UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository) Developmental changes … · 194 References Aron, A. R.,...

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UvA-DARE is a service provided by the library of the University of Amsterdam (http://dare.uva.nl) UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository) Developmental changes in cognitive control Temporal dynamics of task performance across trial sequences Smulders, S.F.A. Link to publication Creative Commons License (see https://creativecommons.org/use-remix/cc-licenses): Other Citation for published version (APA): Smulders, S. F. A. (2017). Developmental changes in cognitive control: Temporal dynamics of task performance across trial sequences. General rights It is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), other than for strictly personal, individual use, unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons). Disclaimer/Complaints regulations If you believe that digital publication of certain material infringes any of your rights or (privacy) interests, please let the Library know, stating your reasons. In case of a legitimate complaint, the Library will make the material inaccessible and/or remove it from the website. Please Ask the Library: https://uba.uva.nl/en/contact, or a letter to: Library of the University of Amsterdam, Secretariat, Singel 425, 1012 WP Amsterdam, The Netherlands. You will be contacted as soon as possible. Download date: 25 Jan 2020

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Page 1: UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository) Developmental changes … · 194 References Aron, A. R., Monsell, S., Sahakian, B. J., & Robbins, T. W. (2004). A componential analysis of task-switching

UvA-DARE is a service provided by the library of the University of Amsterdam (http://dare.uva.nl)

UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository)

Developmental changes in cognitive controlTemporal dynamics of task performance across trial sequencesSmulders, S.F.A.

Link to publication

Creative Commons License (see https://creativecommons.org/use-remix/cc-licenses):Other

Citation for published version (APA):Smulders, S. F. A. (2017). Developmental changes in cognitive control: Temporal dynamics of task performanceacross trial sequences.

General rightsIt is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s),other than for strictly personal, individual use, unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons).

Disclaimer/Complaints regulationsIf you believe that digital publication of certain material infringes any of your rights or (privacy) interests, please let the Library know, statingyour reasons. In case of a legitimate complaint, the Library will make the material inaccessible and/or remove it from the website. Please Askthe Library: https://uba.uva.nl/en/contact, or a letter to: Library of the University of Amsterdam, Secretariat, Singel 425, 1012 WP Amsterdam,The Netherlands. You will be contacted as soon as possible.

Download date: 25 Jan 2020

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References

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SummarySamenvatting

DankwoordAbout the author

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SuMMARy

The current thesis aimed at expanding our knowledge of age-related changes in trial-by-trial effects on the speed of performance. More specifically, this thesis was concerned with the study of developmental change in sequential effects (Chapters 2 and 3), post-error slowing (Chapter 4) and conflict adaptation (Chapter 5). These issues were addressed by using varieties of standard choice reaction tasks to enable appropri-ate comparisons with the adult literature. In addition, the results that emerged from these studies were interpreted vis-a-vis a common framework of cognitive control that has been adopted in the developmental literature; i.e., the dual-mechanisms of control model (DMC). The model distinguishes two modes of control; i.e., reactive vs. proactive control.

Chapter 1 offered a general introduction addressing the key topics covered in this thesis. The concept of cognitive control and the developmental changes therein was explained, and the three main topics (including the questions addressed in this thesis) that were central to the four empirical chapters (2-5) were introduced.

Chapter 2 and 3 together contained four experiments that aimed to investigate systematically the developmental trends in basic processing mechanisms underlying sequential effects in serial reaction time tasks (i.e., automatic facilitation and subjective expectancy). The experiments in Chapter 2 were aimed at assessing developmental trends in the strength of these mechanisms, by manipulating response-to-stimulus (RSI) interval and stimulus-response compatibility (SRC). The primary goal of the ex-periments presented in Chapter 3 was to assess how developmental change in these underlying mechanisms evolve, by manipulating RSI in small steps and introducing practice-sessions. The results presented in Chapters 2 and 3 contributed to the rela-tively scant developmental literature on sequential effects. This literature was primarily concerned with first-order sequential effects and indicated that young children’s per-formance is dominated by a repetition benefit (i.e., automatic facilitation). This observa-tion was replicated. We also included analyses of higher-order effects. These analyses revealed a benefit-only pattern (i.e., automatic facilitation) that was stronger when incompatible reactions were required relative to compatible responses. Consistent with expectations, the strength of the benefit-only pattern decreased with advancing age but, inconsistent with expectations based on previous findings, this pattern was not influenced by extensive practice. Interestingly, the benefit-only pattern continued to dominate the performance pattern in young children across RSIs of varying lengths whereas, consistent with previous findings, the adult benefit-only pattern changed into a cost-benefit pattern (i.e., subjective expectancy) with a lengthening of RSI.

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We considered but rejected the idea of interpreting our findings in terms of the DMC-model. We resorted to simulation studies of sequential effects in order to obtain an appropriate account of our developmental findings. Our review of this literature converged on the conclusion that most interpretations are concerned with sequential-effects patterns associated with long RSIs whereas the patterns associated with young children are typical for short RSIs. Finally, we assumed that sequential-effect patterns associated with short RSIs and young children are to result from passive expectancy that is automatic and effortless while the sequential-effects patterns associated with long RSIs and older participants are supposed to be due to active expectancy that is consciousness and effortful. We had to admit that this interpretation is utterly abstract and in need of further investigation.

Chapter 4 was concerned with the examination of developmental change in post-error slowing. First, we reviewed the developmental literature for information on post-error slowing and observed that the scant literature yielded inconsistent findings. This prompted us to systematically assess age-related change in post-error slowing using a standard choice reaction task. Our analysis revealed a robust developmental pattern of post-error slowing; i.e., the magnitude of slowing decreases with advancing age. This finding indicated that young children do monitor their performance and respond accordingly when they committed an error.

