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Expanding Global Production Networks: The emergence, evolution and thedevelopmental impact of the offshore service sector in the PhilippinesKleibert, J.M.

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Citation for published version (APA):Kleibert, J. M. (2015). Expanding Global Production Networks: The emergence, evolution and the developmentalimpact of the offshore service sector in the Philippines

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a p p e n d i xList of inter views in the Philippines

Interview Number Date Place Respondent (title)

120424 24.04.2012 NCR Senior Executive Officer, Business Processing Association of the Philippines (BPAP)

120426a 26.04.2012 NCR Former Commissioner, Department of Science and Technology - ICT Office (DoST-ICT Office)

120426b 26.04.2012 NCR Secretary General, DoST-ICT Office

120502a 02.05.2012 NCR Head of University Linkages Programme, Indian-owned BPO

120502b 02.05.2012 NCR Executive Director, foreign-owned BPO

120502c 02.05.2012 NCR Executive Director, Healthcare Information Management Outsourcing Association of the Philippines (HIMOAP)/ former staff at BOI

120507a 07.05.2012 Baguio Secretary ICT Council, City Planning Office

120507b 07.05.2012 Baguio Dean College of IT and Computer Science (CITCS), University of the Cordilleras

120507c 07.05.2012 Baguio Operations Manager, Philippine Economic Zone Authority (PEZA) / Baguio City Economic Zone

120507d 07.05.2012 Baguio Site Manager HR, Indian-owned BPO

Senior Lead Talent Acquisition, Indian-owned BPO

120508a 08.05.2012 Baguio Chief Trade and Industry Development Specialist, Department of Trade and Industry (DTI)

120508b 08.05.2012 Baguio Unit Head, telecommunications corporation

120508c 08.05.2012 Baguio Deputy Manager, John Hay Management Corporation

120508d 08.05.2012 Baguio Head HR Philippines, HR Manager Baguio & Manila, Hotel Reservations Contact Centre

120508e 08.05.2012 Baguio Head of HR, Philippine-owned outbound call centre

120510 10.05.2012 NCR Founder and CEO, Foreign-owned web design firm

120511a 11.05.2012 NCR Director Culture, Learning and Development, Canadian-owned contact centre

120511b 11.05.2012 NCR HR Operations Manager, logistics MNC shared service centre

120515a 15.05.2012 Bacolod Acting Division Chief Business Development Division, DTI

120515b 15.05.2012 Bacolod IT Director, Business & Site Development Director, BPO/ Bacolod-Negros Occidental Federation for ICT (BNEFIT) Vice President

120516a 16.05.2012 Bacolod Head HR, European-owned call centre

120516b 16.05.2012 Bacolod Admin Staff, Australian-owned call centre

120516c 16.05.2012 Bacolod Vice President BNEFIT, University de la Salle

120516d 16.05.2012 Bacolod Vice Chancellor, University de la Salle

120516e 16.05.2012 Bacolod Faculty Member, call centre training centre

120516f 16.05.2012 Bacolod Head of Office, City Planning Office

120517a 17.05.2012 Bacolod Site Director, US-owned BPO

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Interview Number Date Place Respondent (title)

120517b 17.05.2012 Bacolod Head Admin, call centre training institution

120517c 17.05.2012 Bacolod Dean, IT Department, University of Negros Occidental-Recoletos (UNO-R)

Lecturer, IT Department, UNO-R / BNEFIT member

120521 21.05.2012 NCR Senior Manager HR, legal services MNC share service centre

120522 22.05.2012 NCR VP and Manager Marketing and Communications, financial services MNC shared service provider

120523 23.05.2012 NCR Senior VP of Operations, financial services MNC shared service provider

120524 24.05.2012 NCR Deputy Secretary General, Philippine Chamber of Commerce and Industry (PCCI)

120525a 25.05.2012 NCR Director, Commission on Higher Education (CHED)

120525b 25.05.2012 NCR Director, Cyberservices Group, DoST-ICT Office

120525c 25.05.2012 NCR Ecozone Development Department, Philippine Economic Zone Authority (PEZA)

120528a 28.05.2012 Baguio Senior Manager, telecommunications corporation

120528b 28.05.2012 Baguio City Mayor

120528c 28.05.2012 Baguio Engineer, Philippine-owned architectural services firm

120528d 28.05.2012 Baguio Site Director, US-owned BPO

120529a 29.05.2012 NCR Investment Specialist, Sectoral Studies Tourism & Knowledge-Based Industries, Board of Investments (BOI)

120529b 29.05.2012 NCR Group Management Director, Asia Society for Social Improvement and Sustainable Transformation, Equip BPO

120529c 29.05.2012 NCR Country Manager, business consulting firm, BPO expert

120529d 29.05.2012 NCR Senior Manager External Affairs, US-owned BPO

Talent Creation Manager, US-owned BPO

120531 31.05.2012 NCR VP and Managing Director, recruitment and consulting firm for BPOs

120601a 01.06.2012 NCR Executive Director, Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA)

120601b 01.06.2012 NCR Executive Director, Contact Centre Association of the Philippines (CCAP)

120604 04.06.2012 NCR Associate Director, global commercial real-estate investment firm

120606a 06.06.2012 NCR Head Business Development & Leasing, real-estate conglomerate

120606b 06.06.2012 NCR Director, Business Development, US-owned BPO, BPAP Board

120607 07.06.2012 NCR Assistant Secretary, Foreign Trade Service Corps, DTI

120608a 08.06.2012 NCR General Manager, petroleum MNC shared service centre

120608b 08.06.2012 NCR VP External Affairs, European Chamber of Commerce of the Philippines (ECCP)

120608c 08.06.2012 NCR HR Manager, Philippine-owned legal services outsourcing firm

120611a 11.06.2012 NCR Vice Chairman BPAP, Country Manager Indian-owned BPO

120611b 11.06.2012 NCR General Manager, Philippine-owned BPO

120612 12.06.2012 NCR Chair, National ICT Confederation / former Chair of ICT Council Bacolod

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Interview Number Date Place Respondent (title)

120614 14.06.2012 NCR VP, Head of Corporate Relationship Management, telecommunications firm, former BPAP Director

