UtilitarianismUtilitarianism

RevisionRevision

David HumeEthics should be based on

what is most Useful. To determine whether an action

is right or wrong one must look at what would be most

useful in that situation.

Francis HutchesonBelieved happiness was most

important in determining what is right or wrong.

“greatest happiness for the greatest number.”

Jeremy BenthamWanted to create a system of right and wrong - benefit all society. One of the first Utilitarian view point. Most useful thing in any moral dilemma is happiness. (leads people to make right ethical decisions.)Creating the Principle of Utility = Maximize pleasure – minimize pain

Neither Hume nor Hutcheson were Utilitarians, joining of the two views: usefulness and happiness that makes Utilitarianism an ethical

theory.

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““Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pleasure and pain. It is for them sovereign masters, pleasure and pain. It is for them

alone to point out what we ought to do...” alone to point out what we ought to do...” Bentham.Bentham.

Teleological (concerned with outcomes) Teleological (concerned with outcomes)

It also It also Hedonistic Hedonistic

Principle of UtilityPrinciple of Utility==Maximize pleasure – minimize painMaximize pleasure – minimize pain

Hedonic Calculus or way to seek pleasure (pleasure Hedonic Calculus or way to seek pleasure (pleasure seeker.)seeker.)

Produce maximum happiness and minimum pain for Produce maximum happiness and minimum pain for maximum number of people. maximum number of people.

1.1. IntensityIntensity

2.2. Duration – how long it lastsDuration – how long it lasts

3.3. Certainty of pleasureCertainty of pleasure

4.4. Fecundity – ‘productive’ leads to other pleasuresFecundity – ‘productive’ leads to other pleasures

5.5. Propinquity – how near to pleasurePropinquity – how near to pleasure

6.6. Purity – some pleasure involve pain as well which are Purity – some pleasure involve pain as well which are not as pure as pleasures that have no pain.not as pure as pleasures that have no pain.

7.7. Extent – more people that experience it the better.Extent – more people that experience it the better.

Act is right = more pleasure than Act is right = more pleasure than pain or prevents painpain or prevents pain

Act is wrong = more pain than Act is wrong = more pain than pleasure or prevents pleasure.pleasure or prevents pleasure.

But (part b evaluation):But (part b evaluation):What What isis happiness/ pleasure? happiness/ pleasure? Is Is allall pleasures morally good? pleasures morally good? Is all pain morally bad? Is all pain morally bad?

John Stuart Mill ( 1806-1873) had some problems with John Stuart Mill ( 1806-1873) had some problems with Bentham's Utilitarian arguments:Bentham's Utilitarian arguments:

1.1. The hedonic calculus attempts to The hedonic calculus attempts to quantifyquantify happiness, is happiness, is this possible? Hard to apply when faced with an this possible? Hard to apply when faced with an immediate ethical dilemma.immediate ethical dilemma.

2.2. Bentham's utilitarian argument is Bentham's utilitarian argument is teleologicalteleological = = accurately predicting the consequences of an action. Not accurately predicting the consequences of an action. Not always possible.always possible.

3.3. What counts as pleasure? One person’s What counts as pleasure? One person’s pleasurepleasure is is another's another's painpain..

4.4. Does not distinguish between Does not distinguish between different sorts different sorts of pleasures of pleasures or give them a rank orderor give them a rank order

5.5. What about What about minoritiesminorities??6.6. The emphasis on The emphasis on pleasurepleasure Mill saw little more than Mill saw little more than

animal instincts animal instincts e.g. sex, food, drinke.g. sex, food, drink

““It is better to be a human being dissatisfied It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied: than a pig satisfied:

Better to be Socrates dissatisfied Better to be Socrates dissatisfied

than a fool satisfied.”than a fool satisfied.”

Higher/ Lower PleasuresHigher/ Lower Pleasures Lower Pleasures =lowest pleasures shared with animals Lower Pleasures =lowest pleasures shared with animals

e.g. pigse.g. pigs Highest pleasures = stimulate mind, only be experienced Highest pleasures = stimulate mind, only be experienced

by humans.by humans.

• Mill recognised that in reality people do not always opt for Mill recognised that in reality people do not always opt for the higher pleasure. the higher pleasure.

• This is due to ignorance. This is due to ignorance.

A competent judge is someone who has experienced both the higher and lower pleasures.

Their role is to help to define the amount of pain/pleasure the action causes since they have experience of both.

AltruismAltruism Altruism (unselfishness/ love for others) was very important

to Mill

So he produced his Principle of Utility:So he produced his Principle of Utility:

1.1. Happiness is desirable.Happiness is desirable.

2.2. Happiness only thing desirable as an end in itself.Happiness only thing desirable as an end in itself.

3.3. General happiness of all is desirable. General happiness of all is desirable. Increase happiness of Increase happiness of others increases your own.others increases your own.

Also made links to Jesus’ Golden Rule: “To do as one would be Also made links to Jesus’ Golden Rule: “To do as one would be done by, and to love one’s neighbour as oneself, constitutes done by, and to love one’s neighbour as oneself, constitutes the ideal perfection of Utilitarian morality.” Millthe ideal perfection of Utilitarian morality.” Mill

(Why is Mill linking Utilitarianism with Christianity?)(Why is Mill linking Utilitarianism with Christianity?)