Post-error slowing has been interpreted in terms of a dynamic interplay between proactive and reactive control. On the hypothesis that proactive control is immature in young children their pronounced post-error may relate to less proactive support of the implementation of remedial action. Although this interpretation could not be excluded based on the current findings, we believed that the current interpretation of post-error slowing in terms of response caution is more straightforward. There is strong evidence to suggest that post-error slowing is associated with an increase in response caution. Accordingly, the disproportional slowing observed for young children was explained by assuming that young children experience difficulty in fine-tuning their response thresholds. Obviously, this interpretation should be evaluated in future studies.

Chapter 5 presented a study that systematically assessed developmental change in conflict adaptation. The developmental literature showed an inconsistent pattern of re-sults. We used different conflict tasks (a Simon task, an SRC task, and a Choice-reaction/NoGo task) as the specific implementation of conflict adaptation may depend on the specific conflict elicited by the task and, thus, may contribute to the inconsistencies observed in the developmental literature. The findings demonstrated conflict adapta-

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tion in each of the age groups participating in the study and for each of the tasks that were used, although specific patterns differed across tasks.

The predominant idea in the developmental literature is that conflict adaptation is a manifestation of top-down control that has a protracted developmental course. Ac-cordingly, one would assume that young children do not exhibit conflict adaptation. But the current findings convincingly indicated that they do. Consequently, these find-ings presented a challenge to the idea that conflict adaptation is realized via top-down cognitive control or, within the framework of the DMC, in terms of a flexible balancing of proactive and reactive control mechanisms. We argued that our findings can be ac-counted for in terms of episodic retrieval. Within this context, conflict adaptation was assumed to result from memory-driven effects. Although this account does not exclude a potential role of proactive control, its contribution was not or minimally manifested in the current data.

Chapter 6 provided a general discussion based on the results of the empirical chapters. An attempt was made to integrate results across studies and to derive some conclusions regarding the developmental changes in reactive and proactive control processes.

Taken together, the thesis presented trial-by-trial approaches in examining age-related change on the speed of performance. In all the approaches investigated, we rejected the idea of interpreting the results in terms of reactive and proactive control and re-sorted to other accounts of our developmental findings. The results of the experiments in this thesis assume that the developmental changes in the temporal dynamics of task performance across trial sequences can be interpreted without using top-down control adjustments between trials.

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SAMENVATTING

Dit proefschrift had als voornaamste doel om meer inzicht te verkrijgen in leeftijds-gebonden veranderingen in cognitieve controle. De nadruk lag op de flexibiliteit van het cognitieve systeem. Deze flexibiliteit werd bestudeerd door gebruik te maken van zogenaamde ‘trial-by-trial’ effecten op de snelheid en nauwkeurigheid van reacties op stimuli in relatief eenvoudige taken die ook door kinderen goed uitgevoerd konden worden. De bestudeerde ‘trial-by-trial’ effecten waren sequentiële effecten (hoofdstuk-ken 2 en 3), post-error vertraging (hoofdstuk 4) en conflict-adaptatie (hoofdstuk 5). De resultaten van de studies in dit proefschrift zijn geïnterpreteerd in relatie tot de huidige theorievorming op het gebied van cognitieve controle. Daarnaast werd getracht om de bevindingen in verband te brengen met het zogeheten ‘dual-mechanisms of control model’ (DMC) dat recent ook opgeld doet in de cognitieve ontwikkelingspsychologie. Het model maakt onderscheid tussen twee vormen van cognitieve controle; reactieve versus proactieve controle.

Hoofdstuk 1 gaf een algemene inleiding in de kernonderwerpen van dit proefschrift. Centraal stonden het concept van cognitieve controle en de leeftijdsgerelateerde ver-anderingen die zich hierin voor kunnen doen. De drie onderzoeksthema’s die aan bod komen in de vier empirische hoofdstukken werden geïntroduceerd, inclusief de vragen die in dit proefschrift worden gesteld.

Hoofdstukken 2 en 3 bevatten gezamenlijk vier experimenten gericht op het onder-zoeken van ontwikkelingstrends in de mechanismen die ten grondslag liggen aan sequentiële effecten in seriële reactietijdtaken. In het onderzoek bij volwassenen traden in de literatuur twee mechanismen op de voorgrond—automatische facilitatie en subjectieve verwachting. De eerste betreft een proces veroorzaakt door resterende geheugensporen van voorafgaande stimulus-respons cycli. Dit mechanisme blijkt vooral te ontstaan bij een snelle opeenvolging van stimuli—korte ‘response-to-stimulus’ intervallen (RSI). Hier hebben repeterende vergeleken met alternerende stimulus-respons trials een voordeel (d.i. het eerste-orde repetitie-effect). De geheugensporen doven uit, maar bij een korte RSI zijn de sporen nog aanwezig bij volgende stimuli en accumuleren over opeenvolgende trials, wat hogere-effecten kan verklaren (d.i. het ‘benefit-only’ patroon). Subjectieve verwachting betreft een mechanisme dat zich eveneens manifesteert op eerste-orde (d.i. het alternatie effect) en hogere-orde niveau (d.i. het ‘cost-benefit’ patroon) en met name ontstaat bij een langzame opeenvolging van stimuli (lange RSI). Het alternatie effect wordt beschreven als de neiging om meer alternaties te verwachten, analoog aan het geloof in alternaties bij gokspelen. Het ‘cost-benefit’ patroon kan beschreven worden als de voorkeur voor een voortzetting van een

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reeks van alternaties dan wel repetities. De experimenten in hoofdstuk 2 waren gericht op het vaststellen van ontwikkelingstrends van deze mechanismen. Dit werd bewerk-stelligd door RSI en stimulus-respons compatibiliteit (SRC) te manipuleren. Deze laatste manipulatie bestond uit stimuli die op spatieel compatibele wijze werden toegewezen aan responsen (bijv. stimulus rechts, rechts reageren) en andersom (bijv. stimulus rechts, links reageren). Het hoofddoel van de experimenten in hoofdstuk 3 was om vast te stellen hoe de ontwikkeling in de temporele dynamiek van deze onderliggende mechanismen verloopt. Dit werd verwezenlijkt door RSI in kleine stapjes te verlengen en door proefpersonen veelvuldig te laten oefenen. In alle experimenten werd als basis gebruik gemaakt van een relatief eenvoudige tweekeuze reactietijdtaak (d.i. rode cirkel links of rechts van het midden op een computerscherm).