130212a 12.02.2013 NCR Head of Research, BPAP

130212b 12.02.2013 NCR Operations Management, US-owned BPO

130213a 13.02.2013 NCR Former Director, DoST-ICT Office

130213b 13.02.2013 NCR Dean, School of Business Administration, University of the Philippines

130218 18.02.2013 NCR Vice Dean, School of Management, UA&P

130219a 19.02.2013 NCR Training and Development Manager, Asia Pacific College (APC)

Managing Director, APC

130219b 19.02.2013 NCR Business Development, European-owned BPO

130226a 26.02.2013 NCR Relationship Manager, Corporate Business Group, electricity provider

130226b 26.02.2013 NCR Director, DoST-ICT Office

130227a 27.02.2013 NCR Founder and CEO, outbound call centre

130227b 27.02.2013 NCR Research Manager, CCAP

130228 28.02.2013 NCR Director for Operations, National Competitiveness Council (NCC)

130301 01.03.2013 NCR Policy Advocacy Officer, Networking Committee on HR Development, Export Development Council

130304a 04.03.2013 NCR Head, IT-BPO Committee, German-Philippine Chamber of Commerce and Industry (GPCCI)

130304b 04.03.2013 NCR Professor, De La Salle University

130306a 06.03.2013 NCR Board of Directors, Chairman ICT Committee, American Chamber of Commerce of the Philippines

130306b 06.03.2013 NCR Managing Director, publishing MNC shared service centre

130306c 06.03.2013 NCR IT-BPO expert, World Bank

130306d 06.03.2013 NCR Managing Director, media MNC shared service centre

HR Manager, media MNC shared service centre

130314a 14.03.2013 NCR Corporate Strategy & Business Development, telecommunications firm / BPAP Board Member

130314b 14.03.2013 NCR Co-Founder, Domestic-owned website development firm

Co-Founder, Domestic-owned website development firm

Co-Founder, Domestic-owned website development firm

130315a 15.03.2013 NCR President, US-owned BPO in health services

General Manager, US-owned BPO in health services

130315b 15.03.2013 NCR Managing Director, consultancy firm

130319a 19.03.2013 NCR Country Head, global commercial real-estate investment firm

130319b 19.03.2013 NCR Co-Founder/Director, real-estate consulting firm for BPO

130320a 20.03.2013 NCR Operations Manager, publishing MNC shared service centre

Supervisor IT, publishing MNC shared service centre

130320b 20.03.2013 NCR Country Manager Philippines, US-owned BPO

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Interview Number Date Place Respondent (title)

130321 21.03.2013 NCR Country Manager Philippines, European-owned BPO

130322 22.03.2013 NCR President, real-estate conglomerate

130325 25.03.2013 NCR VP Sales, Marketing and Business Development, HR Philippine-owned background check provider for BPO employees

130326a 26.03.2013 Davao President, Call Centre; ICT Council President

130326b 26.03.2013 Davao City Director, DTI

130326c 26.03.2013 Davao Officer-in-Charge, City Investment and Promotions Centre

130326d 26.03.2013 Davao Executive Director, Davao Chamber of Commerce and Industry

130327a 27.03.2013 Davao Executive VP, Davao City Knowledge Management Project

130327b 27.03.2013 Davao President, call centre training institution

Teacher, Visions College

130327c 27.03.2013 Davao President, Philippine-owned IT firm

130327d 27.03.2013 Davao President, Philippine-owned BPO firm / Vice President of ICT Council

130327e 27.03.2013 Davao Senior Analyst HR, US-owned BPO

130402 02.04.2013 NCR Teacher Game Development, Informatics College

130404 04.04.2013 NCR Director Research & Communication, University of Asia and the Pacific (UA&P) / BPO expert

130405 05.04.2013 NCR Executive Director, Talent Development, BPAP

130412a 12.04.2013 NCR Associate Director, Advisory Services, global commercial real-estate service firm

Manager, Advisory Services, global commercial rea-estate service firm

Research Manager, global commercial real-estate service firm

130416 16.04.2013 NCR Assistant Manager Business Development, Fort Bonifacio Development Corporation

130417 17.04.2013 NCR Founder, Principal Advisor, real-estate consulting firm

130422 22.04.2013 NCR Country Director Philippines, Asian Development Bank (ADB)

130423 23.04.2013 NCR Founder and CEO, Philippine-owned contact centre

130424 24.04.2013 NCR Founder and CEO, Philippine-owned Contact Centre

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List of inter views in India

Interview Number Date Place Respondent (title)

110801 01.08.2011 Mumbai Vice President, Mumbai Office, National Association of Software and Service Companies (NASSCOM)

120122 22.01.2012 Mumbai Assistant Vice President, Finance Transitions & Strategy, financial services MNC shared service centre

120125a 25.01.2012 Mumbai Managing Director, Global Head P&L, financial services MNC shared service centre

120125b 25.01.2012 Mumbai Executive Director, Global Infrastructure Finance, financial services MNC shared service centre

120210 10.02.2012 Mumbai Vice President, financial services MNC shared service centre

120211 11.02.2012 Mumbai Assistant Vice President, Litigation, Indian-owned legal process outsourcing firm

120214a 14.02.2012 Mumbai Senior Vice President, Strategy Officer, US-owned BPO

120214b 14.02.2012 Mumbai President, CEO, India-owned legal process outsourcing firm

Managing Director, India-owned legal process outsourcing firm

120215a 15.02.2012 Mumbai Global Head of HR, Indian-owned IT and knowledge process outsourcing Firm

Head HR KPO, Indian-owned IT and knowledge process outsourcing firm

120215c 15.02.2012 Mumbai Head HR Operations, Indian-owned IT and knowledge process outsourcing firm / former HR financial services MNC shared service centre

120307a 07.03.2012 Mumbai CEO, Indian-owned legal process outsourcing firm

Chief Operating Officer, Indian-owned legal process outsourcing firm

Managing Director, Indian-owned legal process outsourcing firm

120309 09.03.2012 Mumbai Senior Manager, financial service MNC shared service centre

120312 12.03.2012 Navi-Mumbai

Director, Mumbai Office, Software and Technology Parks of India (STPI)

120313 13.03.2012 Mumbai Transition Manager, Financial Services and Marketing, Indian-owned BPO

