Varuna in the Rgveda - Rohana Seneviratne

8/14/2019 Varuna in the Rgveda - Rohana Seneviratne

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Varua, the Guardian of Morality in thegveda

Rohana SeneviratneDepartment of Classical Languages

University of Peradeniya

Varua to whom a plethora of hymns in the gveda are addressed is highlighted inthegvedic pantheon1 as the godhead of morality. As many attributes are ascribed tohim, it is not unfair to introduce Varua as one of the best anthropomorphicallydepicted divinities. He terrifies the guilty but is most compassionate to the virtuous.In this paper, I briefly discuss howVarua is described as the protector of morality

with reference to the relevantgvedic hymns so that it will produce a detailed imageof the morality that prevailed in the ancient Vedic society.

1. Etymology

The etymology of the name Varua is unclear as is the case with the names of manyother Vedic gods. There are many discrepancies between the etymologies suggestedby scholars. One suggestion is that the term Varua is derived from the root v orvar which denotes to cover, to screen, to veil, to conceal, to hide, tosurround or to obstruct in the gveda. In addition to these meanings, these tworoots have the meanings of to ward off, to check, to keep back, to prevent, tohinder or to restrain in the Atharvaveda. Yska, the great etymologist, in his

Nirukta,2 also proposes that the root v means to cover or to encompass. HenceVarua may mean the one who encompasses (the sky). According to the majorityof scholars, who discuss the derivation of this name from the root v and thepresence thereof in the Vedic texts, Varua is a sky god surrounding the firmament3.H. Peterson, who does not accept the meaning of sky god ascribed to Varuna,

prefers to introduce him as a binder-god, as he assumes v to have its root-equivalent in the proto Indo-European language as 'er-' denoting a meaning tobind or to fetter.4Varua, being introduced as a moon-god5, a god of death6, a god

1 In the religion of thegveda, the presence of a pantheon is doubted as there are no monotheisticviews in general and each divinity when eulogized or implored seems independent within the earlyVedic contexts. P. S.Deshmukh (1933) The Origin and Development of Religion in the VedicLiterature (Oxford): 123.2Nirukta 10.33 A.Keigi (1881)Der gveda, die lteste Literatur der Inder (Leipzig); L. Schroeder (1887)Indiens

Literatur und Cultur in Historischer Entwicklung (Leipzig); A. Barth (1914) Oeuvres de Auguste.Barth I (Paris); E. W. Hopkins (1895) The Religions of India (Boston); A. A. McDonell (1897) Vedic

Mythology, Grundriss der Indo-arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde (Strassburg); M. Bloomfield(1908) The Religion of the Veda, American Lectures on the History of Religions 7(New York); R.Pettazzoni (1920)La religione di Zarathustra nella storia religosa dell'Iran (Bologna); A. B. Keith(1933) 'The God Varua' The Indian Historical Quarterly 9 : 515-520 and A.B. Keith (1936) 'Varuaand Ouranos'Indian Culture 3 (Calcutta): 421-430 are some of the publications in which Varua isintroduced as a Sky-God. Cf. Deshmukh (1933): 62-63.4 E. Tegnr (1918)Einige Beitrge zu den Gtternamen Mitra und Varua (Berlin): 156-158.5 H. Oldenberg (1894)Die Religion des Veda (Berlin): 178, A. Hillebrandt (1929) Vedische

Mythologie2 (Breslau): 1-4.6 J.J. Meyer (1937) Trilogie Altindischer Mchte und Feste der Vegetation III (Zrich): 199, K.F.Johansson (1917) ber die Altindische Gttin und Verwandtes Dhia (Uppsala): 125-127.


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of an ryan tribe7, an Austro-Asiatic sea god8, or a mere sea god9, proves that hismany epithets have caused extreme confusion. However, Varuas role in thegveda is singularly significant.

Considering that the Greek name O (Ouranos) is believed to have theetymological meaning to shut up or to imprison10, many scholars in comparative

philology were tempted to compare the names, Varua and Ouranos, and it iscommonly accepted that they correspond to each other.11Avesta, the main scriptureof the Zoroastrian religion mentions Ahura Mazda (lit. the wise lord) as the deity

who maintains morality12 and who even knows the innermost thoughts of men13.This, as philologists comment, shows that there is an affinity between the namesVarua and Ahura Mazda, because in the gveda, Varua is also called asura14.Ahura in the Avesta and asura in the gveda appear to have phonologicalsimilarities though it is a little doubtful whether they are the same morphologically.

Ahura is said to be akin to voltus or vultus in Latin which means visage orexpansion of countenance15 but this requires further investigation. Some prefer toconsider asura as a word comprising two phonetic units asu-ra where asu- is tomean breath of life or life (in general)16. The word asura underwent a change in

meaning17 in later periods as one denoting an opponent of gods. The Boghazkiinscription contained three names of deities who are also found in the gveda ofwhich -ru-a-na is generally regarded as corresponding to Varua. This provedthat the origin of the name Varua dates back to the Indo-Iranian period18. The word

7 K. Rnnow (1927) Trita ptyaeine Vedische Gttheit(Uppsala): 7-8.8 J. Przyluski (1931) 'Varua, God of the Sea and the Sky' The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society(London ): 613.9 R. Pischel & K.F. Geldner (1892-97) Vedsche Studien II (Stuttgart): 124, P. Kretschmer (1926)'Varua und die Urgeschichte der Inder' Wiener Zeitschrift Fr die Kunde des Morgenlandes 33(Wien): 4-6.Varuas being a Sea God or a God of Waters is determined not only in the gveda but alsoin thepost Vedic literature where Varua represents theGod of Ocean. Further, he is said to be the godpurifying waters especially in the later Vedic texts. Cf.V.7.64.1; 7.49;AV. 7.83;B. 4.4.5.10; 12.9.2.410 R. Scott & H. G. Liddell edd. (1843) (1961 reprint) A Greek English Lexicon (Oxford): 1094col. 2Scott and Liddell give several meanings to Ouranos, i.e. heaven or the sky, heaven as seat of the gods,the space above the earth, all-surrounding space, a region of heaven or climate and so on. ' Uranos',the son ofErebos and Gaia (Hes.Th.127 sq.) and the Latinized Greek term 'Uranus' is also widely

believed to be the best equivalent to Sanskrit Varua.Cf. T. C. Lewis & C. Short (1933)Freund's Latin Dictionary (Oxford): 1934.11 A. Bergaigne (1893)La Religion Vdiqued'aprs les Hymnes du ig-veda III (Paris): 112. But A.Meillet rejects this etymology. Cf. A. Meillet (1907) 'Le dieu Indo-IranienMitra' Journal Asiatique10.10 (Paris): 156.12 Bloomfield (1908): 125.13Avesta Y.31.1314V. 1.24.14; 1.151.4; 2.27.10 etc.15 J. Gonda (1974) The Dual Deities in the Religion of the Veda (Amsterdam): 168-170.16 C. D. Buck (1949)A Dictionary of Selected Synonyms in the Principal Indo-Aryan Languages(Chicago): 159. Cf. Uhlenbeck (1898)A Manual of Sanskrit Phonetics (Luzac).17 Iranians ascribed the title asura to the gods of utmost degree of superiority or mightiness anddeva to nefarious spirits or demons while Indians used both as attributes to gods but in later times tonon-gods or to the opponents of gods. The Zoroastrian reforms were the main impetus to thisconversion, as scholars believe, by which the ancient nature-deities were declared malicious spirits.Cf. S. Bhattacharji (1993) Varua, in M. Eliade ed. The Encyclopedia of Religion 15 (New York): 189-191.18 O.Weber ed. (1917-1924)Boghazki-StudienVIII(Leipzig): 32.


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mazda in the Iranian termAhura Mazda shows a morphophonemic affinity19 to theSanskrit word medhira or wise. Further,Ahura Mazda is introduced as omniscientor all-knowing in the Avesta20 while Varua, in the gveda is also depicted as anall-knower.21

2. Varuas Figure

The physical figure of Varua has to be determined by putting together theminiature descriptions thereof scattered in the hymns to him in the gveda.Regarding the consanguinity of Varua to the other deities in the gveda, it isinteresting to note that he is called the son ofAditi(or anditya) and the brother of

Agni22. In the Mahbhrata, one of the great epics of a later period, Varua isdescribed as a son ofKardama and the father ofPukara.