Onderzoek naar leeftijdsgerelateerde veranderingen van sequentiële effecten is schaars. Daarnaast waren eerder uitgevoerde studies voornamelijk gericht op eerste-orde sequentiële effecten. Deze studies lieten zien dat automatische facilitatie de prestaties van jonge kinderen domineert. Wij konden deze bevinding in onze studies repliceren. Wij hebben daarnaast ook analyses van hogere-orde effecten toegevoegd. Deze analyses toonden een ‘benefit-only’ patroon (automatische facilitatie) dat sterker was wanneer incompatibele reacties nodig waren. In overeenstemming met onze verwach-tingen nam de sterkte van dit ‘benefit-only’ patroon af met het ouder worden van jonge kinderen. In tegenstelling tot onze verwachting had veelvuldig oefenen echter geen invloed op deze effecten. Bij jonge kinderen bleef het ‘benefit-only’ patroon domineren terwijl wij een graduele omslag naar een ‘cost-benefit’ patroon hadden verwacht. De omslag van het ‘benefit-only’ patroon (automatische facilitatie) naar een ‘cost-benefit’ patroon (subjectieve verwachting) werd wel gevonden voor volwassen proefpersonen wanneer het interval tussen de respons en de volgende stimulus werd verlengd.

We hebben onze bevindingen getracht te interpreteren met behulp van het DMC-model maar kwamen tot de conclusie dat de ontwikkeling van sequentiële effecten zich onttrekt aan dat model. Ook de literatuur op het gebied van simulatiestudies van sequentiële effecten boden geen uitkomst. We kwamen tot de conclusie dat de meeste interpretaties van sequentiële effecten gebaseerd zijn op patronen die verkregen zijn in experimenten of simulaties waarin het interval tussen respons en de volgende stimulus relatief lang is, terwijl de resultaten die wij hebben verkregen bij jonge kinderen gere-lateerd zijn aan patronen geassocieerd met korte intervallen. De voorlopige conclusie die we op grond van onze resultaten konden trekken gaat uit van de gedachte dat sequentiële effecten bij jonge kinderen gebaseerd zijn op automatisch gedreven ver-wachtingen, terwijl bij volwassenen verwachtingen over de volgende trial bewust zijn en moeite kosten.

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Hoofdstuk 4 betrof onderzoek van leeftijdsgerelateerde verandering in post-error ver-traging. In de literatuur bij volwassenen wordt in het algemeen gevonden dat, na het maken van een fout, de snelheid van reageren op de eerstvolgende trial afneemt. In het onderzoek bij kinderen is het beeld veel minder duidelijk. We hebben een literatuur-studie uitgevoerd waaruit bleek dat de aandacht van het onderzoek bij kinderen vooral gericht was op hersenpotentialen terwijl het gedrag goeddeels werd genegeerd. Daar-bij werd in sommige studies de verwachte met leeftijd sterker wordende vertraging gevonden, terwijl in andere studies het omgekeerde werd geconstateerd. In hoofdstuk 4 hebben we een onderzoek uitgevoerd waarin we gebruik hebben gemaakt van een experimentele opzet die ook in de literatuur over de post-error vertraging veelvuldig is toegepast. De gebruikte basistaak was overeenkomstig met die in hoofdstukken 2 en 3. Onze resultaten lieten een robuuste ontwikkelingstrend zien in de post-error vertra-ging—met het ouder worden neemt de sterkte van dit effect af. De conclusie die we uit dit resultaat trokken was tweeledig. Onze resultaten lieten zien dat ook jonge kinderen hun gedrag monitoren maar, in tegenstelling tot volwassenen, werd de reparatie na de fout (d.i., het opnieuw instellen van respons drempels) minder efficiënt uitgevoerd.

In algemene zin werd de post-error vertraging geïnterpreteerd in termen van een dy-namische wisselwerking tussen proactieve en reactieve controle processen. Vanuit de veronderstelling dat de ontwikkeling van proactieve controle bij (jonge) kinderen nog niet is voltooid, werd verondersteld dat hun sterkere post-error vertraging het gevolg is van minder proactieve ondersteuning bij de nodige reparaties na het maken van een fout. De disproportionele vertraging bij jonge kinderen wordt dan verklaard door aan te nemen dat zij nog moeite hebben met het afstellen van respons drempels. Dit is echter een zeer voorlopige conclusie die in toekomstige studies nog nader onderzocht dient te worden.