120315a 15.03.2012 Pune Manager Operations, Market Research, Indian-owned BPO

120315b 15.03.2012 Pune Founder and CEO, Indian-owned financial services outsourcing firm

120315c 15.03.2012 Pune Entrepreneur, former Manager, US-owned BPO

120315d 15.03.2012 Pune Manager, US-owned BPO

120319a 19.03.2012 Mumbai Managing Director, Indian-owned legal services outsourcing firm

120319b 19.03.2012 Mumbai Former CEO and Founder, Indian-owned financial services outsourcing firm

120320 20.03.2012 Mumbai Chief People Officer (Head HR), former foreign-owned BPO (now Indian-owned)

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E n g l i s h s u m m a r y

e n g l i s h s u m m a r yExpanding Global Production Networks: The emergence, evolution and developmental impact of the offshore ser vice sector in the PhilippinesContemporary globalisation is characterised by an expansion of global production networks in services. Developments in information and communications technology have enabled the relocation of services across national borders, or, the offshoring of services. This has had profound implications for where in the world services are produced and where service employment is generated. Scholars assume that a changing international division of service labour presents an important opportunity for developing countries to achieve economic development on the basis of exporting services, but empirically grounded studies from the perspective of developing countries are still scarce.

India is a well-known case of a country that achieved growth in the offshore service sector. This research examines the less-explored case of the Philippines, a country that employs close to one million workers in its business process outsourcing (BPO) sector. This study observed the integration of the Philippines into global networks of service delivery. It explored, how and why the offshore service sector in the Philippines has emerged, how it has evolved, and how it impacts economic development.

In addressing these questions, the global production network (GPN) approach is used as a theoretical framework. The framework was developed by economic geographers based in Manchester, as an advancement of the global value chain (GVC) and global commodity chain approaches to understand complex processes of contemporary globalisation and their regional outcomes on economic development. The heuristic GPN framework examines inter- and intra-firm relations and takes into consideration the role of non-firm actors in the Global North and the Global South. This dissertation contributes to a better understanding of contemporary processes of economic globalisation and expands economic geographical research on GPNs in services.

I argue that the GPN framework provides a valuable lens to analyse contemporary global production processes and regional development. However, it needs to be complemented with insights from other literatures in order to operationalise its concepts and make the framework more applicable to explaining contemporary processes of service delivery. This study expands the GPN framework from its earlier focus on industrial-production processes to services. Moreover, I combine and refine its three main analytical categories of power, embeddedness and value through a combination with concepts and insights from other literatures.

The empirical findings contribute to debates about economic development through the exporting of services. In this way, the findings can inform economic geographers, as well as international development- and urban-studies scholars, as the processes analysed are distinctly embedded in urban areas. Beyond academic debates, the findings are relevant to policy-makers situated in the Philippines and in other countries in the Global South who aim to attract offshore service sector investments and build a service-export sector.

The findings are primarily based on a qualitative case study of the offshore service sector in the Philippines. I conducted extensive fieldwork in Metro Manila and several second-

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tier cities across the Philippines between 2011 and 2013. Data was collected through 106 in-depth open and semi-structured interviews, a survey among BPO firms, the analysis of secondary sources, and personal observations. In addition, I carried out several months of fieldwork in India, yielding 21 interviews in the cities of Mumbai and Pune. Understanding the workings of the sector in India provided a reference case and helped to place the findings from the Philippine case study in a broader perspective.

The dissertation follows an article-based format and is structured around six stand-alone empirical chapters, each using a key concept of the GPN framework in combination with other literature. Chapters two and three deal with the emergence of the offshore service sector and analyse the processes of ‘strategic coupling’ of regions and GPNs. Chapter four maps the position and functions of offshore service firms and branch offices in the Philippines and analyses the distribution of corporate power in global production networks. Chapters five and six discuss the evolution of the sector. Are firms becoming increasingly territorially embedded over time, or do they remain footloose? And are firms moving up the value chain into higher value-added services, or do they remain limited to delivering lower-end services? Finally, Chapter seven refocuses attention on urban changes as a result of the rise of the offshore service sector, relating back to questions of local value-capture and regional development. The findings of these chapters are summarised in the following.

Emergence: Foreign direct-investment attraction and strategic couplingChapter two: Why did India and the Philippines become integrated into GPNs of service delivery and what are crucial differences and similarities?India is a forerunner of offshore service-delivery and became integrated into GPNs in services since the 1980s, whereas the experience of the Philippines is more recent. The GPN framework uses the concept of strategic coupling to explain the emergence of a particular sector through the result of linking a region’s assets with the needs of GPNs. Several important differences in regional assets precede the emergence of the offshore service sector in both countries and have set India and the Philippines on different trajectories. The offshore service sector depends, above all, on the availability of skilled labour; therefore, differences between the education systems and skill-sets of the labour force are important explanatory factors. In India, technical education has been prioritised, and firms are therefore able to deliver not only more standardised BPO services, but also information technology and knowledge-intensive services. In the Philippines, the country’s comparative advantage has mainly centred on its people’s English-language skills and ‘neutral’ accents. Thus, the predominant share of services are voice-based customer-service activities. Second, the BPO sector in the Philippines is largely based on exporting services through foreign-owned firms’ subsidiaries, whereas in India, large Indian-owned firms have been a driving force of the sector. In the Philippines, domestic entrepreneurs have been largely absent, or delegated to the lowest ranks of service delivery. Third, in contrast to the Philippines, many Indian entrepreneurs have benefited from diaspora networks and returnee migrants constitute an important link between clients’ markets and India-based offshore service firms.

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Chapter three: What role have local institutional actors played in facilitating the strategic coupling of second-tier cities in the Philippines with offshore service sector investors?As foreign investors explore new frontiers, they have expanded their reach to incorporate provincial cities into their GPNs. Chapter three analysed the role of local institutional actors in facilitating the strategic coupling of second-tier cities in the Philippines with offshore service sector investors through a contrasting case study of the cities of Baguio and Bacolod. In addition to regional assets, the agency of local coalitions for inward-investment attraction influences and co-shapes the integration of places into global service-delivery networks. Combining the concept of ‘strategic coupling’ with earlier literature on investment attraction, this chapter showed how local institutional actors are complicit in processes of globalisation and can play an important role in attracting investment in BPO, a first step to achieve economic development through the integration into GPNs. For assessing developmental outcomes, it is important to consider the position that firms and subsidiaries operating in the Philippines occupy within these networks.