Compared to the hymns describing gods such as Indra, those describing the physicalappearance ofVarua are significantly very few. In the hymns addressed to Varua,his physical features are stated only laconically and some features are introduced incommon as those belonging to dual deities.23 It has thus become an arduous task to

create a complete physical image ofVarua.

However, if roughly outlined, Varua has to be described as a god with the followingphysical features. His face (anka) resembles that ofAgnias it glitters like flames.24Bald-headed and fair-complexioned Varua has yellow eyes that are often referred to

with much emphasis because his long-sightedness is also of much importance todetermine his role in the Vedic literary and philosophical contexts. For instance, he isoften called urucakas or far-sighted.25 The golden sun roaming throughout thefirmament from dawn to dusk is said to be his eye26 and consequently, like the sunthat observes everything upon earth, he sees all with that eye without any hindrance.One of the attributive names of Varua, sahasrk or thousand-eyed deservesmuch recognition as it idiomatically implies Varuas incomparable capability to

observe everything. Further, this honorific title sahasrk could be assigned toVarua if the Sun is considered to behis eye in the following manner. Thousands ofmen from thousand places upon the earth can view the same Sun andfeel as if eachone sees a separate Sun. On the other hand, the same Sun generates individualperceptions within each, perhaps amounting to a thousand in number. Thereforesahasrk does not seem to be a misnomer. With these thousand Sun-eyes,Varua observes every nook and corner upon the earth. Being invoked, he would be

19 Gonda (1974): 162.20vspo.vivah (E. lit. tr. all knowing) Avesta Yt. 1.12vspo.viv aaoyamano (E. lit. tr. the all knower) Avesta Yt. 12.1

21asuro vivaved (E. lit. tr. the all-knowing asura) V. 8.42.1

asura pracet (E. lit. tr. the wise, attentive asura) V. 1.24.1422V. 7.64.223 Cf. Gonda (1974) Mitra and Varua : 145-208; Indra and Varua:229-271.24V. 7. 88.225V. 1.25.5, 1626 svard RV. 5.63.2, ud vm cakureti V. 7.61.1

Whengvedic poets praise dual deities of which one is Varua, this very feature is assigned to both.For instance,Mitrvaruau or bothMitra and Varua have this particular Sun-Eye.Cf. cakur mitrasya Varuaya (RV. 7.63.1), cakur mitrasya varuasygne (V. 1.115.1;10.37.1),cakur mahi miytayorpriya varuayor Gonda (1974): 148.


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present on the barhi or the sacrificial grass with his golden garb called drpiwrapped around and he accepts huti or oblations.27 In theatapatha Brhmaa,Varua is depicted as a matured godhead embellished with golden ornaments.28

According to certain citations in theBrhmaa literature Varua has a distorted andrepulsive figure. For instance, in the description ofAvabhtha or the sacrificial bathof the Avamedha sacrifice, he appears as an obscure figure called Jumbaka or

Jmbaka29 with a white (ukla) body, bald head, protruding teeth (vikldha) andreddish brown eyes (pigka).30

Varuaa abode as mentioned in the early Vedic texts is the atmosphere or ether,though, in later contexts, he is said to be dwelling in an abode in the waters 31 or tohave his region in the ocean. Pastysu or the multi-pillared mansion ofVarua issaid32 to be in the ether and having thousand gates from which he starts roamingover the sky in his glittering horse chariot. His feet are the rays of the Sun 33; he sendshis intelligent spies to all places and they cannot be cheated. 34

3. Historical Background

Being variously introduced as one of the demigods or deva-gndharvas, or as aNga or the king ofNgas or as an asura, Varua seems to have a number ofrepresentations in different contexts. He is also introduced as the supreme deity,

being again comprehensively called the king of the gods and the king of both godsand men or the king of the universe. There is no doubt that Varua is one of thedeities descending from the clan of divaukas or sky-dwellers honoured even beforethe period of the earliest parts of thegveda.

In the panegyric hymns of the gveda, Varua is often invoked together with his brothers of theditya tribe, Mitra or Agni, and the heroic but liquor-loving god,Indra. Further, the compound names Mitrvarua and Indravarua are foundfrequently.35 The hymns where Varuas might, glory, magnanimity and allied

characteristics are colourfully painted are few in the gveda in comparison to thosewhere other major deities likeIndra andAgniare eulogized. The Varua hymns areremarkably varied in content and could be categorized as unctuously recited eulogies,confessions, laments, requests and sarcasms etc. The gvedic hymns which areconfined to a description ofVarua, are only ten in number, i.e., 1.24,25; 2.28; 5.85;7.86, 87, 88, 89 and 8.41,42. Besides these, there are those in which Varua ispraised as a dual deity along with Mitra orIndra. TheAtharvaveda, Smaveda and

atapatha Brhmaa also contain hymns describing Varuas dexterous deeds,though the content thereof are not completely analogous to those of the gvedichymns.

27V. 1.25.13.28B. 13.3. 6.5.29VS. 30.9,B. 13.3.6.5, TB. 3.9.15.30AV. 11.5.26.31V.1.25.10.32V. 1.25.10,11.33V. 8.41.8.34V. 1.24.13; 7.67.05, 7.87.03 etc.35 Cf. 16th footnotefor more on dual deities in the gveda.


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In the earliest Maalas or the books of the gveda, there is almost no trace ofhenotheism. Even in the later parts, monotheism does not seem to have developed asa distinct feature.

na hi vo astyarbhako dev so na kumrakavive sato mahnta it 36

There is no one among you, O Nature Bounties, who is an infant or a youth.Verily all of you are very great. 37

As shown in the verse cited above, there were no inferiors or superiors among thegvedic deities and thus all were, at the time of invocation, regarded as having thesame greatness. However, this notion does not prevail in the hymns to Varua wherehe is introduced as the monarch of all celestial bodies, and further, of the wholeuniverse. Even a god does not dare transgress his immutable ordinances calledvratni.38 In seven instances, Varua is called dhtavrata or one who maintainsthe fixed rules of conduct. If encapsulated, some of Varuas incredible deeds asdepicted in thegveda could be given as follows.

1. Varua upholds both the firmament and the earth.(2.28.1; 7.42.1; 5.63.7)

2. He sets the Sun in its place in the firmament, opens anunobstructed avenue to roam and makes it glow. (5.62.3;6.70.1; 7.86.1; 7.87.1,6)

3. The wind is nothing but his breathing. (7.82.2)4. Rivers continue flowing through the ways prepared by

Varua at his command. (1.24.8; 2.28.4; 7.87.1)5. Rivers perform their duty of filling up seas but, as

Varua commands and regulates the ocean neveroverflows. (5.85.6 etc.)

6. The immutable, everlasting ordinances cause the crescentto become the full moon in the first half of the month aswell as to disappear gradually in the latter half, and thestars to glow brightly at night but to fade away at daytime. (1.24.10 etc.)

7. Varua does know the behaviour patterns of all men,birds and all creatures, even those of the wind and theroutes of ships in the sea. (1.25.7 etc.)

8. Varua is definitely aware of all that has already beendone or is to be done in the future by everyone, thus,nothing is secret to him and nothing could be hiddenfrom him. (1.25.7,8 etc.)

9. Without being noticed byVarua, nobody could evenwink as he counts each and every wink of everybody.(2.28.6 etc.)

36V. 8.30.137 All English renderings of thegvedic verses cited here are fromgveda Sahit (1977) by SvamiSatyaprakash Sarasvati and Satyakam Vidyalankar, Veda Prathihna (New Delhi).38V. 8.41.7: Varua was the supreme lord of the universe (of lands, water and the sky, and wasomnipresent and omniscient) regulating and controlling all the natural phenomena by his immutablelaws. Cf. also A. Chandradas, (1925)gvedic culture (Delhi): 82.


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10.Truth and untruth among human beings are judged aswell as witnessed by him. (7.49.3)

11.The rising of uas or the dawn without which theworld would remain in darkness and similarly thefalling of darkness are also due to Varuascommand.

12. Being omniscient and omnipresent, supercilious Varuaexcels all divinities.13. Stars in the sky and Soma, the most sacred plant of

which the divine drink offered to gods is made, wereplaced on the peaks of mountains byVarua.