Hoofdstuk 5 betrof een studie over leeftijdsgerelateerde veranderingen in conflict-adaptatie. Conflict-adaptatie heeft betrekking op aanpassingen in het gedrag nadat de proefpersoon in een eerdere trial geconfronteerd werd met een conflict. Dit betekent dat, op een trial na een conflict, adequaat gereageerd kan worden wanneer de hierna volgende trial ook een conflict-trial is. Het nadeel is echter dat wanneer de volgende trial geen conflict-trial is er relatief traag wordt gereageerd. De ontwikkelingsliteratuur op dit gebied toonde wederom inconsistente resultaten. We gebruikten verschillende conflict taken, maar met identiek gepresenteerde stimuli; een Simon taak, een SRC taak, en een keuze reactie/NoGo taak. In de Simon taak werden relevante (d.i. kleur op basis waarvan de proefpersoon beslist welke respons gemaakt moet worden) en irrelevante taakaspecten (d.i. richting van de stimulus, pijl links of rechts) gecombineerd, waardoor congruente en incongruente trials ontstaan. Bij congruente trials vielen de relevante

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en irrelevante aspecten samen (geen conflict), bij incongruente trials niet (conflict). In de SRC taak bepaalde de kleur van de stimuli de wijze van reageren (overeenkomstig met de richting van de pijl of andersom), waardoor compatibele (geen conflict) en incompatibele stimulus-respons trials (conflict) ontstonden. In de keuze reactie/NoGo taak moesten sommige stimuli (bijv. rode pijlen naar rechts en blauwe pijlen naar links) worden beantwoord met een respons, respectievelijk rechts en links (geen conflict). Bij de presentatie van andere typen pijlen moesten proefpersonen zicht onttrekken van een reactie (NoGo, conflict). We gebruikten verschillende taken omdat de speci-fieke implementatie van conflict-adaptatie kan afhangen van het specifieke conflict dat uitgelokt wordt door een taak. De eerder gevonden inconsistenties kunnen dus het gevolg zijn geweest van de verschillende gebruikte taken. Onze resultaten lieten zien dat in alle taken conflict-adaptatie was en dat de sterkte van het effect verschilde tussen leeftijdsgroepen. In de Simon taak werd een leeftijdsgebonden afname van het ‘trial-by-trial’ modulatie van het Simon effect gevonden. De SRC taak liet voor kinderen een veel sterkere omkering zien van het SRC-effect volgend op incompatibele trials. En tot slot werd, met toename van leeftijd, een afname gevonden in reactietijd op een keuzereactie trial na een NoGo trial. Hierbij moet worden aangemerkt dat de leeftijds-gebonden veranderingen niet disproportioneel van aard waren.

Het overheersende idee binnen de ontwikkelingsliteratuur is dat conflict-adaptatie een manifestatie is van top-down controle, die sterker aanwezig is bij volwassenen vergeleken bij (jonge) kinderen. Op basis hiervan zou je verwachten dat kinderen geen conflict-adaptatie laten zien. Onze bevindingen zijn hiermee in tegenspraak en zijn niet goed te passen binnen het DMC-model. We beargumenteerden dat onze bevindingen verklaard kunnen worden door episodische ‘retrieval’. Binnen deze context wordt verondersteld dat conflict-adaptatie het resultaat is van geheugen gedreven effecten. Hierbij wordt verondersteld dat, zodra de taakconfiguratie betrokken bij het oplossen van conflict tot stand is gekomen, deze automatisch kan worden geactiveerd en geïm-plementeerd met behulp van de juiste contextuele informatie. We suggereerden dat het proces van conflict-adaptatie efficiënter wordt met het ouder worden, vergelijkbaar met het efficiënter worden van het algemene informatieverwerkingssysteem.

In het laatste hoofdstuk werden de resultaten uit de voorgaande empirische hoofdstuk-ken bediscussieerd. Het hoofdstuk beslaat globaal twee delen. In eerste instantie zijn de resultaten geïnterpreteerd in relatie tot de huidige theorievorming op het gebied van cognitieve controle. Daarnaast werd getracht om de bevindingen in verband te brengen met het DMC-model. Tot slot zijn enkele belangrijke conclusies en aanbeve-lingen geformuleerd.

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Samenvattend presenteerde dit proefschrift een aantal studies gericht op de ontwik-keling van cognitieve flexibiliteit aan de hand van standaard reactietijdtaken waarin met behulp van relatief eenvoudige manipulaties (zoals het ‘response-to-stimulus’ interval of de relatie tussen stimulus en respons) ‘trial-by-trial’ aanpassingen in het gedrag werden bestudeerd. De verkregen resultaten bleken niet goed te passen in het DMC-model dat in de recente ontwikkelingspsychologie steeds meer opgeld doet. In algemene zin geven de resultaten van de studies in dit proefschrift aanleiding te veronderstellen dat leeftijdsgerelateerde veranderingen in cognitieve flexibiliteit (zoals onderzocht met ‘trial-by-trial’ manipulaties) goed te verklaren zijn zonder gebruik te maken van top-down controle mechanismen. Verder onderzoek is nodig om deze ge-dachte nauwkeuriger na te gaan en te bepalen hoe de verschillende factoren tezamen bijdragen aan de ontwikkeling van flexibel en adaptief gedrag. Het proefschrift biedt enkele suggesties om dit te bewerkstelligen.

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DANKWOORD

Dit proefschrift is volbracht. Dat is een cruciaal verschil met de Sagrada Família maar ik wil de vergelijking toch maken. Het werk leek in de loop der jaren veel trekken te vertonen vergelijkbaar met dat bouwwerk. Nou ja, de Sagrada wordt door velen gezien als hét juweeltje van zijn meester en dat is hier natuurlijk nog maar de vraag. Enfin, er zijn nog wel wat andere verschillen… maar als een Barcelonees gevraagd wordt of hij/zij een idee heeft wanneer de basiliek gereed zal zijn, halen ze hun schouders op. Ze hebben geen idee en eigenlijk ook weinig vertrouwen dat het er ooit nog van zal komen. In de voorbije jaren een herkenbaar sentiment vermoedelijk voor mijn omge-ving. En hoewel ik het vaak anders deed voorkomen, voelde ik me eerlijk gezegd vaak, boetserend aan mijn eigen ‘Sagrada’, ook zo’n Barcelonees.