Philosophical Critics of MillPhilosophical Critics of Mill

• W.D Ross ‘a single factor’ they don't account for complex lives and moral decisions – family takes precedence over reason.

• Henry Sidgwick – how can we distinguish higher and lower pleasures from each other... Which higher pleasure takes priority in moral decisions?

Comparison: Bentham Comparison: Bentham MillMill • ““The greatest happiness The greatest happiness

(pleasure) for the greatest (pleasure) for the greatest number.” number.”

• Focused on the individual Focused on the individual situations – Actsituations – Act

• Relative ethical theory based on Relative ethical theory based on each situation.each situation.

• Quantitative – Hedonic Calculus Quantitative – Hedonic Calculus (Can be seen as absolute guide (Can be seen as absolute guide to ethics)to ethics)

• In search of maximising In search of maximising happinesshappiness

• Hedonistic based on pleasureHedonistic based on pleasure• Teleological (end result) / Teleological (end result) /

Consequentialist Consequentialist (consequences)(consequences)

• ““The greatest happiness for the The greatest happiness for the greatest number.”greatest number.”

• Focused on protecting common Focused on protecting common good universally – Rulegood universally – Rule

• Absolute ethical theory based on Absolute ethical theory based on universally applied rules.universally applied rules.

• Qualitative – higher / lower Qualitative – higher / lower pleasurespleasures

• Teleological/ ConsequentialistTeleological/ Consequentialist

BenthamBentham MillMillAct Act UtilitarianUtilitarian

Looks at the consequences of Looks at the consequences of an action an action

Apply Hedonic Calculus to Apply Hedonic Calculus to every act to work out if it will every act to work out if it will maximise pleasure minimise maximise pleasure minimise pain.pain.

StrongStrong: Bentham following : Bentham following one principle – Principle of one principle – Principle of Utility. Must be adhered to Utility. Must be adhered to without exception.without exception.

Rule UtilitarianRule Utilitarian• General rules General rules • applied Universally across applied Universally across

societies to promote happinesssocieties to promote happiness• These rules should not be These rules should not be

broken as they are the basis of broken as they are the basis of morality.morality.

• Mill was a Mill was a WeakWeak Rule Rule UtilitarianUtilitarian

• He believed that the rules He believed that the rules sometimes need to be broken sometimes need to be broken in in extremeextreme situations. situations.

Preference UtilitarianismPreference UtilitarianismR. M. Hare (1919-2002) – taught Peter Singer R. M. Hare (1919-2002) – taught Peter Singer

Need to consider our own preferences + those of others.Need to consider our own preferences + those of others. Need to “Need to “stand in someone else’s shoesstand in someone else’s shoes” and ” and

try to imagine what someone else might prefer – try to imagine what someone else might prefer – universallyuniversally

What would I prefer in this situation?’What would I prefer in this situation?’ However, remember that it is a Utilitarian argument so However, remember that it is a Utilitarian argument so

aims to create greatest good for greatest number so is aims to create greatest good for greatest number so is necessary to consider the preferences of others in order necessary to consider the preferences of others in order to achieve this.to achieve this.

He says that “ equal preferences count equally,

whatever their content.”

Peter SingerPeter Singer““Our preferences cannot count any more than the preferences of Our preferences cannot count any more than the preferences of

others” + equal valueothers” + equal value

Focus on 7Focus on 7thth stage of HC – number of people affected. stage of HC – number of people affected.

Everyone’s individual preferences must be taken into consideration Everyone’s individual preferences must be taken into consideration when deciding what was in the best interest of the group – “when deciding what was in the best interest of the group – “act as act as an impartial spectatoran impartial spectator.”.”

So in Singer’s view, killing a person who prefers to go on living So in Singer’s view, killing a person who prefers to go on living would be wrong and not killing a person who prefers to die would would be wrong and not killing a person who prefers to die would also be wrong. also be wrong.

Singer’s approach to Utilitarianism is to minimise suffering rather Singer’s approach to Utilitarianism is to minimise suffering rather than maximise pleasure. than maximise pleasure.

Far greater agreement about what causes pain that what gives Far greater agreement about what causes pain that what gives pleasure. pleasure.

Pleasure is more subjective to individuals than pain.Pleasure is more subjective to individuals than pain.

Strengths and WeaknessesStrengths and Weaknesses Helps address issue of Helps address issue of

majority justifying any action majority justifying any action e.g. sweat shops as it takes e.g. sweat shops as it takes individual preferences into individual preferences into accountaccount

QualitativeQualitative Focuses on preferences of Focuses on preferences of

others – Golden ruleothers – Golden rule ModernModern Pain is more universally known Pain is more universally known

rather than pleasure – less rather than pleasure – less subjectivesubjective

XX Not absolute so can be Not absolute so can be misused and adapted for misused and adapted for wrong ethical actswrong ethical acts

XX Might not be able to Might not be able to please everyone – there please everyone – there will always be an will always be an unhappy minorityunhappy minority

XX How do we know what How do we know what other people’s other people’s preferences arepreferences are

XX Whose preferences are Whose preferences are more important?more important?