Useful Knowledge, Institutions and Diversity: Historical ... · Useful Knowledge, Institutions and...

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Useful Knowledge, Institutions and Diversity: Historical Lessons from China Ting XU School of Law Queen’s University, Belfast

Transcript of Useful Knowledge, Institutions and Diversity: Historical ... · Useful Knowledge, Institutions and...

Page 1: Useful Knowledge, Institutions and Diversity: Historical ... · Useful Knowledge, Institutions and Diversity: Historical Lessons from China • Ting XU • School of Law • Queen’s

Useful Knowledge, Institutions and Diversity: Historical Lessons from China 

• Ting XU • School of Law• Queen’s University, Belfast

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Declining Diversity and Declining Societies: China, the West, and the Future of the Global Economy

Erik Reinert, Tallinn University ofTechnology & Ting Xu, Queen’s

University, Belfast 

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The Fall of China and the Rise of the West (1600s) – what happened?

China: diversity lost, unified regime, standardised procedures, colonial expansion stopped, paying the Mongolians not to attack. Europe: diversity gained, science & invention explosion, balance of countervailing powers, the golden rule, competition in war and luxury. Question: Are Europe and China changing places again, reversing the developments above? Sanftes Monster Brussels = Chinese Emperor??

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At a crucial point in the history of human life, imperial China decided to scrap the technology of interoceanic shipping and navigation that, if pursued, might well have converted the central historical scheme of European westward expansion to an alternative tale of Oriental eastward exploration in the New World. Stephen Jay Gould (1941‐2002), Harvard biologist and historian of science. 

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From Divergence to Convergence?

• Useful and Reliable Knowledge in Global Histories of Material Progress in the East and the West 

• The Eurocentric portrait (e.g., Landes 1998) of the long‐term backwardness of ‘the East’

• Recent scholarship on global history (e.g., Pomenranz2000; Wong 1997; Rothenthal and Wong 2011)

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a balance between a cultural and a socio‐economic analysis

‘a world order need not be mainly economic. Its different registers, political, economic, social, intellectual and so on cannot be privileged a priori’.

• Adshead, S. A. M. 2004. Tang china: The Rise of the East in World History. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 14‐15, italics original.

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Major Dynasties

• Sui (581‐618AD)• Tang (618‐907AD)• Northern Song (960‐1127AD)• Southern Song (1127‐1279AD)• Yuan (Mongols) (1271‐1368AD)• Ming (1368‐1644AD)• Qing (1644‐1912AD)

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Useful Knowledge and China’s Development Path

• The shift in the locus of the generation and application of useful knowledge may be crucial to the reason and timing of the subsequent ‘great divergence’.

• A decline in the Ming dynasty (1368‐1644AD)?• China’s development and the generation and diffusion of useful knowledge 

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Useful knowledge and economic growth

• ‘…the technological capabilities of a society [is] based on the knowledge it possesses and the institutional rules by which its economy operates’ (Mokyr, 2004: 3).

• Technology is ‘epistemological in nature’, and technological change is ‘something that takes place inside a human mind and from there is mapped successfully onto an object, a substance or an action’ (Mokyr, 1990: 276; 2004: 14‐15). 

• Mokyr, 1990, The Lever of Riches• Mokyr, 2004, Gifts of Athena

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Useful knowledge: definition and criteria from the European perspective

• Useful knowledge is the knowledge that could promote economic growth. 

• ‘ “Useful knowledge” is knowledge that deals with natural phenomena that potentially lend themselves to manipulation, and includes artefacts, materials, energy, and living beings’ (Mokyr, 2004, Gifts of Athena: Historical Origins of the Knowledge Economy)

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Criteria for Useful Knowledge

• contestablethe knowledge is subject to adversarial practice, disputation, criticism and competition. 

• Accessiblethe public can get access to knowledge, and cost of access should be gradually reduced

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Criteria for Useful Knowledge (continued)

• transmissible individual efforts could be transformed into collaboration, and knowledge could be passed on from generation to generation and therefore a collective enterprise

• economically motivated with commercial incentives and the belief that such knowledge may enhance efficiency and economic profitsMokyr, 2009, The Enlightened Economy

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Useful knowledge in the Chinese context

• Most Chinese scientific discoveries and technological innovations were not ‘contestable’. a lack of diversity in the institutions that may facilitate disputation and competition

• less effective conduits through which scientific discoveries could be transformed into technological innovations

• Few scientific discoveries were economically motivated or applied to technological improvements.

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A hierarchy of useful knowledge

cultu

remorality

Knowledge for statecraft

Science and technology

institutions

Diversity diversity

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Location of useful knowledge

• universities• academies• networks of intellectuals• libraries• markets • the legal systems • the publishing industry and the trade of books etc.

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The Golden Age of Chinese Economy

• The Tang (618‐907AD) ‐ economically prosperous and politically strong ‐ the territory of China was extended and foreign trade expanded ‐ literature and arts attained high levels of sophistication‐During the reign of Xuanzong (r. 712‐756), China took centre‐stage in the world economy, ‘the rise of the East in World History’ (Adshead, 2004) 

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The Golden Age of Chinese Economy (continued)

• The Song (960‐1279AD) ‐economy experienced remarkable commercial, technological and urban growth, although it was not nearly as politically and militarily successful as the Tang. 

• Tang‐Song China has been widely perceived as a golden age for the Chinese economy (Hartwell, 1966 and 1967; Shiba, 1970; Elvin, 1973; Jones, 1988; McNeill, 1982). 