Het was ook een lang pad; het begin gemakkelijk te bewandelen, later volgden onher-bergzame etappes. Zo’n tocht, in mijn geval van aio, naar promovendus tot (parttime) buitenpromovendus, leg je onmogelijk alleen af. Veel mensen hebben direct, maar nog vaker indirect, bijgedragen aan de volbrenging van dit werk. Hier volgt een dappere poging ze te danken. Hierbij moet worden opgemerkt dat ik velen uit het oog ben verloren, echter niet uit het hart. En, ‘schrijven is schrappen’ zeggen ze. Dat heb ik dit keer verzuimd.

Allereerst mijn hooggewaardeerde promotor, Maurits van der Molen. Dank voor jouw tomeloze inzet in de afgelopen jaren. Dankzij jouw sturing, vindingrijkheid, geduld en vertrouwen, is dit proefschrift tot een goed einde gebracht. Ik heb veel gehad en ge-leerd van jouw enorme kennis en talent op velerlei gebied. Het duurde lang (zelfs tot in het emeritaat), maar het is absoluut een eer geweest om onder jouw hoede te mogen werken en leren. Dank ook dat je me altijd weer tot geestdrift wist te brengen (“Het lijkt desastreus maar bij betere lezing valt het mee hoor.”) na het ontvangen van een stevige afwijzing van een editor of curieuze opmerking van een reviewer (“Frankly, in my view, it represents both the very best and the very worst in experimental child psychology.”). Je hebt je zelfs één keer, lang geleden, moeten opwerpen als hulpverlener om mijn ‘existentiële crisis’ tegemoed te treden: “SPORTEN IN DE BUITENLUCHT!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Maar echt tot je erbij neervalt want anders helpt het niet.” Door de hoeveelheid uitroeptekens verdween de lijdzaamheid stante pede. Het sporten kon ik gelukkig overslaan! Het project was voor mij uiteindelijk ook gewoon een oefening in geduld. Processen en procedures in de wetenschap lopen traag en noodzaakt lange en volgehouden inspanningen (aan-dacht en denkkracht). In de wetenschap word je geacht kritisch te zijn (ieder woord op de weegschaal, en ook “deep work” zoals Calvin Newport het noemt), in de praktijk ook, maar vooral niet te. Als deeltijd promovendus was dat soms echt een spagaat. De data

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voor dit proefschrift bleken daarnaast ook van bijzonder weerbarstige aard, waardoor de puzzel alles behalve eenvoudig was en lastige keuzes gemaakt moesten worden. Zoals jij zei: “Het blijft een strijd (want het is lastige materie) maar deze moet wel gevoerd worden.” Gelukkig ging je altijd rustig om met mijn soms heetgebakerde reacties. Tot slot, lang geleden betrad ik als schuchtere eerstejaars het gebouw aan de Roetersstraat en zonk geregeld weg in de collegebanken van zaal A. Na een trimester inleiding in de psychologie door wijlen Christiaan Hamaker (die mij in zijn introductiecollege overhaal-de psychologie te studeren), ontsluierde jij - beurtelings met Louis Oppenheimer - voor mij, en honderden andere studenten, de geheimen der ontwikkelingspsychologie. En nu, twee decennia later, dit dankwoord…

Copromotor Eric Soetens (inmiddels wat langer ‘in ruste’), kenner en één van de pioniers op het gebied van sequentiële effecten. In die zin had jij zelfs een deel van het pad al enigszins voor mij gebaand. Dank voor alle hulp en begeleiding vanuit het ‘verre’ België, vrijwel altijd via de elektronische weg. Jouw altijd snelle maar bijzonder kritische blik op de diverse manuscripten en het finale proefschrift is echt van wezenlijk belang geweest. Van één ding heb ik spijt: ik had je vaker moeten opzoeken in Brussel. Dat had eigenlijk sowieso gemoeten, want in het projectvoorstel uit 2000 stond: “Each year the AIO will visit Dr. Soetens (Brussels) for consultation and guidance.” Maar goed, de elektronische weg was wellicht toentertijd nog niet zo ingeburgerd.

Prof. dr. Richard Ridderinkhof, Prof. dr. Han van der Maas, Prof. dr. Hilde Huizenga, Prof. dr. Bernard Hommel en dr. Sander Los wil ik bedanken voor het lezen en beoordelen van mijn proefschrift en dat zij (na zo’n lange tijd na de ‘installatie’) zitting hebben willen nemen in de promotiecommissie. Hilde, dank dat je wilde ‘inspringen’ op het laatste moment. Wery van den Wildenberg, bijzonder veel dank voor het aansluiten bij de oppositie. Richard, je begeleidde mij tijdens het schrijven van de doctoraalscriptie (die bestond toen nog) en zat daarna, samen met Maurits en Marcus Spaan, in de sol-licitatiecommissie. Dank dat jullie mij toen ‘in dienst namen’.

Oud-kamergenoten en -collega’s in A1002 in de Roetersstraat 15 (tussen 2002 en 2007), Jasper Wijnen en Guido Meijnders. Het voelt een eeuwigheid geleden. Jasper, zoals Darwin al zei: ”A shy man no doubt dreads the notice of strangers, but can hardly be said to be afraid of them, he may be as bold as a hero in battle, and yet have no self-confidence about trifles in the presence of strangers.” Het gold voor ons beide, denk ik. Je begon een maand eerder en promoveerde alweer acht jaar geleden. Ik kon er helaas niet bij zijn. Dank voor alle hulp en geduld dat nodig is als je samen op een kamer werkt. Hoewel dat laatste eigenlijk wel meeviel; je begon geregeld op het moment dat ik mijn werkdag afsloot. Guido, dank voor alle gesprekken en je belangstelling toentertijd. Ik

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herinner me jouw kritische vragen nog erg goed. Jij zat bovendien al met je neus in het onderwijs. Daar moet mijn interesse gewekt zijn, denk ik.