14. Varuas power is unlimited; he is greater than heavenand earth; (1.24.6; 7.61.3) and he is often called theking of all (2.27.10; 10.132.4) as well as the king of thewhole world.(5.85.3)

15. He established the provinces of the universe and he isthe upholder of the physical and moral order. (1.24.8;6.70.1, 7.86.1; 7.87.5, 8.41. 3)

16. Varua is referred to as the deity who regulates theseasons knowing the twelve months. (1.25.8)17. As one of his exclusive concerns, Varuasoaks all

pasture grounds so that cows may produce deliciousmilk. (5.85.3)

4.My, the Occult Power

The supernatural great occult power termed my which is often mentioned in theVarua hymns is another prominent feature asserting his might. My of which theroot is generally believed to be m (to create)39 bears, within the context of thegveda, the meaning supernatural power or skill even though it has extended

meanings such as illusion and sexual love in late Sanskrit while in the atapathaBrhmaa it means both fraud and compassion. With the power my, Varuaperforms the incredible activities some of which were already mentioned. On oneoccasion he measures the earth, then covers the firmament with dark clouds but atanother time he makes the sky appear as a canopy of pleasant blue. He smashes thedark-goblins with his illustrious feet of sunbeams and destroys all their magic wiles.

Varua is extolled as the god of morality as he maintains, regulates and promotessocial etiquette by dint ofmy, the occult power he possesses. Varua, the king ofthe universe, the omniscient and omnipresent, is revered on account of hissovereignty, by which trait he exceeds all other deities. In the Vedic literature, hisextreme concern is the morality of human beings. However, the superiority of

Varua deteriorated in later times as seen in the post-Vedic texts where he is a meresea god40 or a god of the waters of the atmosphere and the firmament. Nevertheless,in the Vedas his role as the protector of morality is singularly emphasized. A perusalofVarua hymns found in thegveda will clearly reveal that the underlying tone of

39 In old Bengali m means illusion while myin denotes one who is artful or deceptive. Cf. Buck(1949): 578.40 For Varua being called Sindhupati or lord of the sea or rivers along withMitraV. 7.64.2 (rjn maha tasya gop sindhupat katriy ytamarvk).


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each and every verse addressed to him denotes one or more of the different mentalstates of poets such as the utmost respect paid to his immutable ordinances, fear ofconfession, the pain of nemesis that they experienced or are still experiencing,sorrow of their own inability to avoid misdeeds due to negligence, their strong desireto be free from punishments and their wish to win Varuas favour again, anxiety todisclose their innocence and so on.

5.ta, the Cosmic Order

What is emphatically mentioned along with the role ofVarua as the god of moralityis unarguably the ta or the cosmic order41 which no being, divine or mortal, couldact against. Bearing the meaning universal truth, this word seems to date back asmost of the terms found in the earliest Vedic texts do, to the period of PIE, i.e., ProtoIndo-European language. The derivations of the root word which is still unknown tous are found in Greek avekat (?) and in Old Persian, as expounded in Avesta, aa,areta or arta.42 German scholars also try to find equivalents to ta in Germanlanguage too. H. Oldenberg (1915)43 prefers 'Ordnung' while B. Geiger (1916)44suggests 'Recht' and H. Luders (1944)45 chooses 'wahrheit'. Sten Rodhe considers all

these and especially Abel Bergaigne's suggestion and then understands 'dharma' asan equivalent to ta in Sanskrit and laws in English.46 As depicted in the gveda,ta is the unshakable order, firm and constant of which the protector (tasya gop),observer (kh tasya) and promoter (tyu, tavat) is Varua, the monarch of theuniverse.47Agnior sacred fire is also introduced as the second protector ofta48 butVaruas prominence is emphasized much more. His immutable ordinances(vratni)49 are charged with the spirit of this cosmic order. The common questionraised is, whyVarua deserves such veneration as the God of Morality though there

were many mighty gods whom the people praised at that time.

Varua, the omniscient, omnipresent and omnipotent god was the key force whichregularized the moral life ofgvedic ryans. Nothing clandestine could be done

unnoticed byVarua as he completely knows all, sees and hears all that was done,that is done and even that is to be done in the future. Awareness of these abilities of

41 J. N. Farqehar & H.D. Griswold (1923) The Religion of the gveda (Oxford): ta means order,cosmic, ethical and ritualistic.. : 126, taembraces both cosmic and ethical order : 134.42 Bloomfield (1908): 228. Cf. also F. Spiegel (1887)Die Arische Periodeund ihre Zustnde (Leipzig):139, R. Zimmermann (1930) 'Asha in the Gths of theAvesta andta in thegveda' inModi

Memorial Volume (Bombay): 414-417.43 H. Oldenberg (1915) 'Zur Religion und Mythologie des Veda'Nachrichten von der KniglichenGesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gttingen (Berlin): 167.44 B. Geiger (1916)Die Ama Spntas (Wien): 166.45 H. Luders (1944) 'Die Magische Kraft der Wahrheit in Alten Indien'Zeitschrift der Deutschen

Morgenlndischen Gesellschaft98 (Leipzig): 3-5.46 'The statement of Bergaigne remains true that dharman, dhman, ta and vrata are used side byside as expressions of a law that rules similarity in nature, in the sacrifice and in moral life' S. Rodhe(1946)Deliver Us from Evil(Lund): 143.47 'Varua is the guardian ofta (cosmic order, Law, Truth, Reality) and as such the representative ofthe static aspects of kingship, the enemy of falsehood, the punisher of sin, lord and upholder of theVratas (fixed and regular behaviour functions, observations)' J. Gonda (1975) Vedic Literature(Sahits and Brhmaas) in J. Gonda ed. A History of Indian Literature, Vol. 1 Fasc. 1(Wiesbaden): 97.Cf. H.P. Schmidt (1958) Vedsh Vrata und Awestisch Urvta (Hamburg).48V. 1.1.8 (gopmtasya ddivi).49V. 1.24.10.


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Varua deep-rooted in the minds of the ryans caused them to refrain from evil.Consequently, they composed emotional verses vivid in tone and hymns consisting ofa variety of rhapsodic, panegyric and sentimental streams of feeling. These are the

very hymns we basically depend on to comment on thegvedic culture,philosophical and religious insights, political and social aspects etc. They are themanifestations of the humble mind of the people at the time of thegveda filled with

surprise, terror, sorrow and the subtle mental states of that ilk. All the Varuahymns in the gveda are not confined to revealing only one of his aspects; eachhymn has its own identity with acute and considerable differences in form andcontent, though the key tone of every hymn seems to be identical50. The facts we noteabout Varua through each hymn sung to him are not thus to be taken as dogmas orpermanent facts reiterated for emphasis throughout the whole Vedic literature. Eachhymn is, as Wordsworth declared51, a spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings at acertain moment of mental excitement with a literary elegance of its own. A voraciousreader meticulously reading Varua-hymns in thegveda could understand that thehymns on objects and phenomena which Vedic ryans were surprised at were mixedand, thus, it is somewhat difficult to categorize them into separate divisions on the

basis of the content thereof.

Varua is entitled to a large number of attributive names in the gveda such assamrt or the universal monarch52, svart or the self-dependant ruler53, katra,54katriya or king, myin or the upholder of the occult power alias my or thecrafty, dhtavrata or the ordinances-bearer, ntidhra or the rules-bearer etc. Onhis royalty or sovereignty the honorific epithets samrt, svart and katra areascribed while myin, dhtavrata or ntidhra are those emphasizing his role inmaintaining and promoting morality. Ptadaka or the one who has purifiedthoughts, sukratu or the great intellect are due to his admirable characteristics.Furthermore, vva55 and sindhupati or the lord of the ocean, are to be found inconnection with Varuas role in the post Vedic era.

6.Ppa or Sin as a Debt

Morality in the gveda period was singularly maintained by Varua as alreadystated. The widely accepted opinion was that to be guilty means to commit a great sinand Varua surely knows it as nothing could be hidden from him. Sinceppa, or sinin the general sense, has a long history in Vedic literature, it seems to be charged

with the sense thatppa is the most severe sin fromwhich ryans tried to escape butcould not, and which they were afraid of. Anything wrong or against social etiquette,done unwillingly or deliberately, was thence regarded a sin.

50 There is in fact no hymn to Varua in which the prayer for remission of sin or forgiveness of guiltdoes not occur McDonell (1897): 27. Cf.V. 1.24; 2.28; 5.85; 7.86.51 Wordsworth cites these words in the Preface to Lyrical Ballads (1798) revised by W. Wordsworthand S. T. Coleridge.52V. 5.85.1.S53 HowVarua was ascribed svart is as follows.whenIndras supreme position was firmly established he became samr, the universal monarch andVarua onlysvartor a self-dependant ruler, possessing only limited powers and jurisdictionChandradas (1925): 82. Cf.V. 2.28.1; 2.82.2.54V. 7.87.6.55V. 5.63.3.


