i

U.S.METROPOLITANBRIDGESTOPUERTORICANMUSICIDENTITY;CUBANANDPUERTORICANMUSICCONNECTIONSFROMTHE1920S-1970S

AMASTER'STHESISPROPOSAL

SUBMITTEDTOTHEGRADUATEFACULTY

LIBERTYUNIVERSITYBY

WilliamG.Johnson

INPARTIALFULFILLMENTOFTHEREQUIREMENTS

FORTHEDEGREEOF

MASTEROFARTSINETHNOMUSICOLOGY

September5,2017

Copyright2017byWilliamG.Johnson

ii

Acknowledgements

Itwouldbeanimpossibletaskformetoacknowledgeandthankeveryonewhomadethiseffortpossible.Iwouldberemisshowever,nottomentionafewpeoplewhohavehelpedmakethisprojectpossible.Thankyouto: Mygreatestsourceofinspirationthroughoutthisprocess.Myhealth,intellect,andpassionaregivenmeaningbymycreator,themakerofthemostheavenlymelodies.ThankyouJesus. Mywifeandchildrenfortheirsupport,understanding,patienceandlove.Youaremyheart.Thisprojectwouldnotexistifnotforyourinspirationandmotivationeachstepoftheway.Iloveyou. MomandDad,foryouryearsofsacrifice,andbeliefinmehavegivenmethefoundationnecessaryforthiswork.IprayIcontinuetomakeyouproud. Ralph,TyroneandElainethankyouforyoursupport,andalsoyourassistancewiththechildrenthroughtheyearsofthiswork.Iknowitwasalaboroflove. Michael,Trinaiandmythreewonderfulnephews:thankyouforyourlove,andsupport. Dr.Morehouseforyourpatienceandwisdom.Yourguidancehasbeeninvaluable.Thankyouforyourconsistentwillingnesstoassistthesuccessofthisproject.Dr.Rumrill,Dr.Mcdow,Dr.Meyer,Dr.Benham,andDr.NetoIamtrulyappreciativeofallyourwisdom,andthesenseof“presence”youhavegiventomethroughoutthisprocess. LuisConteforbeingoneofmygreatestmusicheroesandmentors.Iamtrulyappreciativeforthetimeyouhavetakenouttohelpmeinthisproject.ChemboCornielforyourfriendship,knowledge,andexperiencesyousharedwithme.LuisMiranda,JohnnyConga,DennisCalito,VictorVillafañe,CiprianGarciafortakingthetimetospeakwithmeandprovidingvaluableinsightscontributingtomyresearch.RaulRicoforconnectingmewithLuisMiranda,aswellasElenaMartinez,VictorVillafañe,andDr.PeterManuelfortakingthetimetospeakwithmeandoffervaluabledirectionforthisproject. Allofmyfriends,fellowstudents,andfamilymembersnearandfar.Whetheritwasashortprayer,orawordofencouragement,thankyou.TheCubanandPuertoRicanmusiciansontheislandsandthroughouttheUnitedStates.Youaremyfamily,friends,colleagues,andteachers.Withoutyouthisprojectwouldnotexist.Youareamongstmygreatestinspirations.Teamo.

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Abstract

“CubaandPuertoRicoareAstwowingsofthesamebird,Theyreceiveflowersand

bulletsIntothesameheart...”(LolaRodriguezdeTio,1868)

PuertoRicanpoetandpoliticalactivistLolaRodriguezdeTiopennedthesewords

afterbeinginspiredbythecallfortheindependenceofPuertoRico.Herwordswere

furthercanonizedinPuertoRicanculturalidentityafterbeingpublishedinthesong

LaBorinquenabycomposerRafaelHernandez.Hernandez’ssongwouldlater

becomeamusicalsymbolofnationalidentityfortheislandofPuertoRicoandthe

PuertoRicanDiaspora.TheconnectionbetweenthetwoislandsofPuertoRicoand

Cubaemergeasconstantthemesthroughoutcontemporaryculture.Theyareoften

manifestedastheevolutionofuniquePuertoRicancharacteristicsofmusicthatwas

importedfromCuba.Althoughbothislandshavesharedmusicalinfluenceswithone

anotherthroughdiversechannelsofdistribution,thisstudyfocusesontheimpact

USmetropolitanregionssuchasNewYorkhavehaduponthePuertoRican

adoptionofCubanmusic.

InordertounderstandthemusicalinfluenceofUSmainlanduponthePuerto

RicanDiasporaconcerningCubanmusicresearchwasconcentratedintosixmajor

overarchingthemes.Thesethemesdealwithchannelsofmusicdistribution(i.e.

radio,musicstores,promoters,etc.)venuesandassociations,nationalcultural

identity,historicalsignificance,migration,andsocio-economics.Thisresearch

primarilydealswiththeeraofthe20thcenturyprimarilybetweenthetimeframeof

the1920’stothe1970’s.