Alle overige toenmalige collega’s van de 10e (Ontwikkelingspsychologie): Ingmar Visser, Brenda Jansen, Margot Taal, Hilde Huizenga, Jan Hoeks, Riek Somsen, Louis Oppenhei-mer, Han van der Maas, Annemat Collot d’Escury, Verena Schmittman, Birte Forstmann, Helga Harsay, Richard Ridderinkhof, Ad Dudink, Atie Vogelenzang de Jong, Raoul Gras-man, Lourens Waldorp, Eric-Jan Wagenmakers, Maartje Raijmakers. Ik moet nog vaak denken aan de leuke en interessante teamtuitjes (bijv. de Weerribben en Stelling van Amsterdam). In het bijzonder nog mijn mede-promovendi uit die (begin)tijd: Annemie Ploeger, Mariëtte Huizinga, Wery van den Wildenberg (nogmaals), Marijke van de Laar (dank voor je tips/raad) en Eveline Crone. Allemaal al lang, lang geleden gepromoveerd. Ook natuurlijk Bert van Beek, voor het programmeren van de meeste computertaken die ik heb gebruikt voor het onderzoek.

Dank aan de betrokken collega’s Psychonomie (toen op de 6e), Methodenleer (toen de 5e) en alle mede-EPOS-studenten van toen: Mante, Marthe, Hilde, Johannes, Zoë, Jennifer, Jacob, en ik vergeet nu zeker een heleboel namen te noemen… Het is inmid-dels zo lang geleden. EPOS zelf ook dank voor de organisatie rondom alle genoten trainingen/cursussen in Egmond aan Zee, Leiden, aan de UvA en VU. Hier werd ook vaak het nuttige met het aangename gecombineerd.

Mijn dank gaat ook uit naar alle deelnemers die hebben meegewerkt aan het onderzoek. De kinderen, leerlingen, ouders, leerkrachten en schoolleiders van de bezochte basis- en middelbare scholen van Amsterdam naar Rotterdam, Rijswijk en weer terug. Dank allen voor de gastvrijheid en goede organisatie. Specifiek wil ik hier danken de toen-malige directeur (en mijn oude basisschoolmeester) van de Godfried Bomansschool in Rijswijk, Fred Berendse. Dank ook aan alle studenten psychologie (proefpersonen) en specifiek de tweedejaars studenten die ik begeleidde in het onderzoekspracticum (OP) tussen 2002 en 2005 (Sander Dalenberg, Nathalie van der Kamp, Merel Kraan, Crista van Leijen, Peggy Samson, Eva Bol, Anne Costerus, Wieke Dobbelaer, Inge Haenen, Ro-salie Knuvelder, Klaske Kruk, Joost Molenaar, Helle Sinkbaek Pedersen, Tracy van Beest, Wouter Boendermaker, Els Dannenberg, Nienke Klene, Anna Koeman, Tom Heldoorn, Yoram Jacobs, Dave de Jong, Marieke Krom en Stef Ursem). Eigenlijk mijn eerste echte onderwijservaringen, waar ik bijzonder van genoot. Alle studenten hebben ook een hoop data verzameld voor het onderzoek. In het bijzonder Wouter Boendermaker (dit jaar gepromoveerd) en Linda van Leijenhorst (nu universitair docent in Leiden), toen respectievelijk mijn onderzoeks- en onderwijsassistent. Zij hebben flinke klussen geklaard tijdens het verzamelen van de data dan wel het medebegeleiden van de

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studenten in het onderzoekspracticum. Mijn onderzoekshart is sneller gaan kloppen tijdens mijn eigen onderzoekspracticumervaring (‘Appeltje, eitje!’) als student eind jaren 90, samen met o.a. Jurriaan Witteman (inmiddels postdoc in Leiden) en Monique Flier (neuropsycholoog) onder begeleiding van toen nog promovendus Martijn Meeter (thans hoogleraar onderwijskunde aan de VU). Dank ook allen voor de latere contacten tijdens het promotietraject.

Dank co-auteurs, Wim Notebaert, Muriel Meijer en Eveline Crone, voor de totstandko-ming van het eerste artikel in dit proefschrift. Eveline, dank dat je mij bij aanvang van het project meenam in het sequentiële-effecten-verhaal dat toch in eerste instantie al-lemaal best esoterisch overkwam (en dat wellicht nog steeds wel is). Jij zat toen min of meer in de slotfase van het aio-schap en daarna heeft je carrière, op z’n zachts gezegd, een vlucht genomen. Ik heb altijd met bijzonder veel interesse je onderzoek gevolgd.

Zoals Géza Révész in zijn voorwoord van Inleiding tot de Muziekpsychologie (1944) het zo mooi formuleerde: “Aan de persoonlijke en daadwerkelijke belangstelling, die mijn werk van de zijde mijner collega’s heeft ondervonden, mag ik niet stilzwijgend voorbijgaan.” Dus daar gaan we…

Oud-collega’s te Leiden (TP – Hogeschool Leiden): Shake, Hans, Henriette, Ido, Jose, Nathalie, Tom, Roos, Roel, Eefje, Kirsten, Lia, Jarry (dank voor wat promotietips), Linda, Joop, Floor, Daniel, Tania, Rogier, Natasja, Inge, Martine. Ook coach Michael Hoedjes. De creatieve insteek heeft me toen goed geholpen. In het bijzonder: Arnoud Sleebe, Mieke Meulmeester, Veronique Senne, Daphne Schutter en Aart Rietveld voor de belangrijke stap die ik heb kunnen maken naar het hoger beroepsonderwijs en de mogelijkheden die jullie mij bijna tien jaar geleden boden.