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Sin, as theologically explained, appears religious56 though in the religion of thegveda it is something much more beyond religious limitations. Thus, sin was themost terrifying to ryans as depicted in the hymns and it made those committingsins regret and aware of the severity of their offences while directing thesociety to a

better path. The scholars remark on this matter that sin in the Vedic contextsprimarily bears a religious sense though charged with a complete ethical touch.

A perusal of Vedic hymns, especially those to Varua would help to find the wordsused to mean sin. One of those frequently found is ena.

pcche tadeno varua didku57(O Varua, I inquire what my sin is.)

ga is another term widely used but its origin was debated. The followingquotation provides an example as to how the term was used.

kimga sa varua jyea58(O Varua, what has been my great sin?)

Regarding ga, E.W. Hopkins considers it to be older than ena whereas Rodherejects Hopkins stance.59 However, the word ang or those devoid of sin is more

widely used than anen of the same sense.60 For instance, one of the rare uses ofanenh can be given.

ava tvnen namas tura iy61(Freed from sin, I quickly approach you with deep veneration.)

Drugdha and anta are also equivalents toppa or sin in meaning and thelatter clearly shows in keeping with the laws of euphonic combinations as well, thatsin is nothing but transgressing ta, the cosmic order.62 Here, the prefix of negationan- (typicallyna-), combines with -ta as an-ta to denote that ppa is nothing

but the very transgression or the contradiction of the universal truth.63

ava drugdhni pitry sj no64(May you free us from bonds inherited from our forefathers.)

56 Sin has various definitions with emphasis on its nature, causes and results. Three of suchdefinitions are listed below.Man sins when committing something forbidden by certain divine commandments. Sometimes the

word obtains a wider senseSin is a religious not a moralistic conceptionOtto, (1932)Das Gefhl des berweltlichen (Mnchen): 83Sin is a purely religious idea, having nothing to do with ethics but that by and by it is filled withethical content Mensching, (1941) Gut and Bse im Vlker (Leipzig): 41Modern theology stresses that sin is met with as a power keeping man in captivityOur conception of

sin may indicate something committed by man as well as something outside man, seizing him as anenemyRodhe (1946): 136.57V. 7.86.3.58V. 7.86.4.59 Rodhe (1946): 139.60V. 1.24.15; 4.12.4.61V.7.86.4.62Varua is prayed to see (avapayan) satynte or good and evil.V. 7.49.3.63Mitra and Varua are said to conquerAnta and keep tota. Cf.V. 1.152.1.64V. 7.86.5.


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svapnacanedantasya prayot65(Even a dream is provocative to falsehood)

In addition, abhidudroha66 and kilbia, though not used as frequently asena, ga67, or anta are also to be distinguished as giving the meaning, sin.

Sin considered a or a debt which an offender could never pay up is another facetof morality at the time of the gveda which requires the special concern of aresearcher on ethics. The word a in the classical Sanskrit literature is used in anarrowed sense than that used in the Vedic literature as in the latter it indicates twoliterary senses, namely sin and debt. Nevertheless they sometimes denote the samesense too and give an implied or suggested meaning. The poet of the gveda hymn8.47, in the seventeenth verse, indicates both debts and conflicts due to indebtedness

by the word a

avn or debtor in thegvedic context means one who is found guilty or one whoowes money to another as explained in the hymn of the gambler (10.34).68 However,it is of much importance that wherever the word a is used to denote the state of

indebtedness in the gveda it also emphasizes the sinfulness of being indebted.Owing to somebody in any respect was thus considered committing sin. Not onlypecuniary debts but also debts of every sort are said to bear the complete sense a.Similarly, a debtor was a sinner and vice versa as depicted in the relevant hymns.

Vedic ryans kneeled in supplication at the sovereignty ofVarua, the king of bothgod and the mortal, with their humble words to get released from the irreplaceablenemesis.

para svradha matktni mha rjannanyaktena bhoja69avyu innu bhyasrusa no jvn varua tsu dhi

A free English rendering of the above verse is as follows:

O venerable god, may you discharge me from the debts incurred by me, or for mysake by others. May I not, O illustrious god, be dependant on the wealth earned byothers. Many are the morning that have, as it were, indeed not dawned, make us, O

venerable one, alive in them.

As pecuniary debts (a) could be paid up and a debtor is able to get released fromthe bonds of indebtedness, sin (ppa) could also be blotted out by expiation and asinner could gain Varuas favour to get the severity of his punishments reduced.The only possible way to get released or to mitigate the severity of punishments onesuffers from was to seek Varuas favour. A number of hymns, in the form ofrequests, confessions, laments and exculpations composed with heartrending words

65V. 7.86.6. svapne ktairapi krmabhirbahni ppn jyante kimu vaktavya jgrati ktaikarmabhi ppnyutpadyanta iti Syana.66V. 7.89.4 (Syana - abhidroha apakrajta).67V. 7.87.6 (Syana - ga apardha).68V. 10.34. 10 (av bibhyaddhanamicchamno).69V. 2.28.9.


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show that ones sin could be removed or expiated by assuaging the angeredVarua.70

7. How Sin Occurs

The multiplicity of the words used to mean sin clearly reveals how the conception of

sin, religious or ethical in nature, was deeply rooted in the gvedic society. Moralitywas maintained and promoted byVarua as expounded in the hymns. What Vedicryans considered sin should also be examined in order to builda better image ofVaruas role in Ethics.

As we mentioned above, ta is the universal order and anta or sin is thetransgression thereof. Hence, disobeying ta was regarded as an act dragging ryansinto serious sins. They were aware that to err is human71 but, failed to disbelieve thatVarua knows all.

yastihati carati yaca vacati yo nilya carati ya pratakadvau saniadya yanmantrayete rj tadveda varuasttya72Whoso stands, goes about and whoso goes crookedly, whoso goes about hidden, whodefiantly what two, sitting down together, talk, king Varua, as third knows that. 73

Therefore, even themental peccadilloes could not be kept hidden from Varua whosurely knows all done openly or secretly. As emphasized in the gveda, a human

being is never his master74 and to err is, thus, justified.75 Many nefarious deeds as well as lapses make humans sinful not only through physical offences but also bymalevolent thoughts and one may be driven into committing sin. Murder76, extremeindulgence in gambling, anger and liquor,77 deceiving especially at gambling,78cursing, sins due to thoughtlessness, nightmares and many more mental andphysical activities of that sort were the causes that ryans distinguished as being

sinful.79

Gambling with aka or dice is seen as the most popular game among ryans in thegveda period as vividly depicted in one of the well-known hymns comprisingpenitential verses, designated as the Hymn of Gambler. The brownish (babhru)vibhdaka80 fruits with small hook-like thorns were widely used as dices and, as thepoet introduces them, they kindle the desire of people who gamble with them.81Being dragged into the game, ryans could not help getting drawn to gambling, as if

by the hooks of dice, even if they were much aware of the sinfulness of being addicted

70 A. Bergaigne, (1973) Vedic Religion According to the Hymns of the gveda Vol. III (V.G.Paranjapes tr.) (Poona): 169-170.71V. 1.25.1; 7.89.5.72AV. 4.16.2.73 Whitneys Translation Atharvaveda Sahit Vol. I: 177.74V. 2.28.6.75V. 1.25.1; 7.89.5.76V. 1.41.8.77V. 7.86.5.78V. 2.27.16; 2.29.5; 5.85.8.79V. 7.86.5, 6.80Syana - vibhdaka dhytasdhanoka.81V. 7.86.6; 10.34.1, 5, 7.


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to dice. The incorrigible gambler is also sarcastically or contemptibly introduced assabhsthu or the pillars of the gambling house or the posts of the gambling table

because, like pillars supporting the roof, gamblers are willingly present at the place ofgambling from dawn to dusk. As beautifully expressed in gvedic hymns, thegambler wants to get rid of his habit jeopardizing the lives of his mnage but knowsno way to avoid it. All that he could do is to repent and to confess to Varua as

follows.

jy tapyate kitavasya hn mt putrasya carata kva svitav bibhyaddhanamicchamnonyemastamupa naktameti 82

The gamblers wife is left forlorn and wretched; the mother mourns for the son, whowanders homeless involved in debt, in constant fear, hankering after wealth, he goesforth by night unto the home of strangers.

striya dvya kitava tatpnye jy suktaca yoniprvhe avnyuyuje hi babhrntso agnerante vala papda 83

The gamester suffers when he observes the happy wife and well ordered home ofothers. Yet, in the afternoon, he gets on the town-steeds andat night, the sinner liesdown near the fire.