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Water-powered wheels for irrigation

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Block printing

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Movable-type printing

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Tang Pluralism

• imported and exported technologies (including physical techniques and social technologies)

• the mixing and transfer of cultures, ideas, people and skills

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The Tang central education system

Directorate of Education (guozi jian国子监) for classical learningSchools for Concrete Learning

School of Calligraphy (shuxue书学)School of Mathematics (suan xue算学)School of Law (lü xue律学)

Imperial Medical Office for professional studySix special medical schools including veterinary studies

Astronomical/Astrological Office for professional study Calendrical studiesAstrological studiesWater clock studies

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The Examination Systems

• Established under the Sui (581‐618) and early Tang• Promoted by the Empress Wu (r. 690‐705) • Multiple examination subjects appeared on the syllabus• Three‐level examinations under the Song

‐The prefectural examination, the departmental examination, the palace examination

• Government schools and curricula were gradually subordinated to the civil service examinations

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Intellectual networks and alternative centres of learning

• Intellectual networks• Religious networks • Private education • The education for women • Learning in mountains 

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The rise of neo-Confucianism

• Neo‐Confucianism: Lixue理学 (li 理 principles), or daoxue道学(dao道 the way)‐ Zhu Xi 朱熹(1130‐1200)‐ The introduction of the concept of li 理 (pattern‐principle)‐ The investigation of the ‘things’ (gewu格物) ‐ Shen Kuo (沈括 1031‐1095)Notes Taken in Mengxi梦溪笔谈

‐ One moral and natural spectrumNakayama (1973: 40) has argued, ‘moral issues and the law of nature remained undifferentiated; thus it played an inhibitory role in the development of the modern way of thinking’. 

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Schemes of Classifying Knowledge

• ‘In China there was no single structure of rational knowledge that incorporated all the sciences. Knowing was an activity in which the rational operations of the intellect were not sharply disconnected from what we would call intuition, imagination, illumination, ecstasy, aesthetic perception, ethical commitment, or sensuous experience. The various sciences, unlike those of Europe, were neither circumscribed by the philosophies of their time nor subordinated to theology (which did not exist in East Asia)…’ (Sivin, 1990: 169). 

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Ming‐Qing China

• The Chinese intellectual community‘Concise learning’ or ‘substantial learning’ (shixue实学)‐ origin: the Song, gezhi格致 the ‘investigation of things’ (gewu格物) and the ‘extension of knowledge’ (zhizhi致知)‐ The evidential scholarship (kaozheng xue考证学) in the 17th and 18thcenturies

• The interactions with the Jesuits‐ The Western learning (xixue西学) 

• A ‘demise’ in the transfer and diffusion of Western science 

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Socio‐Economic Transformations in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries

• The lower Yangtze Delta: the hub of commerce and intellectual life

• Urbanisation• Merging literati and merchant interests: salt merchants as 

patrons

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Rozman’s Urban Ratios for China from Tang to Later QingSource: Rozman 1973: 279, 280, 282, and 102; See also Maddison 2007: 39.

Dynasty Reference Year

Rozman’sUrban Ratio (% of total population)

Ratio of Cities with 10000 inhabitants or over

No. of Cities with 10000 inhabitants and above

Rozman’s population Total for China (million)

Mid Tang 762 4.7 3.0 50 100Mid Song 1120 5.2 3.1 91 120

Mid Ming 1506 6.5 3.8 112 130Early Qing 1650 6.8 4.0 136 150

Later Qing

c. 1820 5.9 3.8 310 400

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Changes in Education

• Poor quality of governmental schools and proliferation of private academies and literary societies

• Civil service examinations‐ Certain aspects of natural studies were included in the Ming syllabus including astrology, calendrics, and medicine‐ The ‘eight‐legged essays’ (bagu wen 八股文) emerged in early Ming times‐ Natural studies were banned from public discussion in the Kangxi reign (r. 1661‐1722) except historical geography. 

• Fierce competitions for official positions

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Establishment of Private Academies during the Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing DynastiesSource: Elman 2000, Table 1.6

Dynasty No. of Academies

Years Annual Index

N. Song 56 166 o.34S. Song 261 153 1.71Undated Song

108 -- --

Total: Song 425 319 1.33Yuan 320 88 3.64Ming 926 250 3.70Qing 4,365 267 16.35

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Jin-shi by Reign Period during the Song, Yuan, Ming Dynasties

Source: Elman 2000, Tables 1.3, 1.4, and 1.5.

Dynasty Years Duration in Years

No. of Exams

No. of Jin-shi

Jin-shi by year

Song 960-1279

319 118 39,711 124

Yuan 1280-1368

88 16 1, 136 13

Ming 1368-1644

276 89 24,594 89

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Institutional Support

• Urban centres in Lower Yangtze• The increase in private academies• Literary societies: e.g., the Fu She (复社 The Society of 

‘Returning to Antiquity’• The publishing industry • Patronage‐by merchants‐vertical patronage from Beijing (e.g., the completion of the imperially sponsored the Complete Collection of the Four Treasuries四库全书 in the 1780s)

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A Surprising Resemblance?

Concise learning in 18th century Lower Yangtze Delta

• Philology and Translation• Urbanisation• Financial support• Publications (shegao社稿)• Academies (shuyuan书院)• Literary societies (she社) 

The Scientific Revolution in Europe

• Philology and Translation• Great metroplis• Financial support• Journals • Academies• Coffee houses

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Missing Elements?

• Interactions between theoretical and practical knowledge?• Instrument‐making?• Experimentation? • Widening and Reordering of knowledge? • A revolution in the mode of thought? • The Nature of literary societies and private academies?

‐William Atwell, ‘From Education to Politics’‐ supplement to local official schools‐ literary societies: initial purpose was to bring the names and writing styles of the members to the attention of future examiners

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Thank you for your attention!

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