Mijn huidige collega’s te Den Haag (SBRM – De Haagse Hogeschool): Niek, Ronald V. (er staat koffie klaar na de verdediging!), Daphne, Eva, Sarah (dank voor wat taaltips), Albert K., Shashi, Miriam, Edwin, Sandy, Albert C., Johan, Herman, Ronald B., Michiel, Martijn, Rainer, Louise, Gerard, Marion, Anja, Irene, Bart, Ton, Joyce, Heleen, Jolien, Jeroen, Tosca, Hans, Philip, maar ook inmiddels oud-collega’s Frank, Michel, Poornima, Margo, Nalini, Jeanette, Han en Luc. Ook aan alle collega’s van de ondersteunende diensten, uit ver-schillende commissies, gremia, verwante en minder verwante opleidingen met wie ik het zijdelings wel eens had over dit werk. Buurvrouw en HHS-collega Bianca wil ik hier speciaal ook graag noemen! Dank voor je betrokkenheid, bemoedigende woorden en presentjes als ik weer een klein stapje had gezet in de goede richting. Tot slot, in het bijzonder, Simone Fredriksz, Marc van Ee, Jos Kleijntjens, Marcel Veloo, Wim Schuller, Aad Otto (dank voor het zo nu en dan achter de vodden zitten), en mijn huidige kamer-

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genoot en naaste collega Caroline Voordouw, voor alle kansen en mogelijkheden die jullie mij gegeven hebben, en nog geven, bij SBRM, maar ook specifiek ten aanzien van de afronding van dit werk.

Muziek heeft altijd, met name in de periode voordat ik kinderen kreeg (zo’n 4 jaar geleden), een bijzonder belangrijke en nadrukkelijke plek in mijn leven gehad. Mijn muzikale en muziektheatrale avonturen zijn wellicht op veel momenten meer geweest dan een welkome afwisseling naast het schrijven van een proefschrift; het waren echter onmisbare belevenissen en uiteindelijk gewoon broodnodig. Ik heb veel mensen ontmoet , bij theatergezelschappen, in orkesten, bandjes, tijdens andere muzikale projecten of zijdelings. Dit werk was ook met grote regelmaat een gespreksonderwerp. Iedereen noemen in dit dankwoord is echt ondoenlijk. Maar uit de IMC-, RJT/NuRT-, PI/Musicallplay-, en Silly’s-periode, maar ook van Buitenkunst… allen enorm veel dank! In het bijzonder nog wel Loek Bosman, voor alle mooie theaterbelevenissen vanaf de late jaren negentig tot 2008. En Frank Heijman, voor het avontuur dat we in 2011 aangingen met FSS, na twintig jaar vol kleine en grote muzikale ontmoetingen. Het is nu allemaal anders maar er volgt in de toekomst zeker weer iets nieuws.

Paranimfen, Frank Versteegh en Christiaan Lubbers, de Leidse psychologen, en Frank Heijman, buitengewoon paranimf! Heel veel dank dat jullie mij bijstaan. Jaren over dit ‘gevalletje’ gehad, vaak niet eens inhoudelijk. Jullie hebben lang moeten wachten maar moeten nu echt acte de présence geven. Ik reken op redelijke ruggespraak mocht ik in het duister tasten, dus lees dit werk wel even goed door. Bijzonder veel dank voor jullie niet aflatende belangstelling, betrokkenheid, ondersteuning, ongewone kameraad-schap en voor het meehelpen rondom de feestigheden. Versteegh, tot slot, ook nog dank voor de geboden talige hulp.

Hugo Seriese, driewerf dank. Voor alle bijzonder plezierige en grappige momenten (noem maar op), dank voor alle muzikale samenwerkingen, die zich vooral in het ver-leden voltrokken en ook vaak gecombineerd werden met dat eerste, en bijzonder veel dank voor het illustratieve werk bij dit proefschrift. Ik ben er heel blij mee!

Dank alle ooms, tantes, neven en nichten (ook van schoonfamiliezijde). Velen hebben me geregeld gevraagd naar de stand van zaken. Het duurde en duurde… maar voilà.

Als laatste sluit ik de cirkel door die personen te bedanken die dicht bij mij staan:

Roel en Helma, mijn schoonouders. Dank voor jullie belangstelling, het meeleven, de gesprekken, etentjes, uitjes en het zijn van heel fijne grootouders voor onze kinderen.

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236

Dankwoord

Dank ook voor alle ondersteuning op belangrijke en moeilijke momenten in de afge-lopen jaren.

Zwager Jeroen en schoonzus Lynn, dank voor alle betrokkenheid, plezier, etentjes, (thema)feestjes, de weken in Drenthe en het zijn van een geweldige oom en tante voor onze kinderen. Daarnaast zijn jullie een waanzinnig culinair ondernemersduo en niet voor niets betrokken in de viering van (o.a.) de afronding van dit project.

Naomi (lieve zus), Thomas en mijn neefjes Elias en Caspian, dank voor de gezellige mo-menten, gesprekken, betrokkenheid, belangstelling en hulp. Het is een drukke bende als we met elkaar zijn; daar zorgen de vier kereltjes wel voor. Maar het zijn mooie en bijzondere tijden. Onze hechte familieband is voor mij en het gezin goud waard.