Positioning firms and cities in global production networksChapter four: What (power) position occupy firms in Metro Manila and second-tier cities in the Philippines in GPNs in services?Chapter four mapped existing offshore service-delivery networks from the perspective of actors in the Philippines to analyse power relations in these networks. The chapter combines the GPN framework with indicators from the older branch-plant literature to assess dependent or developmental outcomes. Findings from qualitative interviews with firms in Metro Manila and three second-tier cities show that branch-plant economies result. In particular, second-tier cities occupy low-end functions and are dependent on decisions taken elsewhere. The functional and spatial disintegration of value chains through outsourcing increases the number of actors involved in decision-making, with subsidiaries in the Philippines often remaining the lowest-ranking unit in power relations. As global outsourcing firms often operate as multinational corporations with office networks spanning the globe, the Philippine operations are just one of many locations within the GPNs of service delivery. Offshore service sector hubs are susceptible to global competition and ‘switching’ between subsidiaries can occur relatively easily, especially in low-end services production. Since GPNs are dynamic, firms may increase their embeddedness and upgrade into higher-end services to avoid these challenges.

Evolution: Increasing territorial embeddedness and upgrading into higher-end services?Chapter five: How do foreign investors in offshore services gain access to skilled labour, what kind of industry-academe linkages are formed, and what are their implications for economic development?The evolution of the offshore service sector in the Philippines is addressed in Chapters five and six. Increasing territorial embeddedness in offshore services is more difficult compared to manufacturing, because BPO firms require fewer relations with local firms for sourcing

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their inputs. The most important local asset in the production process of offshore services is skilled labour. Securing access to labour is an avenue for foreign-owned BPO firms to become more territorially embedded. Chapter five investigates the development of linkages between BPO firms and universities. The findings show that many foreign investors have developed linkages with the education sector, thereby investing in longer-term relations in the host territory and increasing their embeddedness. Industry-academe collaboration are part of active-embedding strategies by foreign investors. The interventions, however, have been primarily aimed at securing the lower-end skill supply for their voice-based operations, thereby redirecting institutions to fulfil companies’ short-term needs. This ‘institutional capture’ of the education sector by foreign investors is a pitfall of increased embeddedness, potentially leading to dependent development-outcomes and presenting problems for a move into higher-skilled employment and upgrading into higher value-added services.

Chapter six: To what extent has upgrading into higher-end services in the offshore service sector been achieved in the Philippines and India?Chapter six analysed to what extent upgrading efforts into higher-end services have been successful in the Philippines and India. The chapter distinguished between ‘product’ upgrading into higher-skilled and more knowledge-intensive functions and ‘functional’ upgrading into higher revenue-generating functions in the offshore service sector. It showed that limited upgrading has taken place into higher-skilled services, which has mainly been driven by foreign actors instead of Philippine-owned firms. Captive shared service centres, especially, have been able to move into more knowledge-intensive segments of business process outsourcing. However, firms in the Philippines have not changed their power position within GPNs. Functional upgrading into higher-revenue functions, as achieved by domestic-owned firms in the Indian offshore service sector, has not occurred. A comparison of the upgrading trajectories in India and the Philippines points towards emerging specialisations and an unfolding Indian-Philippine (South-South) division of labour.

Implications: Urban transformations and the rise of service-based special economic zonesChapter seven: Which urban transformations occur as a result of offshore service sector attraction and who benefits locally from the rise of service-based special economic zones?Chapter seven maps the location of offshore service investments on a national and regional level and traces the genesis of service-based special economic zones (SEZs), which combine functions of service delivery for global markets with increasingly globalised consumption patterns. These zones arise due to the location-choice factors of foreign investors in services offshoring, who require skilled labour and prefer modern and secure environments. Changing government policies on spatial zoning have facilitated the rise of these SEZs in central business districts in Metro Manila. Existing, powerful real-estate developers have not only enabled this development, but are also the primary local beneficiaries of the offshoring of services. This chapter argues that rise of the offshore service sector in the Philippines has led to the construction of ‘islands of globalisation’, globalised enclaves as places for 24-hour

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production and consumption, modelled according to the lifestyle and consumption pattern of foreign investors’ home countries. These urban transformations and spatial outcomes of the offshore service sector tend to be overlooked in traditional GPN analysis.

Expanding global production networks in services: A new ‘model’ of development?To what extent is the emergence of the offshore service sector following a new model of economic development? Three similarities with earlier export-manufacturing development strategies can be found: 1) both are based on foreign direct investment, 2) in both cases ‘production’ takes place in special economic zones, and 3) labour arbitrage forms the core rationale behind offshoring. However, several differences are discernible. The offshoring of services generally employs high-educated labour, and is not only driven by cost competition, meaning that skills are an important location factor. The phenomenon is office-based instead of factory-based, and in general firms provide higher wages and better working conditions compared to industrial production. These advantages also make the sector less inclusive, unable to provide employment opportunities to excess agricultural labour, as higher education and especially English language are prerequisites. The geographies of service delivery have become more dynamic and the long-term growth prospects of the BPO sector in the Philippines are affected by rising competition from other developing countries, efforts of re-shoring services to home countries, and automation processes.

On the basis of this research, some tentative policy advice can be given. The absence of powerful Philippine-owned BPO firms decreases opportunities for value capture in the Philippines and simultaneously makes the Philippines more dependent upon decisions taken in faraway headquarter locations. Efforts to stimulate domestic entrepreneurship and support locally owned small and medium enterprises are therefore important. Investment in the education system should be made to provide opportunities for advanced education of management staff and the creation of specialised professional skills. The findings have shown that a skilled labour force is an important factor for attracting investments and moving up the value chain. Currently, existing policies and the intervention of foreign investors privilege the creation of generic lower-end skills required for voice-based service delivery.

The findings on the Philippine experience can inform other countries that aim at creating a ‘knowledge-based economy’ on the basis of attracting foreign direct investment in offshore services. Although many countries have drawn inspiration from the example of India’s successful development of offshore services, India may present an extreme or unique case, which cannot easily be replicated by other countries. In fact, the Philippines lower-end integration into GPNs of service delivery on the basis of foreign investment might present a more exemplifying case.