This despicable habit, a stigma to the noble ryan tribe and etiquette was explicitlyconsidered a transgression of ta, Varuas cosmic order, and the gamblers werenecessarily sinners. Admittedly, the repentant and terror-stricken gambler has toconfess since Varua, as the third among two, knows all and repels him in many

ways. He commits sin not only by dint of gambling but by deceiving others at thegame as well.84 This example explains well what a serious and culpable habitgambling was in the time of the gveda and why ryans had to implore Varua toget his anger assuaged.

Another deed highly considered offensive and deserving punishment was usury andindebtedness.85 The debtors and even their forefathers succumbed to punishmentsfor committing this great sin.86 Hence Varua is implored in the hymns to releasethe sinners from suffering. Indulgence in drunkenness resembling that in gambling

was also regarded a severe sin according to the social norms at that period. In theprayers to Varua, the drunkards beseech him when they are penalized by the all-knower to loosen his fetters. Being addicted to drunkenness the innocent become theguilty unconsciously driven by felonious thoughts. Varua observes whateverhumans do, right or wrong, honest or dishonest, speak or even think and, thus, noone escapes his eye, as already mentioned. Then no matter how secretly one enjoysan intoxicating drink, it is never a secret to Varua, the omniscient. Therefore, all

having liquor in private or in a carouse are afraid alike of being subjected to Varuaspunishments which may pass from generation to generation.

82V. 10.34.10.83V. 10.34.11.84V. 5.81.4.85Syana comments here as follows.'The passage is deserving of notice, indicating an advanced as well as a corrupt state of society. Theoccurrence of debt, and severity of its pressure' gveda Syanabhya Wilson's Translation.86V. 2.28.9.


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Adultery, considered arepulsive and sinful offence, was also among the most severecrimes at the time of the gveda. Womens hearts were declared to be out ofcontrol,87 fickle88 and akin to those of jackals.89 An adulterous woman wasnicknamed parpus and was considered a sinner. In addition, parivitti or theact of the younger brother getting married before his elder brother, bhrahan (lit.embryo-slayer, or - in modern usage abortion,) are described in the Maitraya

Sahit and the Atharvaveda as the most severe crimes. Sexual misconductencompassing incest and bestiality were severe enough to deserve punishments asthe culprits crack the structure of morality. Being guilty of both committed anduncommitted crimes the confessors beseech Varua seeking his favour to getreleased.

The malignant forces tempting people to commit crimes and to become culpritsthereby were also identified.90 Some of these forces are dvea or enmity, sridh orenemies, rapas or physical weakness, amv or diseases, durmati or malignity,ahas or distress, amati or want, and durita or disaster. Furthermore, accordingto the opinion of the ryan, there were divine forces provoking them to anger, lustetc. and then to commit sins which they wanted to refrain from. Anena or the god

devoid of sins, Varua, was introduced by poets because except him all otherscommit crimes. He is implored for liberation by enasvat or sinners.

It is also noteworthy that, the ryans are sometimes depicted in thegveda as thoseinveighing Varua into favouring them since they convince whyVarua should notpenalize them. Those who commit nefarious deeds unintentionally due tokratvadnat (or the poverty of will-power) implore Varua in supplication to becompassionate enough to release them from punishments.

yat ki ceda varua daivye janebhidroha manuycarmasi acitt91yat tava dharm yuyopima m nas tasmd enaso deva rria92

Whatever offence we men commit against divine beings, and whichever your laws weviolate through ignorance, may you not, O Lord, be harsh to us on account of thatiniquity.

Such extreme consciousness of onesown conduct kept Aryans vigilant because evennightmares were considered as causes of sin93 according to thegvedic hymns. Theywere attentive to the core and perhaps this was the very reason why they often had been careful to refrain from anything sinful even by mistake. Further, ryansexcessively succumbed to what was believed dogmatic and this is an exclusiveexample for it. This extremity is often expounded in almost all of the theistic religiouscontexts where an almighty omniscient god is believed to be. As a consequence,nobody is said to be free from Varuas observation even though the god was not so

87V. 8.33.17.88V. 10.95.15.89V. 10.95.16.90V. 8.18.91Syana acitt acityjnena.92V. 7.89.5.93 The sin may have been committed even in sleep. For this eventuality we may think of dreams in

which the poet has played an evil part and of nightlypollutions Rodhe (1946): 141.


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in reality. ryans who got embarrassed were forced to confess and seek Varuasfavour as it really mattered for freedom.

The fact that nobody becomes a culprit due to his own will or svadaka but bymeans of being driven by an external force, as cited above, passion, anger, lust orignorance etc.94 or beingtempted by malignant spirits, is much stressed in order to

justify Aryans inability to refrain from committing sins. Admittedly, there is no traceof the conception in the gvedic hymns that Varua could easily be inveigled intoforgiving sinners and his wrath could be easily assuaged by mere praying. The sinnerdid know that he has been driven by some external forces ofwhich Varua is theconductor and which Aryans could not stand against.95 He, thus, makes his mind notto yield to such forces again and swears he would no longer go wrong but, he is by nomeans able to be guiltless. Repenting about what happened due to poor will-power or

by another driving force he blatantly prays for Varuas favour.96

However, in some hymns, though rare in number, there are justifications, of whichone excerpt is cited below. It tells us whyVarua should forgive a sinner and removeor lessen the harsh punishments already implemented.

na sa svo dako varua dhruti s sur manyurvibhdako acittiasti jyyn kanyasa upre svapnacanedantasya prayot 97

Syana, the great commentator of gveda, emphasizes that here jyyn (lit.seniors) means the god who received prayers, most probablyVarua, while kanyas(lit. juniors) was interpreted as theryan poets composing the hymn (upre upgatenyanttvena sthita).98 Here is the English rendering of the complete verseconcerned.

O virtuous Lord, it is not our own choice, but our hard environments that betray us.It is the vice of intoxication, wrath, gambling and carelessness. And again it is the

handicap of the ill-company of the elder with the young. Even a dream is provocativeto falsehood.

What is implied here, as illustrated in theSyanas commentary, is that when thesenior, Varua in this context, compels the juniors or ryans to crimes or sins, the

94Syana he varua, sva svo daka puruasya svabhta tadbala ppapravttau kraana bhavati, ki tarhi dhruti sthir utpatti samaya eva nirmit daivagatih kraa.95 To begin with, Vasiha tried to explain away his sins. In a stanza (vii.86.6), which gives one of thefinest expressions to a sinners psychology, Vasiha argued that it was not his own free will (svadaka) which was at the bottom of his moral lapses his actions were by no means deliberate(acitti). It was, verily, on account of destiny (dhruti) or passion (manyu) or evil influence that he

became a sinnerR. N. Dandekar, (1970) 'Varua, Vasiha and Bhakti'in J. Tilakasiri ed.Ajali, O. H. De A.Wijesekara Felicitation Volume (Peradeniya): 78-80.96 Ibid. 78-79.97V. 7.86.6.98 'The passage would rather mean, a senior person (jyyn) is (always) there to mislead (upre) the

junior (kanyasa), or a senior person is (often) involved (asti) in the seduction of the junior'Dandekar (1970): 81.Syana is inconsistent when he says that the senior God impels the junior soul to commit sins on the

basis of theKautaktext - ea hyevsdhu karmakrayati ta yamadho ninate 3.8 Satyaprakand Vidyalankar trs. -gvedasahit, Vol. VIII: 2768.


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latter could do nothing but to succumb to them. This attitude, though not mentionedobviously in the gvedic hymns, reveals that the sinners hoped that Varua would

be impelled to sympathize with them and expiate the severity of the punishments ifhe does not cancel them. Nevertheless, they never dared to profane Varuasordinances as this could be taken as a sheer example of ryans sacrilege.