Mam en pap, jullie hebben natuurlijk de basis gevormd voor alles. Jullie liefde en steun is van onschatbare waarde. Jullie hebben altijd goed gerealiseerd wat nodig was om mij zover te laten komen. Heel veel dank voor zoveel betrokkenheid, belangstelling, vertrouwen, onzelfzuchtigheid, onvoorwaardelijke steun, adviezen op tal van vlakken. Jullie hebben mij van kindsbeen af gestimuleerd te leren, te gaan studeren en er ook voor gezorgd dat het kon. Jullie gaven mij de vrijheid en creëerden voor mij alle mogelijkheden. De deur stond en staat altijd open. Jullie danken is natuurlijk een onmogelijke taak. Ik ben grootgebracht in warmte en wat is het fijn te zien dat jullie kleinkinderen daar ook van kunnen genieten.

Lies, je hebt bijna de hele rit meegemaakt. Ik heb me vanaf het eerste moment gere-aliseerd dat het geenszins gemakkelijk is om met een promovendus samen te leven. Later werd ik ook nog eens parttime promovendus en kregen we, weer wat later, twee kinderen. Ik wilde geregeld allerlei partijen niet teleurstellen. Zoals de NRC een paar jaar geleden kopte: “Promoveren naast je werk. Dan heb je maar tijdelijk geen leven.” Een bij-zonder druk gezinsleven incluis, waren het eigenlijk soms best moeilijke tijden waarin ik me wel eens afvroeg of het zo wel kon en moest. Het zorgde in ieder geval geregeld voor onrust. Ook wanneer het even leek alsof het einde naderde, moest ik toch weer de data in om nieuwe analyses te draaien of het kritische commentaar van een reviewer tegemoet te treden. En als ik niet concreet bezig was met dit werk, hing het toch altijd boven het hoofd. Concreet betekende het gewoon dat jij het op sommige momenten draaiende moest houden, terwijl ik ‘rustig’ op zolder mijn hoofd zat te breken over dit werk. Het duurde lang en we hadden het er veel over. Het is nu wel klaar. Jij zorgde gelukkig dat ik af en toe zaken wel in perspectief bleef zien (of: je deed verwoede pogingen). Zoveel geduld, trots, plezier, aandacht, vriendschap en liefde is een zegen.

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Dankwoord

237

Lieve Teun en Job, immens fijn dat jullie er zijn! Tja, die clichés... Dit proefschrift had er uiteindelijk nooit gekomen zonder jullie. Papa gaat niet meer op zolder werken.

Den Hoorn (ZH), september 2017

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About the author

239

AbOuT THE AuTHOR

Silvan Smulders was born on November 8, 1977 in The Hague. After finishing his pre-university education at the Interconfessioneel Makeblijde College in Rijswijk, he started studying Applied Mathematics (Delft University of Technology) and Musicol-ogy (Utrecht University). After dabbling in technological sciences, humanities but also in non-scientific activities, he decided to make a switch to social and behavioral sciences in 1998. In 2002, after completing an internship at Rijndam Rehabilitation Centre Rotterdam (ABI clinic), and writing a thesis on the topic of neurocognitive aging in the domain of executive functions (supervised by Prof. dr. K. Richard Ridderinkhof ) he obtained his Master’s degree in Psychology (with honors) at the University of Am-sterdam (Psychonomics/Clinical Neuropsychology track). Subsequently, he started his PhD research at the developmental psychology department (University of Amsterdam) supported by a MaGW grant from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) and the Psychology Research Institute, supervised by Prof. dr. Maurits W. van der Molen (University of Amsterdam) and Prof. dr. Eric Soetens (Vrije Universiteit Brussel). During this period, the first chapters of his PhD thesis were finished and data was col-lected for the remaining chapters on which he continued to work over the following years while also undertaking other academic activities. In 2008, he was appointed lecturer of Applied Psychology at the University of Applied Sciences Leiden (cluster Social Work & Applied Psychology). He lectured, developed and coordinated courses in general psychology, psychology of learning, cognitive psychology, psychodiagnostics, research methods and statistics. Since 2012, the author works as a lecturer Research Methodology and Statistics at The Hague University of Applied Sciences at the Faculty of Business, Finance and Marketing (SBRM program), where he is also a member of the Examboard, Graduation Committee, and chairman of the Test Committee. During his lectureships he continued to work albeit intermittently on the completion of his PhD thesis.

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Developmental Changes in Cognitive ControlTemporal Dynamics of Task Performance across Trial Sequences

Developmental studies of cognitive control indicated that control processes develop gradually during childhood through adulthood. The focus of this thesis is on developmental change in performance adjustments across trial sequences in relatively simple reaction time tasks. The results yielded robust developmental trends across an age range between 5 and 25 years. Collectively, however, the results question the idea that developmental change in trial-to-trial performance adaptation is guided by maturational changes in top-down cognitive control.

ISBN 978-94-6299-665-6

Silvan F.A. Smulders

Developm

ental Changes in Cognitive ControlSilvan F.A

. Smulders

voor het bijwonen van de openbare verdediging van het proefschrift

DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES INCOGNITIVE CONTROL

Temporal dynamics of taskperformance across trial sequences

doorSilvan F.A. Smulders

op woensdag 15 november 2017 om 12:00 uur

in de Agnietenkapel van deUniversiteit van Amsterdam

Oudezijds Voorburgwal 229-2311012 EZ Amsterdam

U bent van harte welkom op de receptie na a�oop van de promotie

in de Agnietenkapel

Silvan F.A. SmuldersKeizerin 78

2635 MC Den Hoorn06 14917556

[email protected]

Paranimfen:Frank Versteegh (06 28840031)

[email protected]

Christiaan Lubbers (06 45588253)[email protected]

U I T N O D I G I N G