On a theoretical level, this dissertation has contributed to expand the GPN framework by adapting and eclectically combining with existing literature to operationalise its analytical categories for empirical research on services. The analysis of asymmetric power relations and the possible uneven integration into GPNs by developing countries, in some instances similar to branch-plant economies, contributes to recent debates about the ‘dark side’ of GPNs. Moreover, this study has shown that the GPN framework is stronger in studying networks and

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weaker in assessing territorial economic development. The rise of globalised enclaves in urban agglomerations in the Philippines confirms the importance to analyse development in places.

This research has demonstrated that deeper-lying social and institutional structures significantly affect the outcomes of economic development. Next to workers, the oligopolistic real-estate sector in the Philippines has been identified as one of the main local beneficiaries of the rise of the offshore service sector. This shows that a powerful and deeply entrenched elite is able to engage in rent-seeking, even in relation to a rather new economic activity. Although the GPN framework affirms that the socio-spatial context influencing the nature and articulation of GPNs, the social embeddedness into long-standing (local) power structures remains under-theorised in current formulations of the framework. Path-dependent institutions and regional business systems are important factors regarding the nature and articulation of GPN integration and therefore remain vital for explaining outcomes of development at regional level. The actor-centric analysis may benefit from a combination with political economy approaches investigating institutional structures, to arrive at a more realistic understanding of places in global production networks.

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Ne d e r l a n d s e s a m e nvat t i n gDe uitbreiding van wereldwijde productienetwerken: De opkomst, ontwikkeling en invloed van de offshore dienstensector in de FilippijnenDe huidige mondialisering wordt gekenmerkt door een uitbreiding van wereldwijde productienetwerken in de dienstensector. Ontwikkelingen in de informatie- en communicatietechnologie hebben een verplaatsing van diensten naar het buitenland mogelijk gemaakt. Dit heeft verregaande gevolgen gehad voor zowel de locatie waar diensten in de wereld geproduceerd worden, als voor de locatie waar werkgelegenheid in de dienstensector ontstaat. Wetenschappers gaan er tot nog toe van uit dat de internationale arbeidsverdeling in de dienstensector belangrijke mogelijkheden biedt voor ontwikkelingslanden om economische ontwikkeling te creëren op basis van het exporteren van diensten, maar empirisch gefundeerde studies vanuit het perspectief van die ontwikkelingslanden zijn nog steeds schaars.

India is een bekend voorbeeld van een land dat groei in de offshore dienstensector gerealiseerd heeft. Dit onderzoek richt zich op de minder bekende casus van de Filippijnen, een land dat nog weinig onderzocht is op het gebied van offshore dienstensector, terwijl het bijna een miljoen werknemers heeft in de business process outsourcing (BPO) sector. Dit proefschrift concentreert zich op de integratie van de Filippijnen in de wereldwijde productienetwerken van de dienstensector. Het onderzoek richt zich op de vraag waarom en hoe de offshore dienstensector in de Filippijnen is ontstaan, hoe het zich verder heeft ontwikkeld, en hoe dit de economische ontwikkelingen in de Filippijnen heeft beïnvloed.

Bij het aanpakken van deze vragen is het global production network, oftewel, het ‘wereldwijde productienetwerk’ (WPN), als raamwerk gebruikt voor het theoretisch kader. Dit kader werd ontwikkeld door economische geografen gevestigd in Manchester. Zij zochten een beter instrument dan de wereldwijde waardeketen (global value chains), om complexe processen van de hedendaagse globalisering en hun regionale uitkomsten op economische ontwikkeling te kunnen begrijpen. Het heuristische WPN-kader richt zich op relaties tussen en binnen bedrijven in het mondiale Noorden en het Zuiden, en houdt daarbij ook rekening met de rol van actoren buiten het directe productieproces. Met dit proefschrift wordt getracht meer grip te krijgen op de hedendaagse processen van economische globalisering en tevens het economisch-geografisch onderzoek naar de WPN’s in de dienstensector uit te breiden.

Ik betoog dat het kader van het ‘wereldwijde productienetwerk’ een nuttig middel is om zowel hedendaagse mondiale productieprocessen als regionale ontwikkeling te analyseren. Echter, dit kader moet worden uitgebreid met inzichten uit andere literatuur om concepten te operationaliseren en meer van toepassing te maken op het onderzoek naar fenomenen uit het dagelijkse leven. In deze studie wordt het WPN-kader uitgebreid, waarbij, in tegenstelling tot de eerdere focus op industriële productieprocessen, nu de aandacht uitgaat naar diensten. De drie belangrijkste analytische categorieën van het WPN (macht, inbedding en waarde), worden bestudeerd en uitgebreid door middel van een combinatie van inzichten en concepten uit andere literatuur.

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De empirische bevindingen van deze studie dragen bij aan de discussies over economische ontwikkeling door middel van diensten-export en kunnen van belang zijn voor economisch geografen, ontwikkelingsstudies en experts op het gebied van urban studies, omdat de geanalyseerde processen duidelijk ingebed zijn in stedelijke gebieden. Behalve in academische debatten, zijn de bevindingen relevant voor beleidsmakers in de Filippijnen en andere ontwikkelingslanden die trachten investeringen aan te trekken en een offshore dienstensector op te bouwen.

De bevindingen zijn voornamelijk gebaseerd op een kwalitatieve case studie van de offshore dienstensector in de Filippijnen. Uitgebreid veldwerk werd uitgevoerd in Metro Manila en verschillende kleinere steden in de Filippijnen tussen 2011 en 2013. Data werden verzameld door middel van 106 open en semi-gestructureerde interviews, een enquête onder BPO-bedrijven, analyse van secundaire bronnen, en persoonlijke observaties. Daarnaast werd een aantal maanden veldwerk in India uitgevoerd, wat 21 interviews in Mumbai en Pune opgeleverd heeft. Dit werd gedaan om een referentie-casus voort te brengen en de werking van de sector in een ander land te kunnen begrijpen. Dit biedt de mogelijkheid om de bevindingen van de Filippijnse case studie in een breder perspectief te plaatsen.

