darling, Ernie Garza,Susan Hammersmith, Don Morris, Nancy Pistole.

Survey Date: September 10, 1990 at low tideSurveyed Length: 230 feet

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2008, California Sea Cave SurveyCartography by Bob Richards

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Compass and Tape Survey by:

Susan Hammersmith, Don Morrisand Nancy Pistole.

Survey Date: September 9, 1990Surveyed Length: 250 feet

PUENTE LOBOS CAVESanta Rosa Island, California

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enlargethechamberthatformedit.Whatisespeciallystrikingaboutthiscollapseisthesheerverticalwallsonallsides,adornedwithcolorfulorangelichens.Myguessfordepthisatabout50to60feet, lackingasurvey,basedonestimatesfromavisittothebottomofitduringalowtideinthe90s.Ithasdevelopedinsandstone.

Anotherveryimpressivelittoralsinkcanbeseenfromatrail inSamualBoardmanStateParkinsouthernOregon.WhileI’veviewedthisonepersonally,Ihavenosurveydataforit.Frommyphotos,I’destimatethisonetobeatleast1�5to150feetacross,soitisoneofthemajorlittoralsinks.Accordingtogeological informationatthepark,thesink,alongwithsome7distinctarchesandtunnelshere,wereallpartofonelongseacavebeforeitcollapsed.Itwouldbeinterest-ingtodoacoastalsurveythatincorporatedallthesefeatures,toseeiftheylineup.

KauaiKauai’sNaPalicoastisfamousforits

ruggedbeautyandlargeseacaves.In1987Iledasmallexpeditionheretomapsomeofthese(1).Twoofthemarenotableforlittoralsinks.TheQueen’sBathisperhapsthemostimpressivelittoralsinkintheworldbyallmeasures.Itlookslikeaperfectcircularshaft,150feetindiameter,boredroughly70feetthroughthebasaltintoaseacavebelow.Thebedrockhereextendsthefullheightoftheshaft,whichmakesitallthemoreimpres-sive.There’snoeasyaccesstothetop,butaccesstothecavebelowisreadilymadebylargeboatsfromitssinglewave-cutentrance,andisapopulardestinationforguidedZodiactoursandseakayakers.Theopeningintothechamberisonlyabout�0feethigh,soonewondershowsuchatallchambercouldhaveformedbeyond.Inthecenterthereisabitofbreakdown,butclearlymostofthematerialhasbeencarriedawaybythehugewintersurfthatpummelsthisarea.

AnotherpopularcavealongthiscoastisWaiahuakua,or“SacredWaterCave.”Some�00feet intothecave,awaterfalltumbles60feetthroughaskylightopening.Attimes,ashaftofsunlightbeamsintothecavethroughit,makingforanunforgettablesight.Thecaveformsalarge“U”andhasasecondentrancejusttothewest.ThiscaverivalsPaintedCaveasoneoftheworld’slargestseacavesat1155feetinlengthandisbyfarthelargestwithapitentrance!

the BRitish islesSmooCave,onthecoastofScotland,

isakarstcavewhichhasbeenenlargedbywaveaction,andhasaverylargeandscenicentrance.Ithasacollapsedskylightopeninginitssecondchamberwhichadmitsawater-fallover�5metershigh.However,sincethischamberwasformedbydissolution,Ihave

Portion of Santa Rosa Island showing the Witch’s Cauldron. Note other circular coves adjacent, possibly former seacaves now collapsed. Were they once littoral sinks?

NSS  NewS,October�008 15

View of the pit at Little River. Note absence of bedrock other than on the wall leading to the cave, righthand side of photo.

Little River Pit

Little River Pit, photo by Derek Hoyle

Ric Gates brandishes the survey tape in Little River Pit, photo by Derek Hoyle

Rough survey conditions in Little River Pit

Matt Leissring’s map won an Honorable Mention in the 2006 NSS cartographic Salon

16 NSS  NewS,October�008

This littoral sink at Boardman State Park in southern Oregon, is apparently a portion of a much larger cave system now mostly collapsed.

Large-diameter sink at Russian Gulch State Park, Mendocino County, California. Two separate passages connect into it.

Rectangular collapse sink at Punakaiki in New Zealand is formed in dolomite. Such features are rare in carbonate coastal rocks..

The impressive Devil’s Punchbowl is the centerpiece of an Oregon State Park. Three separate tunnels intersect it.

The “punchbowl” on the south side of the headlands in Mendocino Headlands State Park, Mendocino County, California

Puchbowl occupying the center of Whenuakura, a small island off the east coast of New Zealand’s North Island

NSS  NewS,October�008 17

Puente Lobos Cave on Santa Rosa Island, California has formed in sandstone.