8. Varuas Fetters

It is often explained in the Vedic literature, where the punishments set byVarua aredescribed, that Varua binds culprits or sinners with his fetters or noose calledpa.99 Being symbolized, Varuas pa is frequently cited in the hymns100 and italso represents Varuas system of punishing. As depicted in literature, Varua is apeaceful and well-mannered god compared to dipsomaniac Indra and such otherdivinities. Further, he does not have many deadly weapons except the noose orfetters, even if theAryans considered it to be such a weapon.101 TheAtharvaveda alsomentions that Varua has hundred fetters.102 How terrifying mtyapa or thenoose of death was, is vividly described in the hymns.

ava drugdhni pitry sj nova y vaya cakm tanbhiava rjan pautpa na tyu103 sj vatsa na dmno vasiha 104

May you free us from bonds, inherited from our forefathers, and from those, for which we are ourselves responsible. O sovereign Lord, liberate me, the mostcelebrated and penancing self, from my animal passions, like a calf set free from itstether.105

The scholars in Vedic mythology and theology tend to compare the snare of the kingof gods, Varua, with the same weapon of other deities such as iva, Dev, Kl,

Hanumn, Ganea, Yama and Bhairava.106 The symbolic use of p is alsoidentified as relating to Varuas role especially in the post Vedic literature since he

is represented there as a god of the ocean.107Varuas pa, or as introduced withmany equivalent terms, dman108, raan, (though especially and often mentionedin connection with Yama)paba109or mtyapa, is a powerful weapon because itcauses much painful suffering. The extreme power of this weapon is oftenhighlighted with many references in the classical Sanskrit literature. In the

99 In Sanskrit: a divine weapon that terrified people of the time.100V.1.25; 5.16; 5.25; 7.86; Varua'spa as a simplex,V. 7.24.15; 7.25.21; 7.65.3; 7.88.7101 Deshmukh (1933): 214.102AV. 4.16.7 atena pairabhi dhehi Varuaina m te mocyantav ncaka'With hundred fetters, O Varua, do thou bridle him, let not the speaker of untruth escape thee, Omen watcher' W. D. Whitney tr. (1962)Atharvaveda Sahit, vol. I (Delhi): 178.103Syanas interpretation seems rather different. pautpa na tyu stainya-pryacittaktvavasne ghsdibhi tarpayitra stenamiva (like a thief nourishing a stolen animal) .104V. 7.86.5105 Here, there are two comparisons in this verse Cf. Satyaprak and Vidyankar's translation : 27-68106 In theV. 10.59.4; 10.76.4;B. 7.2.1.15 thepa is said to beNairta or belonging toNirti, thegoddess of destruction and death. That is, in other words, a deadly weapon.107 Thepa,psa or Varuapa which is in his hand has been surmised to be emblematical of thesea encircling the earth is often seen in the hand of other deities E. Moor, (1810)Sr Sarva Deva

Sabh(The Hindu Pantheon) (London): 274.108V. 7.86.5109V. 10.97.16;AV. 6.96.2; 7.112.2


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Maitrya Sahit,110Varua'spa is praised or revered when it is loosened (vi-ctta, prati-asta). There are references to varuapa too among the defensive

weapons of the deities in the Hindu pantheon such as dharmyudha, klyudha, thecakra ofViu, Vajra ofIndra, the lance ofiva etc.111 The statues which illustrateVarua as a god of waters in the later periods were often created with hispa in theleft hand. For instance, in the Brahmevara temple at Bhuvanevara (11th century

AD), there is a statue ofVarua as an anthropomorphic representation consisting ofa complete standing human figure with a short loincloth and ornaments on, and inthe famous tivaka posture. In his left hand there is a pa while the right handshows the gesture or mudr called varada (lit. boon-giving).

9. The Divine Wrath

The poet gets to know that he was already subjected to Varuas wrath when hesuffers from punishments; he trembles with fear of Varua, though the guilt wasneither of his own nor has been done willingly. Nevertheless, he is not relieved untilhe is freed from Varuas fetters. Prayers do not shiver with fear of every god in thereligion of the gveda, but definitely do in the case of Varua, the most terrifying

god to sinners comparable to Jehovah in the Old Testament. In the 25 th hymn of thefirst maala of the gveda the prayer beseeches Varua to release him from thedivine wrath like a charioteer unyoking a yoked horse. This simile finely illustratesthe literary merits of the very verse. Until a yoked horse, bound one, is unyoked bysomebody else, but not by itself, it is completely obliged to carry out the commandsof the charioteer. Those subject to divine wrath, just as yoked horses, are never freedtill Varua himself decides to release them. Admittedly, Varua's wrath is roused bythe infringement of his ordinances (vratni) and onlyVarua is capable to removeor lessen the punishments caused by him.

Furthermore, another highlighted fact regarding the aftermath of being guilty andbeing subject to Varuas wrath is that sinful prayers were so scared ofVarua that

they dare not beseech him directly for a favour. The sinful, in lieu of imploringVarua, try to inform him of their innocence through another divinity, mostfrequently, Srya (the Sun-god, acquainted with Mitra and Aditi, two deities citedalmost often with Srya).112 The sinful ryans appear here shivering with terror forthey fail to verbalize their confession or guiltlessness in front of wrathful Varua orhumbly believe in that our words would not be admitted but the words ofSrya orof a deity of that ilk surely would. Because Varua is omniscient and omnipresent,almost no one, as evident in the hymns, was courageous enough to lie or keep evenones own peccadilloes hidden. What a prayer could do after he identified himself to

be guilty and was caught up in the divine wrath was to confess directly to Varua113or to requestSavit orSrya, to inform his guiltlessness to Varua on his behalf. Asalready mentioned, since the Sun was identified as the eye of Varua he becomes

omniscient and wasbelieved to observe whatever human beings and other creatures

110MS. 4.8.5111 The great sage Vivmitra donates a plethora of weapons toRma in theRmyaa. There,Varuapa is also mentioned. Cf. for further details, Moor (1810): 274-276.112 Bergaigne (1973): 174.113unaepa implores Varua for getting the fetters loosened.V. 1.24.12,13,15: 'May he to whomthe fetteredunaepa prayed, king Varua, deliver (mumoktu) us. Bound to three pillars the seized

unaepa prayed to theditya. May king Varua, wise, never deceived, deliver (avasasjyt) him,loosen (vi-mumoktu) the bonds (pa)...'


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do in all places. Elsewhere,114 the divine elixir,Soma, andRudra are also implored todeliver (ava-syatam/mucatam) sinners from sin and to loosen Varua's fetters.

10. Consequences of Being Sinful

Given that the angered Varua punishes the guilty, the consequences of sin had to be

distinguished from the natural and causal disasters the ryans also had to encounter.There were, as thegvedic hymns disclose, two salient punishments whichthe sinfulwere subjected to and afraid of. One is the physical penalty of disease or death whilethe other is the loss of fellowship with holy Varua. The first shows clearly that thesinful will undergo worldly penalties and the latter has to be identified as apunishment causing the first and dragging the sinner into suffering in his supra-mundane life too.

All ryans seem desirous to keep the fellowship with Varua unimpaired. Thus thosespending peaceful moral lives protecting the established social etiquette, especiallythose not transgressing the cosmic order or ta would enjoy the favour of Varuaand have indomitable fellowship, an ineffable boon an Aryan could ever win. As

Griswold and Farquhar correctly identified, there are twofold sub-categories in thisparticular fellowship:115

1. The friendship a believer (bhakta in Sanskrit) could maintain when he wasin the vessel with Varua amidst sea waves.

2. The boon a believer wins of entering the thousand-gated mansion of thegod without any prior permission, being invited byVarua.

According to the beliefs of the time of thegveda, the transgressors ofta could winnone of the above favours. One maintains the fellowship with Varua, the king of theuniverse, as long as he does not violate Varuas ordinances or vratni. If, in anycircumstance, he fails to keep pace with the cosmic order or goes against it, he surely

loses the fellowship with Varua which would offend Varua. Thus, one has nofreedom unless he confesses and implores Varua to be merciful to him.

uta svay tanv savade tat kad nvantar varue bhuvnikim me havyamahno jueta kad mka suman abhi khyam 116

And I, with my own body, ask when shall I be one in him, in my Lord. Would he everaccept my dedicated offerings? Also when shall I, through the ecstasy of joyexperience his gracious presence before me?

Vasiha, the poet of the above stanza, having lost the fellowship with Varuamourns for it and shows a great desire to regain Varuas favour in this very life.

This ban, as Griswold and Farquhar identified, was also considered severe and isclearly shown in the following couplet. The English rendering from which howeverthe tone of the Sanskrit original could not be acquired is also given here.