De dissertatie is gebaseerd op artikelen en is gestructureerd rond zes afzonderlijke empirische hoofdstukken, die elk een sleutelbegrip van het WPN raamwerk uitwerken in combinatie met andere literatuur. Hoofdstukken 2 en 3 hebben betrekking op de opkomst van de offshore-dienstensector en analyseren de processen van strategische koppeling van regio’s met WPN. Hoofdstuk 4 brengt de positie van offshore dienstverlenende bedrijven en vestigingen in de Filippijnen in het netwerk in kaart en analyseert de machtsrelaties tussen bedrijven in het netwerk. Hoofdstuk 5 en 6 bespreken de ontwikkeling van de sector. Worden bedrijven door de tijd heen steeds meer territoriaal ingebed of blijven ze footloose? En klimmen bedrijven omhoog in de waardeketen tot diensten met hogere toegevoegde waarde of blijven ze beperkt tot het leveren van lagere diensten? Hoofdstuk 7, tot slot, richt de aandacht op de stedelijke veranderingen als gevolg van de opkomst van de offshore-dienstensector, met betrekking op wie er lokaal van de uitbreiding van WPN profiteert en wat dit betekent voor regionale ontwikkelingsdoeleinden. De bevindingen van deze hoofdstukken kunnen als volgt samengevat worden:

De opkomst: Directe buitenlandse investeringen en strategische koppelingHoofdstuk 2: Waarom zijn India en de Filippijnen geïntegreerd geraakt in wereldwijde productie-netwerken van dienstverlening en wat zijn de cruciale verschillen en overeenkomsten?India is een voorloper in de offshore dienstverlening en raakte sinds de jaren ‘80 van de vorige eeuw in WPN’s van diensten betrokken. De ervaring van de Filippijnen op het gebied van deze sector is recenter. Het concept van ‘strategische koppeling’ verwijst naar de koppeling van de plaats-specifieke voordelen van een regio met de behoeften van de bedrijven in het WPN. Een aantal belangrijke verschillen in deze locatiespecifieke voordelen in India en de Filippijnen hebben ervoor gezorgd dat de twee landen zich op verschillende trajecten richten. Belangrijke verschillen tussen de twee landen zijn de onderwijssystemen en de vaardigheden van de beroepsbevolking. Deze verklaren de verschillen in de beschikbaarheid

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van een geschoolde beroepsbevolking, waar de offshore dienstensector voor een groot deel van afhankelijk is. In India heeft technisch onderwijs prioriteit gekregen en bedrijven zijn daardoor in staat om een mix van informatietechnologie, kennisintensieve diensten, en gestandaardiseerde business process outsourcing services te leveren. In de Filippijnen is het comparatieve voordeel van het land voornamelijk gebouwd op Engelstalige vaardigheden met ‘neutrale’ accenten. Daarom bestaat het overgrote merendeel van de diensten uit op taal gebaseerde customer service activiteiten. Ten tweede zijn binnenlandse ondernemers in de Filippijnen grotendeels afwezig geweest, of zijn gedelegeerd aan de laagste rangen van de dienstverlening. De BPO-sector in de Filippijnen is grotendeels gebaseerd op diensten-export via dochterondernemingen van buitenlandse bedrijven, in tegenstelling tot India waar grote Indiase bedrijven een drijvende kracht voor de sector zijn geweest. Ten derde, in tegenstelling tot de Filippijnen, hebben veel Indiase ondernemers geprofiteerd van diaspora netwerken en spelen teruggekeerde migranten een belangrijke rol als schakel tussen de markt van klanten en in India gevestigde offshore-dienstverlenende bedrijven.

Hoofdstuk 3: Welke rol hebben de lokale institutionele actoren gespeeld in de strategische koppeling van regionale steden in de Filippijnen met investeerders van de offshore-dienstensector?Toen buitenlandse investeerders nieuwe grenzen verkenden, hebben ze hun werkterrein uitgebreid naar provinciale steden om deze op te nemen in hun WPN. In hoofdstuk drie wordt de rol geanalyseerd van lokale institutionele actoren in de strategische koppeling van regionale steden in de Filippijnen met investeerders van de offshore-dienstensector. Dat wordt gedaan door middel van een contrasterende case studie van de steden Baguio en Bacolod. In aanvulling op regionale locatie-specifieke voordelen, beïnvloeden lokale coalities het aantrekken van inkomende investeringen van de plaatsen in het WPN van dienstverlening. Door een combinatie van het WPN-concept van de ‘strategische koppeling’ met eerdere literatuur over het aantrekken van buitenlandse investeringen laat dit hoofdstuk zien hoe de lokale institutionele actoren bijdragen aan processen van globalisering en een belangrijke rol kunnen spelen in het mogelijk maken van BPO investeringen. Het aantrekken van buitenlandse investeringen en de opkomst van de BPO-sector kunnen gezien worden als een eerste stap in de verwezenlijking van economische ontwikkeling door middel van integratie in het WPN. Om de mogelijke implicaties van deze integratie voor economische ontwikkelingen te beoordelen, is het van groot belang om de positie van BPO-bedrijven in WPN te analyseeren.

De positie van bedrijven en steden in wereldwijde productienetwerkenHoofdstuk 4: Welke (machts)positie en functies bezetten de ondernemingen in Metro Manila en regionale steden in de Filippijnen in de wereldwijde productienetwerken van diensten?Hoofdstuk vier brengt bestaande netwerken van dienstverlening vanuit het perspectief van actoren in de Filippijnen in kaart, om machtsverhoudingen in deze netwerken te analyseren. Het hoofdstuk combineert het WPN-raamwerk met indicatoren van de oudere ‘branch plant’ literatuur om de resultaten voor economische ontwikkeling te beoordelen. Bevindingen uit kwalitatieve interviews met bedrijven in Metro Manila en drie regionale

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steden laten zien dat in het bijzonder de kleinere steden aan het syndroom van ‘branch-plant economieën’ lijden, omdat zij afhankelijk zijn van beslissingen die elders genomen worden. De functionele en ruimtelijke desintegratie van de waardeketen door outsourcing verhoogt het aantal actoren dat betrokken is bij de besluitvorming. De Filippijnse operaties vormen vaak de laagste-ranking-eenheid in de machtsverhoudingen. Omdat wereldwijde outsourcing bedrijven vaak opereren als multinationals met netwerken van kantoren verspreid over de hele wereld, zijn de Filippijnse operaties slechts een van vele locaties binnen het WPN van dienstverlening. Offshore dienstensector hubs zijn gevoelig voor de wereldwijde concurrentie en ‘schakelen’ tussen dochterondernemingen kan relatief eenvoudig plaatsvinden, vooral in low-end services productie. Aangezien wereldwijde productienetwerken dynamisch zijn kunnen bedrijven hun lokale inbedding kunnen verhogen naar hogere diensten om deze uitdagingen het hoofd te bieden.