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Byexploringthesethemesthisstudylargelydealswiththeexistenceoftheunique

musicalrelationshipCubaandPuertoRicoshareincontrastwithotherLatin

Americannationsandterritories.Thereisadefinitedistinctionbetweenthetwo

musicalworlds,howeverthroughyearsofmigrationandmusicalgenreevolutions,

theboundariesbetweenthemareattimesblurred,atleastonasuperficiallevel.

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Contents

Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………….……iiAbstract……………………………………………………………………………………………………..iiiChapter1.Introduction……………………………………………………………………………...1 StatementoftheProblem…...…………………………………………………………....1

NeedforStudy…………………………………………………………………………………1

ResearchQuestions………………………………………………………………………….3

GlossaryofTerms.……………………………………………………………………………4

LimitationsofStudy…………………………………………………………………………7

Assumptions……………………………………………………………………………………8

Chapter2.LiteratureReview………………………………………………………………………8Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………8BeginningEvolutions…………………………………………………………………….10PopularDanceScenes……………………………………………………………………11 PuertoRicanandCubanCulturalIdentitiesandDiaspora………………..13AfricanDiasporaContribution……………………………………………………….17Instrumentation………………………………………………………………………...….17Migration……………………………………………………………………………………...19PoliticalInfluences………………………………………………………………………..24Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………....25Chapter3.Methodology…………………………………………………………………………...26DescriptionsofResearchTools……………………………………………………....27ParticipantsinStudy……………………………………………………………………...29

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Chapter4.ResearchFindings……………………………………………………………………..29Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………29

Migration,Immigration,&Travels.…………………………………………………..32

Politics&Socio-Economics……………………………………………………………...34

ChannelsofDistribution………………………………………………………………….38

CubanDanzon&SoninPuertoRico…………………………………………….......39

RecordCompanies&TechnologicalAdvancements.....................................42

Venues&MusicAssociations………………………………………………………….47

StickBall;UrbanCommunityConnectionstotheMusic………………..…64

CulturalIdentity………………………………………………………………………...…..65

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………................69

References……………………………………………………………………………………................76

Appendices………………………………………………………………………………………………81

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CHAPTER1

INTRODUCTION

StatementoftheProblem

MuchhasbeenwrittenaboutthedevelopmentofCubanandPuertoRican

musicbothontherespectiveislandsandthroughouttheUnitedStates.Publications

andgroundbreakingresearchhavebeenpublishedbyethnomusicologistsfrompast

topresent.Subjectsrangingfromtherootsofsalsa,timba,andguarachatotheson

anddanzonhavebeencoveredatlength.Whilenoshortageofinformationseemsto

existonthetopic,especiallyontheeraofthemambocrazethatusheredin

householdnamessuchasTitoPuenteandCeliaCruz,Ihaveobservedalackof

writingdedicatedtotherelationshipbetweentheCubanandPuertoRicandiaspora.

Whatinformationthathasbeenpublishedonthetopicoftherelationshipisusually

peripheralatbestortoldthroughspecificrelatedhistoriographiessuchasthe

musicalgenreofsalsa.

NeedfortheStudy Interestinthisrelationaltopiccameprimarilyoutofcuriositybornofa

personaldesiretobemoreacquaintedwithmyownmusicalidentityasaPuerto

Ricanmusician.TheimpactofPuertoRicanacculturationandappropriationof

Cubanmusicwasnotuncharteredterritoryforme;however,Iarrivedatapointin

mypersonalstudiesasamusicianwhereIbegantoinquireabouttheroots(orat

leastearlydevelopments)oftherelationshipbetweenthesetwoethnicmusical

styles.Oneofmygoalsforthisprojectistoultimatelybeusedasaresourceto

explainhowmigrationanddiversitywithinapopulationmayimpactcultural

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traditions.Whilethisstudyfocusesontheimpactoftwospecificmusicculturesand

traditions,itmayalsobeusedasatooltoobservehowmigrationcanimpactand

influencethelargerdiaspora.ManyofthepopularPuertoRicanbasedgenre

recordingsthatbecamesuccessfulhitsontheislandwereactuallyrecordedonthe

UnitedStatesmainlandinlargemetropolitancitiessuchasNewYorkandMiami.