114V. 6.74.3-4, Cf. Rodhe (1946): 38.115 Farquhar and Griswold (1923): 118.116V. 7.86.2


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kva tyni nau sakhy babhvu sacvahe yadavkam pur citbhantam mna varua svadhva sahasradvra jagam gha te 117

What has become of our remote friendship? When without enmity, shall we againwalk together? Let us preserve our relations unimpaired as before. O self-sustainedvenerable Lord, may I enter your lofty house, which has a thousand portals. 118

Introducing the self as the 'friendly chanter' (stotra sakhya)119 and stricken with punishments he promises to keep to the cosmic order and describes what hewould do in return to Varua if released from sufferings, i.e., to serve him (7.86.7)like a slave, to revere him (7.86.4) and so forth. To win the fellowship or syujyatis the only goal ofthe sinful (kad mka suman abhikya).

Among the physical penalties a sinner had to undergo, diseases and death wereprominent. The guilty besought Varua for freedom from those penalties which werealso caused by the divine wrath. Varua brutally punishes the sinful with epidemicand endemic diseases and death as just a reminder of what they have committed. 120The types of diseases expounded in Vedic literature vary in form, cause, symptoms as

well as effects and many of them are described in detail in theAtharvaveda.121 Giventhe diseases believed to be caused byVaruas wrath, many similarities can be foundbetween the symptoms or nature of diseases and the imagined physical nature of thedeities or spirits who are believed to cause them. The sick pray for recuperation tothose deities and spirits. Thus, the Sun glowing with yellowish rays in the morningand evening was requested to remove the disease harima (or jaundice)122 and forrecovery from jalodara (or dropsy) Aryans tended to prayto Varua or the god ofthe waters.123 In the Aitareya Bhmaa, Varua is said to seize Aikvka so thathis belly swells.124 Admittedly, Varua is called 'arpayit' [or one who inflicts(diseases)] and thus, this title suits him well in the context of thegveda. Punishingthe guilty by means of diseases seems a characteristic ofVarua and those sufferingfrom diseases had no way but to beseech him for recuperation. It is, therefore,

evident that Varua was believed to have the power not only to cause diseases butalso to heal the sick. The sufferers request Varua to be compassionate enough tomake them recuperate from the sickness with which they have been punished andthey evidently knew that Varua is able to and surely will do so.125 Then sinners, whohave not yet succumbed to disease, want Varua not to cause dropsy and subsequentdeath butto offer remission from his deadly fetters or noose.126 As one might becomeguilty by the mean and wicked deeds known and unknown to him, he has, whensuffering from painful effects of being sinful, to beg forgiveness for both.

117V. 7.88.5118 Farquhar and Griswold, (1923): 124119V. 7.86.4; 7.88.5,6120V. 1.24.15; 1.25.11; 7.88.7, 7.89.3 etc.121 'Harima,Arava, Yakma' are some diseases often found in thegvedic hymns while, exceptthese 'Jvara, Grhi' and many more are cited in the Atharvaveda.122V. 1.50.11.123AV. 1.10.3.124AB. 7.15.125V. 1.24.9; 2.28.7; 7.88.1126 Rodhe illustrates how a 'Jalodara' patient explains his sufferings as explained in the hymn. 'Thirstfound thy singer when he stood in the midst of waters. Be gracious, mighty lord and spare'Cf.V. 7.85.4. Rodhe (1946): 73-74.


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Varua as depicted vividly in the gveda hymns was believed to know soothingremedies for those who have succumbed to the very diseases inflicted by him. Thedropsy-tormented ryans implore no one else but Varua as they know that Varua

would be merciful enough to cure them again. An excerpt from Vasihas lamentshows this.

pcche tadeno varua didkpo emi cikituo vipccham127samnaminme kavayacidhuraya ha tubhya varuo hte

Desirous of beholding you, O venerable Lord, I inquire what my sin is. I go to thewise in quest of and toask their advice; all the sages, verily, say to me the same thisLord, verily, is displeased with you

Having heard from the wise, that he was punished by the angered Varua for hisguilt, Vasiha begs Varua not to slay him (yatstotra jighsasi sakhyam).128Here, jighsasi, lit. Do thou kill (me)? discloses the psychology of the fear-stricken sinner, Vasiha, through the imploring tone of his lament. He promises toserve Varua if he rescues him.129 The life after death in the nether world which is

full of horrifying experiences, as believed by Vedic people, seems to depend on whatthey did in this world, though, whether the conception of Karma had alreadydeveloped at that time still remains uncertain.

Aryans in thegvedic era were extremely afraid of the death caused byVarua as aform of revenge or reminder of their sins. This fear induced them to refer to death

with some euphemistic terms and phrases averting their minds from terrifyingthoughts about death. Mnmayagha or the house of clay was one of sucheuphemistic terms to denote death for which scholars assume the followingmeanings.

1. The urn made of clay in which the ashes remained after the incineration ofa dead body are placed.

2. The clay container to which the bones of the dead are inserted at the timeof burial.

3. The earth introduced as the abode of the dead4. Varuas mansion which Vasiha once entered.5. The human body made of fivefold elements, i.e., terrestrial, aqueous,

igneous, gaseous and ethereal.6. The temple of gold dedicated to Varua (su obhana

suvaramayameva tvadya gha prpnuvti Syanascommentary)

This place fearfully refused to go to, the Mnmayagha, may thus be a metaphor of

death viewed from different dimensions as cited above.130Varua was not the god of

127V. 7.86.3128V. 7.86.4129 'He wishes to serve Varua in order to become free from sin, not to be free from sin in order toserve VaruaThe evil that sleep does not avert, may be the source of the tradition that Vasihacomposed this hymn while wandering in a dream (or in his sleep)' W. D. O' Flaherty (1981) Varua

Provoked to Anger - gveda,An Anthology (London): 213130V. 7.89.1,2.Cf. O' Flaherty (1981): 215.


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death as identified by Aryans but it was the goddess Nirtiwhom the sinful beseechVarua to destroy or not to send them to. 131Nirtiis introduced as a goddess withterrifying characteristics and having connections with the nether world and directingsinners to painful death.

The two types of punishments byVarua, as cited above, could be examined in the

light of the religious and cultural atmosphere in the gveda period. As Weber saysregarding the chronology of Sanskrit literature,132 fixing a definite chronology togveda period is rather impossible or problematic. The earlier period of the Vedicculture was not an age of distinguished intellectuals or those with matured wisdomas we can roughly surmise.

Aryans, having entered, through the Khyber Pass to the north eastern India, as wecan presume from the facts in thegveda, gradually herded into the central India asherdsmen and, finally, settled in Punjab (lit. five waters, or the region enriched byrivers). At the very outset, even before they came to India, they were first surprised atthe exciting natural phenomena such as thunder, fire or rain and began to believe inthe superhuman powers they possessed. The anthropomorphism of the natural

phenomena followed that belief as a subsequence thereof. Finding new lands andencountering various hardships including battles with non-Aryans, indigenouspeople, floods, droughts and epidemic diseases, the early Aryans slowly but firmlyidentified the need of being guided and sheltered by omnipotent superhumanspirit/s. Hence we have in the gveda, thoughts of those who did not have stoicminds to endure the harshness of their lives, the oldest collection of sensationalhuman thoughts in the orient. We cannot merely discard them as immature orfatuous compositions of the early dwellers in India because the gvedic hymnsinformatively illustrate very sophisticated thoughts throughout the gveda. Thespontaneous overflow of emotions in the hearts of the people peeping out from thegveda has to be highly distinguished from the deliberate versifications in the laterperiods of Sanskrit literature. ryans of the earlier ages succumbed to acute diseases

and subsequent sudden deaths because of the hardships they encountered in theircareers and also natural causes like malpractices of food habits, genetic problems ornatural phenomena. If biologically considered, their diagnosis was quite different. It was widely accepted that all disasters are caused byVarua angered by Aryans'offences. Varua's wrath was upon the sinful, as they believed, because they hadtransgressed his cosmic order, ta and spoiled the morality and social etiquette. Thusthere was no other rescuer but almighty Varua for the sinful and they had to beseech him confessing and begging for forgiveness. As depicted in thegvedichymns to Varua, some, like Vasiha, requested Varua to disclose what guilt theycommitted, while another confessed explaining why they were impelled to committhe sin or begged to know the possible ways to get rid of the disaster they had alreadyencountered.

131NirtiandMtyu are both referred to as death but whether both are equivalent conceptionsrequires further research. Cf.V. 1.24.9; 10.59.4; 10.76.4.132 But while we are thus justified in assuming a high antiquity for Indian literature, on externalgeographical grounds, as well as on internal evidence, connected with the history of Hindu religion,the case is sufficiently unsatisfactory, when we come to look for definite chronological data. We mustreconcile ourselves to the fact that any such search will, as a general rule, be absolutely fruitless A.

