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UtilitarianismJohn Stuart Mill
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Kinds of Moral Theory
Character Motive Action Effects
Aristotle Kant Rules Utilitarianism
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Bentham’s Arguments
• Common sense: common sense moral judgments agree with PU
• Arguments for other principles assume PU: “if people don’t follow this rule, bad things happen.”
• We can resolve conflicts; we must have a measure of value that allows us to do that
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Moral Calculus
• People• A• B• . .
.
• Z
• Total
• Pleasure Pain Difference• P(A) L(A) B(A)• P(B) L(B) B(B)• . . .• . . .• . . .• P(Z) L(Z) B(Z)
• P L B
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Calculating• Comparing effects
• pleasures vs. pains
• near and long-term pleasures and pains (discount rate)
• interpersonal comparisons
• ordinal to cardinal scale—intensities
• kinds of pleasures
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Calculating
0
Better
Worse
Option 1
Option 2
Option 3
Option 4
What should I do?
What must I do?
Supererogatory acts:
Can I go above and beyond the call of
duty?
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Too narrow?(False negative)
Toobroad?(False
positive)
Utilitarianism
You ought
to do it
It maximizes the balance of pleasure over
pain
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Carlyle’s Objection
Thomas Carlyle: “Pig philosophy!”
Utilitarianism: good = feeling good
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Mill’s 1830s responseThe goal is to maximize the good for mankind as a species
This has two implications:
I can best do that by promoting my own good; we are all best off when each tends his own
I have reason to develop my capacities, my talents, and my intellect; they produce benefits for mankind, not just for me
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Qualities of pleasures
Mill: pleasures differ in quality as well as quantity
“It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied.”
We are capable of better pleasures than pigs are
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Judging Quality
Which pleasures are higher?
See what the competent judges prefer
Who is competent to judge? Those with experience of both
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Intellectual Pleasures
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Social Pleasures
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Sensual Pleasures
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Complex Pleasures
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Aesthetic Pleasures
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Kinesthetic Pleasures
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Qualities of Pleasure
Intellectual
Social
Sensual
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Virtue
Even if higher pleasures were not more intrinsically valuable, utilitarianism would not be pig philosophy
Higher pleasures —> virtues —> benefits for others
Mill affirms his 1830s answers
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Bentham v. Mill
Bentham agrees that pleasures differ in quality: “In regard to well-being, quality as well as quantity requires to be taken into account.”
He has an entire chapter on kinds of pleasures
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Bentham v. Mill
But Bentham thinks you are the most competent judge of quality for you. To each his own. “Quantity depends upon general sensibility, sensibility to pleasure and pain in general; quality upon particular sensibility: upon a man's being more sensible to pleasure or pain from this or that source, than to ditto from this or that other.”
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Bentham on Liberty
I can know quality for me by reflection
But I can judge qualities for others only by what they say and do
So, each can judge best for him/herself: “every man is a better judge of what is conducive to his own well-being than any other man can be.”
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Mill on Liberty
Harm principle:
The only justification for restricting liberty is harm to others
Self-regarding actions: sphere of liberty
We ought to be free to do what we please so long as we don’t violate someone else’s rights
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Time
• Won’t we spend much of our lives calculating?
• How can we tell when we shouldn’t calculate? Do we have to calculate about that?
• How can we tell when we’ve calculated enough?
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Committees
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Mill on RulesPrinciple of utility justifies acts
It need not be a motivation or even a practical test
We apply it by “secondary principles,” common sense moral rules
We justify these rules by utility
We appeal to the principle of utility only when secondary principles conflict
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Practical Test
That means that the principle of utility plays two roles:
It justifies secondary principles, which serve as the practical test of morality
It resolves conflicts between them
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Exceptions
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Secondary PrinciplesW. D. Ross offers a list of principles:
Keep your promises
Correct your mistakes
Show gratitude for kindnesses
Promote justice
Help others
Improve yourself
Don’t harm others
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Prima Facie DutiesThese principles hold ceteris paribus (other things being equal)
They tell us what our prima facie duties are—what we should do if no other moral considerations intervene
What if others do intervene?
Mill: Calculate!
Ross: Which is more of a duty?
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Act v. Rule Utilitarianism• Act utilitarianism (Bentham): an act is right if it
maximizes good
Utility —> act
• Rule utilitarianism (Maimonides): an act is right if it accords with the rules that maximize good
Utility —> Rules —> Act
Disagree when a rule conflicts with utility
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Breaking RulesWhat if we can do better by breaking a (good) rule?
Don’t break it!
Rules essential to moral thought
We are tempted to break rules for our own advantage
We’ll usually go wrong
Moral chaos
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Interpreting Mill
Is Mill an act or rule-utilitarian?
His greatest happiness principle speaks of acts
But he stresses secondary principles
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Mill: Breaking RulesLetter to John Venn:
Advocates act utilitarianism
But agrees with Maimonides
If we break a rule, we’ll usually go wrong
So, better to obey the rule
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Mill: Acts and Rules
Act utilitarianism is right, but act as a rule utilitarian
Act utilitarianism is theoretically correct: it tells us what makes right acts right
But rule utilitarianism is a better practical test
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Tradeoffs
• Bentham argues for utilitarianism as a method for resolving conflicts and making tradeoffs
• But does it resolve conflicts in the right way?
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Conflicts
• Fort Sensible
• The Accidental Tourist
• The Gladiators
• The Healthy Patient
• The Trolley Problem
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Fort Sensible
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The Accidental Tourist
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The Gladiators
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The Healthy Patient
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The Trolley Problem
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The Trolley Problem
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The Trolley Problem
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The Trolley Problem
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The Trolley Problem
Tuesday, September 23, 2014