Thisprojectwillpotentiallyserveasacasestudyonhowtheevolutionand

exchangeofmusicalideasduetomigrationcaninfluencetraditionsintheregionof

originfromadiasporaofpeople.Consequently,duetothewiderangeof

informationandactivitythatresultsfromsuchalarge-scalemigration(and

movementsduetoconstanttravel),writingonthedevelopmentsofmusicianscan

takeaninfinitenumberofdirections.Myprimaryfocusisontheinfluenceoflarge

metropolitancities,andhowlarge-scalemigrationtometropolitancitieswithinthe

UnitedStateswasthemajorfactorinshapingthecurrentPuertoRicanacculturation

ofCubanmusic.

Myinterestswerebornfromadesiretodiscovertheoriginsofthe

cultivationoftraditionalCubanmusicalartformsontheislandofPuertoRico.I

soonrealizedhoweverthattheanswerswereconnectedtoanoverwhelmingly

numberofcomplexlayers.Theseareissuesnotlimitedtogeneralitiesinsocio-

economics,nationalidentity,governmentalpolitics,education,andmigration.No

onecertainperspectiveappliestoanycategory,andcertainlybothimaginedand

realrelationships/assumptionsexistbetweentheDiasporasmusicculturesof

PuertoRicoandCuba.

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ResearchQuestions

Amongstmyresearchquestionswastherealityofauniquerelationship

betweenCubanmusicanditscultivationbyPuertoRicanmusicians.Concerningthis

relationshipIwasoftenremindedofthefamouspoeticlinebyLolaRodriguezdeTio

saying“CubayPuertoRicosondeunpájarolasdosalas…,”whichtranslatesto

“CubaandPuertoRicoaretwowingsofthesamebird…”(Rodriguez,1967).With

twenty-oneSpanish-speakingnations,whyarethemusiciansofthesetwodiasporas

mentionedsoofteninthesamesentencesandbreathwithpopularCubanmusic

genres?WhywasCubanmusic(specificallyAfro-Cubangenressuchasrumba)so

pervasivethroughouttheislandofPuertoRico?HowdidPuertoRicobecomeoneof

thepremierelocationsoutsideofCubatostudyAfro-Cubanmusicstyles?Howmuch

ofthisrelationshipisimaginedandhowdovariousgroupsthroughoutthePuerto

RicanandCubanDiasporaperceiveit?WasthecultivationofCubanmusicinPuerto

RicoatahigherconcentratedlevelthanotherCaribbeanislandsandSpanish

speakingnationsorwasthisaperceptionfedbycommercializationandmarketing?

Iassumeditwouldbeeasyformetojustrelegatetheanswerstothesequestionsto

thepopularityandsuccessofcelebratedPuertoRicanmusiciansduringthe1950s,

1960s,andthe1970s(withtheriseofSalsaandthefoundingoftheFaniarecord

label).IrealizedhoweverthatthelayersweremorecomplexandthatIwould

benefitinresearchingtherootsbeyondthesuccessofsalsainthe1970sandthe

mambocrazeofthe1950s.

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GlossaryofTermsAfro-Cuban-CubanofAfricandescent.Thistermcanalsobeusedtodescribea

formorgenreofmusic,art,etc.Afro-PuertoRican-PuertoRicanperson,art,ormusicofAfricandescent.

Barrio:Aneighborhood,district,city,ortownwherealargemajorityofoccupantsspeakSpanish.AbarriocanalsorefertoacommunitywhereLatinoculture,languageandorpovertyisprevalent.

Bolero-TheBoleroisagenreofslow-tempoLatinmusicanditsassociateddance.

BothSpanishandCubanformsaresignificantandhaveseparateorigins.Thebolerohasbeenpopularforoveracentury.

Bomba-TheBombaisoneofthetraditionalmusicalstylesofPuertoRicansof

Africandescent.Bombacanbeusedasthegenericnameforanumberofrhythms;itsrealmeaningisabouttheencounterandcreativerelationshipbetweendancers,percussionists,andsingers.BombaisacommunalactivitythatstillthrivesinitstraditionalcentersofLoíza,Santurce,Mayagüez,Ponce,andNewYorkCity.

Borinquen-OriginalnameoftheislandofPuertoRicogivenbythenativeTaino

people.CongaDrum-AconicalshapeddrumofAfricanorigin,usuallymadeofwoodstaves

andironhoops.Originallyitwastunedbyfire.Today,itistunedbyadjustingmetallugkeys.Traditionallythecongaisthenameofthesecondlargestdruminasetofthree.Thetermcongadrumisacontemporarytermfordescribingallsizesofdrumssimilartotheshapeanddesignofthetumbadoras.Seetumbadoradefinition.