The Witch’s Cauldron, on Santa Rosa Island, California

Revelation Cave on Santa Rosa Island, California Big Blowhole Cave in the Sunset Cliffs region of San Diego, CA

The Queen’s Bath, on the Na Pali coast of Kauai, formed in basalt and is almost 70-feet deep.

A perennial waterfall tumbles through a littoral sink in Waiahuakua Cave on the Na Pali coast of Kauai. Photo by Bob Richards.

18 NSS  NewS,October�008

notincludedthisfamouscaveinmytableoflittoralsinkholes.

BallybunionCaveonKerryHead,Ireland,issaidtohaveasmall littoralsinkinside(BillHalliday).

new Zealand:InNewZealandIobservedacoupleof

largeandveryimpressivelittoralsinks.OneoftheseisinatouristattractionknownasthePancakeRocks,atPunakaikionthewestcoastofthesouthisland.This isascenicspotonadolomiteheadland,andtherockshaveweathered intofin-likeshapeswiththe layeringonthethin-beddeddolomitemakingapatternofparallellinesacrossthesurface.Ididn’tnotemanyseacaveshereexceptforseveralshorttunnelscomingintoagrandaddylittoralsink.Icanonlyestimatethedepthanddimensionbasedon theaccompanyingphoto(page16),aswedidn’tsurveyitandit’salow-rezregiononGoogleEarth.UsingthemeasuretoolinPhotoshop,Icomeupwith1�5x55feetforthisfeatureandabout90feetdeep,makingitoneofthedeepestofthelittoralpits.Italsohasastrikinglyrectilinearcharactertoit,whichmightreflectpre-existingperpendicularjointsinthedolomite.Incontrasttoalltheothercavesmentionedhere,thisistheonlyoneinsolublerocks.Dissolutionmaythushaveplayedaroleinitsformation

OntheeasternshoreofNewZealand’ssouthisland,nearthetownofWhangamata,thereisagroupoffourislandsveryclosetoshore.Allofthemareheavilyforestedandrelativelyunimpressiveasislandsgo.Butone

ofthem,Whenuakura(about700x516feet),hasasurprisehiddeninside.A�,000-footpaddletoitssoutheastcornerrevealsaseacave,hiddenfromviewofthoseonshore.It’saspacioustunnel,some�5-feethigh,and�0-feetwide,thatgoesabout100feetbeforeopeningtoasunnybeachhiddeninsidethemiddleoftheisland!Thisdonutislandisnotunlikesomeofthegreat“hong”orhollowislandsinThailand’sPhangNgaBay.Theselatter,though,areinsolublerockandprob-ablyformedbycollapseintosolutionalcaves.ThiswasthefirstsuchfeatureI’veseenonanislandininsolublerocks.

(concluded on page 31)

Skylight entrace to Becher’s Chasm, Santa Rosa Island, California

Looking into the pit entrance of the Caverns of Mystery, Shell Beach, CA

�0 NSS  NewS,October�008

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The CIG NewsletterJuly 2008Central Indiana Grotto

DaveEvertonremembersacallonedayfromSamFrushourwithnewsthathehadfound“theperfectcave.”Thecallwasfollowedbyane-mailthatincludedapictureofDrewPackmanstandinginanenticinglylargeentrance.The IndianaGeologicalSurvey,forwhomPackmanandFrushourwork,hadgottenacallfromalandowneraskingaboutadrillbittheyhadfoundinacaveontheirproperty.Itseemsthecavehadbeenclosedbyrubbleuntilthelate1990s,whentheownerusedabackhoetoreopenit.Familymembershadexploredthecave,butwanteditmapped.DidtheIGSknowofanyonethatcouldmapitforthem?

Thecaveentrance,rightatthesand-stone-limestonecontact, isa largespringalcovewithasmallstreamcoursingoutofitsentranceandcrossingunderanearbyroad.Ithadbeenusedasawatersupplyinthepast,andmuchoftheoldpipingandaholdingtankremainedinanearbystreambed.Theentranceisimpressiveenough,measuring10feethighby�5feetwide.Immediatelyinsideitnarrowsto5feethighby7feetwide,thenlowersto�to�feethighwithsectionsrequiringabellycrawl.Atjointintersectionsthecaveexpandsspaciouslyto10to�0feethigh.Throughoutitslengthashallowstreamflows,mostlyankledeepbutreaching1to�feetdeepinseveralspots.