De ontwikkeling: Het verhogen van de territoriale inbedding en het upgraden naar meer kennisintensieve en hoogwaardige diensten?Hoofdstuk 5: Hoe krijgen buitenlandse investeerders in de offshore dienstensector toegang tot geschoolde arbeidskrachten, wat voor soort verbanden worden er gevormd tussen BPO-bedrijven en onderwijsinstellingen, en wat zijn de gevolgen daarvan voor de economische ontwikkeling?De evolutie van de BPO-sector in de Filippijnen werd behandeld in hoofdstuk vijf en hoofdstuk zes. Toenemende territoriale inbedding is moeilijker te bereiken in de offshore dienstensector in vergelijking met de industriële productie, omdat BPO-bedrijven minder relaties met en input van lokale bedrijven vereisen. Het belangrijkste lokale voordeel in het productieproces van offshore diensten zijn geschoolde arbeidskrachten. Ervoor zorgen dat er voldoende toegang is tot werknemers is een mogelijkheid om de territoriale inbedding van buitenlandse BPO-bedrijven te garanderen. Daarom wordt in hoofdstuk vijf dieper ingegaan op de ontwikkeling van verbanden tussen BPO- bedrijven en onderwijsinstellingen. De resultaten toonden aan dat veel buitenlandse investeerders banden hebben ontwikkeld met de onderwijssector, waardoor bedrijven investeren in lange termijn relaties en toenemende territoriale inbedding ontstaat.

Samenwerking tussen bedrijfsleven en onderwijsinstellingen zijn onderdeel van actieve inbeddingsstrategieën van buitenlandse investeerders. De interventies zijn vooral gericht op het veiligstellen van lager geschoolde vaardigheiden voor hun callcenter diensten, waardoor bedrijven indirect hun behoeften op korte termijn kunnen voldoen. Deze ingreep in het onderwijs door buitenlandse investeerders is een valkuil van verhoogde inbedding, die kan leiden tot afhankelijke uitkomsten voor economische ontwikkelingen. Verder kan het problemen voortbrengen voor een overstap naar hoger gekwalificeerde arbeid en het upgraden naar diensten met hogere toegevoegde waarde.

Hoofdstuk 6: In hoeverre kan het upgraden naar hogere diensten in de offshore dienstensector bereikt worden in de Filippijnen en in India?Hoofdstuk zes analyseert in hoeverre de opwaardering naar hoger geschoolde diensten en diensten met een hogere toegevoegde waarde succesvol is geweest in de offshore-dienstensector

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in de Filippijnen en in India. Het hoofdstuk maakt onderscheid tussen ‘product’ upgraden naar hoger geschoolde en meer kennisintensieve functies, en ‘functioneel’ upgraden naar hogere omzet-genererende functies in de BPO sector. Daaruit bleek dat er beperkte opwaardering heeft plaatsgevonden naar hoger geschoolden diensten, die voornamelijk werd gedreven door buitenlandse actoren in plaats van door Filippijnse bedrijven. Vooral dochterondernemingen in shared service centers zijn in staat geweest om meer kennisintensieve segmenten van de BPO sector te laten groeien. Echter, de ondernemingen in de Filippijnen zijn niet veranderd van machtspositie binnen het WPN. Functioneel upgraden naar functies met een hogere omzet, zoals dat is gerealiseerd door de Indiase bedrijven in de Indiase offshore-dienstensector, heeft niet plaatsgevonden in de Filippijnen. Een vergelijking van de upgrading trajecten in India en de Filippijnen wijst in de richting van opkomende specialisaties en het ontvouwen van een Indische-Filippijnse arbeidsverdeling.

De invloed: Stedelijke transformaties en de opkomst van de ser vice-gebaseerde speciale economische zonesHoofdstuk 7: Welke stedelijke transformaties treden op als gevolg van het aantrekken van de BPO-sector en wie profiteert ter plaatse van de opkomst van speciale economische zones voor diensten in steden?Hoofdstuk zeven brengt de locatie van BPO investeringen op nationaal en regionaal niveau in kaart en schetst de ontstaansgeschiedenis van speciale economische zones (SEZ) voor diensten, die de functies van de dienstverlening voor de wereldwijde markten combineren met steeds meer geglobaliseerde consumptiepatronen. Deze SEZ voor diensten ontstaan als gevolg van factoren van locatiekeuze van buitenlandse BPO investeerders, die geschoolde arbeidskrachten nodig hebben en een voorkeur hebben voor moderne en beveiligde omgevingen. Het veranderen van het overheidsbeleid op de ruimtelijke zonering vergemakkelijkt de opkomst van deze speciale economische zones in zakencentra in Metro Manila. Bestaande machtige vastgoedontwikkelaars maken deze ontwikkeling niet alleen mogelijk, maar zijn ook de primaire lokale begunstigden van dit kenmerk van de hedendaagse globalisering. De opkomst van de offshore-dienstensector in de Filippijnen heeft geleid tot de bouw van de ‘eilanden van de globalisering’: geglobaliseerde enclaves voor 24-uurs productie en consumptie, gemodelleerd volgens thuislanden van de buitenlandse investeerders. Deze stedelijke transformaties en ruimtelijke uitkomsten van de offshore-dienstensector worden vaak over het hoofd gezien in een traditionele WPN analyse.

De uitbreiding van de wereldwijde productienetwerken in diensten: Een nieuw ‘model’ van ontwikkeling?In hoeverre creëert de opkomst van de offshore-dienstensector een nieuw model van economische ontwikkeling?