Weber, (1914) The History of Indian Literature (John Mann and Theodor Zachariae trs.) (London):6-7.


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11. Winners ofVarua's Favour

As thegveda depicts, Varua was compelled to punish only the guilty and wasintroduced as a noble and elevated godhead133 though some critics do not completelyagree with this fact. Especially in the Brhmaa literature Varua plays the role ofthe terrifying and malignant deity at whose wrath the prayers shiver with fear.134

Despite the fact that the angered Varua penalizes the guilty, he rewards thosemaintaining his ta as follows.

1. Those not transgressing Varua's ordinances would receive hiscompassion, be encouraged and rewarded to continue maintaining ta.(1.28.2; 7.86.2 etc.)

2. Varua is said to have thousand boons for the guiltless. (7.88.1 etc.)3. People's noble thoughts are safeguarded byVarua from being spoiled.

(8.41.4 etc.)4. Varua vouchsafes security and self-confidence to those maintaining ta

properly and continuously. (2.28.3; 7.88.6; 8.42.2 etc.)5. He removes threats and fears, rescues his followers from thieves, wild

wolves and even from nightmares. (2.28.10 etc.)6. Varua offers gifts of prosperity to his hymn-chanters. (2.28.11 etc.)In the 86th hymn of the seventh Maala of the gveda, there is an interestingconglomeration of vivid emotions and ideas of the prayer that clearly demonstrateshow Vasiha received rewards by winning Varua's favour. There 'mhue' (thedative singular of 'mhvs', lit. one who rewards) or 'to him who rewards' is ofmuch importance as described below. The word 'mhue' and the phrase 'gtsaryai kavitro junti'are the perfect examples ofVasiha's allusion that he is to berewarded and he could get punishments removed. The desire to get free from all sinsand to getrewarded has added a grace to the stanza and to the complete hymn as

well. Here, Vasiha appears to ask directly for favours.

aya su tubhya varua svadhvo hdi stoma uparitacidastua na keme amu yoge no astu yya pta svastibhi sad na 135

May this adoration, O self-sustained Lord, be heartily appreciated. May we succeedin retaining what we have earned and be able to acquire more through your grace,and may you (with all your divine powers) cherish us with blessings.

Having been rewarded, Vasiha ascended to the respectful position of a sage136 andhad the sanction of entering Varua's thousand-gated mansion as he wishes and toshare some mysterious experiences together with him.137

133'The relation to law and justice dominates even in the texts speaking of his benevolence, and thisfeature is the main trait ofVarua, uniting the various aspects of him' Rodhe (1946): 65.'Varua is ethically so exalted that because there is hardly a hymn of his which does not contain somereference to sin and its remission' Farquhar andGriswold (1923): 131.134 For references to Vedic texts speaking ofVarua as a dark and terrifying god,B. 4.4.5.11;12.7.2.17, Cf. Meyer (1937) Vol. III: 205-210. Varua's association with brightly flaming fire is said toindicate the violent and destructive sides of his nature. Cf.B. 4.4.5.10, TS. 6.4.2.3.135V. 7.86.8.136V. 7.88.4 (i cakra svap mahobhi). Cf. Dandekar (1970): 79-80.137V. 7.88.1,3,5.


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12. How to Win Varua's Favour

Having transgressed the everlasting and self-governing cosmic order deliberately ornot, sinners forward heartrending requests to Varua seeking his favour in many

ways. The major tactics they used for that purpose can be listed as follows.138

1. To imply, though Varua does know the truth, that the prayer does notknow what the sins he committed are and is anxious to know them.(7.86.3-4 etc.)

2. To confess directly to Varua or to persuade another deity to do soinstead. (7.86.6; 7.88.6; 7.89.3 etc.)

3. To be highly desirous to get the poet's offences justified. (1.24.15; 7.87.7etc.)

4. To implore Varua to expiate or remove the punishments the poet hasalready succumbed to. (1.24.9-11,15; 1.25.1-2; 2.28. 5-7,9; 7.86.5; 7.88.6;7.89.1-5 etc.)

5. To mention the poet's virtuous responses in return if freed. (7.86.4,7 etc.)6. To offer oblations in order to please Varua (1.24.14 etc.)7. To chant panegyric songs. (1.25.3-4 etc.)

It is noteworthy here that all these were not practiced individually but together to befreed from sins, punishments and sufferings, as suggested in the hymns. To err, andin a broader but religious sense within the Vedic literary contexts to sin, is human.

Aryans were, as they themselves thought, liable to get punished byVarua for theircommitments of sins.

Even peccadilloes were highly considered sinful and offensive. Varua was alsoinvolved in daily activities though some of them were done as secretly as possible asdiscussed earlier. Here, Varua could be identified not only as a godhead that theguilty beseeched for freedom but also as a guardian or a well-wisher. Varua,

implored at funeral ceremonies, was also requested to grant prosperity139,happiness140, protection141 and blessings in marital occasions too. Then the newly

wedded couple implored Varua to expel wicked spirits and accidental death. Infront ofAgni or the holy fire, brought with respect from the bride's house andkindled again at the groom's place, the couple was duly blessed with charming hymnsto Varua. A sample reads as follows.

MayAgni, foremost of the gods, come, may he free and save her offspring from thecords of death. When Agni makes her know no sorrow for loss of progeny, MayVarua acquiesce, Be ye,Agniand Varua be propitious 142

'Varuapraghsas', (lit. varua-devouring), another rite is also mentioned with the

citation ofVarua's name, even though much about it is unknown. 143 Further, in war

138 Farquhar and Griswold (1923): 129.139V. 7.65.2.140V. 7.35.4.141V. 5.62.9; 6.67.2,11; 7.52.2; 5.64.1; 7.5.1; 7.60.12; 7.61.6; 10.132.2.142V. 10.85.25. Cf. Chandradas (1925): 383.


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preparations too, along with Indra (the illustriously heroic god in the gveda) theomniscient and omnipotent Varua was requested to encourage and secure the

battalions.144 The dual gods 'indravaruau' (orIndra and Varua) implored on theeve of the battle day at warfare were believed to guide the soldiers properly and withthe blessings of these gods soldiers could cultivate courage and valorous thoughts

within themselves.145

Students were also expected to receive Varua's blessings to pursue their studies vigorously and meticulously while Varua's intellectual advice (ikan) kept themsharp.146 There, Varua has been considered an elevated and wise god, though hisclairvoyance, clairaudience147 and, in short, omniscience is much emphasizedthroughout the Vedic literature.

In the later times, especially after thegveda period, the magnanimity ofVarua asthe protector and promoter of morality seems to have decreased whereas hisconnection with water became gradually prominent. In the perilous seas, 'pai' orsea merchants were reported to be guided and protected byVarua as he was at thattime singularly distinguished as a god of the ocean, being well aware of the behavior

patterns of all celestial objects and the wind. As is clear in the Vedic literature, fromthe beginning to the end, it seems that nobody dared disregard Varua's presenceand importance except some impious sages in the areas such as 'Nema' within theregion ofSaptasindhu or seven rivers148 though even they paid due respect to him.

The transfiguration of Varua, though his anthropomorphic characteristicscompared to those of other gods likeIndra andAgniare not very clear, shows severalstages of development also emphasizing how Aryans formed a figure of a deityaccording to their beliefs, interests and goals of life. It is evident that morality andVarua, at the time of the gveda, were two inseparable conceptions reciprocallynourished and to which people paid their special attention. The Vedic society cansimilarly be distinguished as a melting-pot which acutely and vividly varied in

moralistic ideas and concepts.

143 It does not concern ritual transgression but sins committed in social life. VS. 3. 44-47,B. 2.5.2.20Monier Williams explains it thus. the second of periodical oblations offered at the full moon of

ha for obtaining exemption from Varua's snares (so called from eating barley in honour of the

god Varua)M. Williams ed., (1899)A Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Oxford): 921.144V. 7.83.2.145 Cf.V. 7.83.3-5, 5.35.6-7, 7.27.1.146 A rendering of one of the stanzas on Varua's role cited above can be given here. 'The cow (speech)has thrice seven appellations the wise and intelligent Varua, giving instruction to me, his worthydisciple, has declared the mysteries of the place (ofBrahma)'. Chandradas (1925): 392.147 I reckon that the concepts of clairvoyance and clairaudience introduced as divyacaku anddivyarota respectively in several schools of Indian philosophy including Buddhist,Jaina and

Mmsaka, seem, though uncertain, to have their roots in the Vedas, given the qualities ofVarua.148V. 3.100.3.


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