ThesurveywasbegunonDecember�,�006,withMikeDrake,PatMudd,andEvertonbooking700feet in fourhours.ThesecondtriptookplaceonApril�8,�007,withEverton,Mudd,andAlClemonsformingtheteam.AbumSuuntopreventedanysurveying,butdidn’tstop“preview-ing” the cave and thediscoveryof anestimated1,�00feetofadditionalpassage.Despiteapost-scoop lackofenthusiasmto finish theproject,EvertoneventuallyreturnedwithMudd,Drake,KevinSmith,andEllenJamesontocompletethesurveyonSeptember�,�007.

TheMartinCounty,Indiana,cavewasnamedClifton Spring Cave.Evertondeclareditfinishedat1,990feet,thoughhementionsatightcrawlanddigatitsextremeupstreamendthatwasnotpushed.Evertonalsodrewtheaccompanyingmap.

Connel Cemetery Cavecompletestheissue,withareportbyJamesAdlerandamapof thenewfindbyJenniferLyonAdler,herfirstcartographiceffort.Jameshadheardofthecavethrougharelative,whohadrecentlyacquiredpropertynearby.JamesandJenniferwerjoinedbyMarkAdlerforthesurvey.

Jamesdescribesthecaveasstraight-forwardandfairlytypicalforthearea,withmostlycrawlingpassage, theoccasional

speleothem,andfewnicestanding-heightdomessprinkled intothemix.Themostinterestingfeaturesofthecaveareitsnumer-ousbearwallows,whichhavealsobeenfoundinothernearbycaves.ThesurveyoftheMartinCountycavewascompletedonDecember�1,�00�,withthecavetapingoutat578feet.

Karst ChronicleSummer 2008Mid-Atlantic Karst Conservancy

A remapping project ofLincoln Caverns andnearbyWhisper Rockshasbeencompleted,culminatinga fouryeareffortbymembersoftheMid-AtlanticKarstConservancy.Thewell-decoratedHuntingdonCounty,Pennsylvania,cavesareopen forpublic tours,withLincolnCavernshaving longbeenavacationer’sfavorite.TheresurveyhasmadeWhisperRockstheseventhlongestcaveinthecountywithitstotalsurveyedlengthof1,78�feet,andLincolnCavernstheninthlongestwith1,�06feetofpassage.

During thesurvey,TimLong,ToddHancock,andothermembersoftheJuniataCollegeOutingClubbeganworkingseveraldigsinWhisperRock,hopingforabreak-throughtonewcaveandmajordiscoveries.Theworkwasmessyandhard,andhundredsofbucketsofgooeymudhadtobecarefullycarriedoutalongtouristtrails,upstairways,andoutthecaveentrance.Theyfoundanadditional600feetofvirgincave,butitwon’tbeonthetour—itrequiresabellycrawlwithaneardipinverylowandwetpassage.

conclusionOnethingthatbecameapparentfrom

makingthiscompilationisthatmostofthesefeaturesarefoundinsedimentaryrocks,withtheminorexceptionthatperhapsthemostimpressiveoneofallisfoundinbasalt!Oftentheyareinplaceswherepassagesconverge,whichcertainlyfavorsformationof largerandtallerchambers.Theytendtooccurinthemoredistalpartofcaves,butthismaybecomeachickenoreggquestionsincethecollapseoftherooflikelyaffordsabarriertolandwardpenetrationofaseacaveforsometime.Thecollapsecanbeeitherbyerosionfrombeneath(probablytheprimaryfactor)orbyerosionofthelandabovethecave,justasinlimestonecaves.Sincetheprocessesmaybeverysimilar,theterm“pseudokarst”fitsthemveryaptly.

RefeRences1.Bunnell,DaveThe1987NapaliCoastSea

CavesExpedition.NSS News,December1988.

�.Bunnell,DaveSeaCaving inCalifornia’sChannelIslands.NSS News,June199�

�.Bunnell,DaveCalifornia’sCoastalSeaCaves.NSS News,October1998

�.Bunnell,DaveMyShortCareerasaSeaCaveDetective.NSS News,October�007

5.Halliday,W.R.Caves of California.NSS/WesternSpeleologicalSociety,1965.

6.Rogers,Bruce.MendocinoSeaCaves.Short Rounds,June198�

Thanks to all those who helped with the surveys over the last 25 years and especially to Bob Richards for preparing some of the accompanying maps on short notice.

Vertical Sea Caving(continued from page 18

This issue: Vertical sea caves of the world and pseudokarst of the southwest USA.

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