Drie gelijkenissen met eerdere export-productie ontwikkelingsstrategieën kunnen worden aangemerkt: (1) beide zijn gebaseerd op directe buitenlandse investeringen, (2)

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‘productie’ in beide gevallen vindt plaats in speciale economische zones en (3) loonkosten arbitrage vormt de grondgedachte achter verplaatsing. Echter, een aantal verschillen zijn waarneembaar. Diensten offshoring telt over het algemeen een hoger opgeleide beroepsbevolking, en wordt niet alleen gedreven door kosten-concurrentie, omdat ook vaardigheden een belangrijke vestigingsfactor zijn. Bedrijven gebruiken kantoren in plaats van fabrieken en verstrekken over het algemeen hogere lonen en betere arbeidsomstandigheden in vergelijking met de industriële/verwerkende productie. Deze voordelen maken ook de sector minder toegankelijk. Zij zijn niet in staat om werkgelegenheid te bieden aan voormalige landarbeiders, omdat hogere opgeleiden en er vooral Engelstalige voorwaarden voor arbeid zijn. De geografie van de dienstverlening is dynamischer geworden en de lange termijn vooruitzichten voor de BPO-sector in de Filippijnen worden beïnvloed door de stijgende concurrentie van andere ontwikkelingslanden, het terugverplaatsen, or re-shoring, van diensten naar landen van herkomst, en automatiseringsprocessen.

Op basis van dit onderzoek kunnen een aantal voorzichtige beleidsadviezen gegeven worden. De afwezigheid van grote Filippijnse BPO-bedrijven vermindert de mogelijkheid om waarde in de Filippijnen te genereren. Tegelijkertijd maakt het de Filippijnen meer afhankelijk van beslissingen die in de verre hoofdvestiging genomen worden. Inspanningen om het binnenlandse ondernemerschap te stimuleren en lokale kleine en middelgrote bedrijven te ondersteunen zijn daarom belangrijk. Investeringen in het onderwijs moeten mogelijkheden bieden voor geavanceerde opleidingen voor leidinggevend personeel en de groei van gespecialiseerde professionele vaardigheden. De bevindingen hebben aangetoond dat geschoolde arbeidskrachten een belangrijke factor zijn voor het aantrekken van investeringen en het opwaarderen naar hogere functies van de waardeketen. Op dit moment begunstigen het bestaande beleid en de tussenkomst van buitenlandse investeerders het creëren van algemene lagere vaardigheden die nodig zijn voor de voice-gebaseerde dienstverlening.

De bevindingen over de Filippijnse ervaringen kunnen andere landen informeren, die gericht zijn op het creëren van een ‘kenniseconomie’ op basis van het aantrekken van directe buitenlandse investeringen in offshore dienstverlening. Hoewel veel landen inspiratie hebben gehaald uit het voorbeeld van de succesvolle ontwikkeling van offshore services in India, zou India een extreme of unieke case kunnen zijn, die niet gemakkelijk kan worden gerepliceerd door andere landen. In plaats daarvan zou de Filippijnse lagere integratie in het WPN van de dienstverlening op basis van het aantrekken van buitenlandse investeringen een meer typerend model kunnen vormen.

Op theoretisch niveau heeft dit proefschrift het WPN-raamwerk uitgebreid door het aan te passen en eclectisch te combineren met bestaande literatuur om analytische categorieën te operationaliseren voor empirisch onderzoek over diensten. De analyse van asymmetrische machtsverhoudingen en de mogelijke ongelijke integratie in WPN door ontwikkelingslanden, in sommige gevallen vergelijkbaar met branch plant economieën, draagt bij aan recente debatten over de ‘donkere kant’ van WPN’s. Bovendien heeft deze studie aangetoond dat het WPN-kader goed bruikbaar is in het bestuderen van netwerken en zwakker in de beoordeling van de territoriale economische ontwikkeling. De opkomst

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van de geglobaliseerde enclaves in stedelijke agglomeraties in de Filippijnen bevestigt het belang om de ontwikkeling in plaatsen te analyseren.

Dit onderzoek heeft aangetoond dat dieper liggende sociale en institutionele structuren grote invloed hebben op de uitkomsten voor economische ontwikkeling. Naast werknemers, is de door de elite gedomineerde vastgoedsector geïdentificeerd als een van de belangrijkste lokale begunstigden van de opkomst van de offshore-dienstensector. Dit toont aan dat een krachtige en diepgewortelde elite in de Filippijnen in staat is deel te nemen aan ‘rent-seeking’, zelfs met betrekking tot een vrij nieuwe economische activiteit. Hoewel het WPN-kader bevestigt dat de sociaal-ruimtelijke context van invloed is op de aard en de uiting van het WPN, blijft de sociale inbedding in de al lang bestaande (lokale) machtsstructuren onder- getheoretiseerd in de huidige formuleringen van het kader. Padafhankelijke instellingen en de regionale zakelijke systemen zijn belangrijke factoren voor de aard en de uiting van WPN-integratie en blijven van vitaal belang voor het verklaren van de regionale uitkomsten van ontwikkeling. De actoren-centrische analyse zou baat kunnen hebben bij een combinatie met politiek-economisch onderlegde onderzoeken naar institutionele structuren, om te komen tot een meer realistisch begrip van plaatsen in de wereldwijde productienetwerken.

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KLEIBERT

Contemporary globalisation and the relocation, or offshoring, of services have created new opportunities for economic development in the Global South. Over the past decade, one million workers have found employment in the offshore service sector in the Philippines, primarily in Metro Manila’s call centres. This study investigates the emergence, evolution and the impact of the changing spatial division of service labour from the perspective of firms and subsidiaries located ‘offshore’ in the Philippines. It empirically examines expanding global production networks in services. Theoretically, this work expands the global production network framework by combining its analytical concepts of power, embeddedness and value with existing literatures from economic geography and development studies to understand to what extent services offshoring constitutes a new ‘model’ of economic development.

ISBN: 978-90-78862-23-9

EXPANDING GLOBAL PRODUCTION NETWORKS

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THE EMERGENCE, EVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENTAL IMPACT OF THE OFFSHORE SERVICE SECTOR IN THE PHILIPPINES

Jana Maria Kleibert