Cuatro-ThenamereferstothenationalinstrumentofPuertoRico.Todaythis

instrumenthastenstringsarrangedinfivepairsandistunedtothesameintervalsasthefancySpanishLute.OvertimePuertoRicanartisanschangeditstraditionalkeyholeshapeintoonereminiscentofaviolin,asymbolofupper-classsophistication.InthisnewconfigurationtheinstrumentwasheardacrosstheIsland(Cumpiano2011).ThecuatrobelongstothepluckedchordophonefamilyintheHornbostel-Sachsclassificationsystem.

Danza-DanzaoriginatedinPonce,acityinsouthernPuertoRico.Itisapopular

turn-of-the-twentieth-centuryballroomdancegenresomewhatsimilartothewaltz.ItisamixtureofclassicalmusiccadenzasandmarchesincorporatingtheAfricanclave.ThemusicandthedanceiscreolizedbecausecomposerswereconsciouslytryingtointegrateAfricanandEuropeanideasandbecause

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manyofthepeoplethemselveswerecreoles,thatis,bornintheCaribbean,acceptingtheislandsastheirtrueandonlyhomeland.

Danzon-AdancegenrederivedfromtheCubanCreoletradition.Itwasparticularly

popularinthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcenturyDecima-Decimareferstoaten-linestanzaofpoetry.Thesongformgenerally

consistsofforty-fourlines,anintroductoryfour-versestanzafollowedbyfourten-linestanzas.Thedecimalyricalcontentreferstoawiderangeofsubjectmattersuchasreligious,lyrical,andpoliticalthemes.Somedecimasarealsointhehumorousvein,makingfunofarival’sweaknessorevenafunnystoryaboutafoolishact.

Guaracha-TheguarachaisagenreofCubanpopularmusicthatemploysrapid

tempoandlyrics.Guarachaswereplayedandsunginmusicaltheatresandinlow-classdancesalons.DuringthelaternineteenthandtheearlytwentiethcenturytheguarachawasafavoritemusicalforminthebrothelsofHavana.Theguarachasurvivestodayintherepertoiresofsometrovamusicians,conjuntos,andCuban-stylebigbands.

Guiro-AninstrumentwidelyusedinCubanpopularmusicthatprobablyoriginated

withtheBantupeople,althoughCubanaboriginesmayalsohaveusedit.Ithasalsobeencalledcalabazoorguayo.Itisapercussiveidiophonemadefromthecylindricalfruitoftheguiro(gourd),between30and50centimeterslong,andabout10centimetersindiameter,withacurvedpeduncle.(Orovio2004,104)

Jibaro-JíbaroisatermcommonlyusedinPuertoRicotorefertomountain-dwelling

peasants,butinmoderntimesithasgainedabroaderandspecificallyanoblerculturalmeaning.Sinceatleastthe1920sthetermjíbarohasamorepositiveconnotationinPuertoRicanculture,proudlyassociatedwiththepioneersofPuertoRico;however,thetermoccasionallyalsohasanegativeconnotation.Despitethisnegativeaffiliation,theimageofthejíbarorepresentsanideologyofahardworking,simple,independent,andprudentlywisePuertoRican.ThejíbaroservesasarepresentationoftherootsofthemoderndayPuertoRicanpeoplesymbolizingthestrengthoftraditionalvalueslikelivingsimplyandproperlyandcaringforhomelandandfamily.

Mambo-Dancemusicgenrewithabrasssectionthatachievesextraordinaryeffects

withthemelody,theharmony,andtherhythm,whiletheCubanpercussion providesacharacteristicunderlyingrhythmandstrongjazzinfluences.

Merengue-MusicgenrethatoriginatedfromtheDominicanRepublic

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Plena-Knownasel“periodicocantao”or"thesungnewspaper,"theplenacomesfromthelowerclassesofthebarrioinPuertoRico.ItoriginatedinPoncearound1900.TheplenawasfirstheardintheBarriadadelaTorreneighborhood,whosepopulationconsistedmostlyofimmigrantsfromSt.Kitts,Tortola,andSt.Thomaswhosettledontheislandbeginninginthelate1800s.ThetraditionalcenterofplenawasprobablySanAntón,abarrioofPonce,althoughtheblackneighborhoodofLoízaisalsomentionedastheheartlandforthegenre.Itspopularitypeakedinthe1920s.

Rumba-RumbaisusedasshorthandforAfro-Cubanrumba,agroupofdances

relatedtotherumbagenreofAfro-Cubanmusic.ThemostcommonAfro-Cubanrumbaistheguaguancó.TheotherAfro-CubanrumbasareYambuandColombia.

Sextetos-Atypeofmusicgroupbornoutofthe1920sinHavanaCubaspecializing

inthegenreofSon.Asextetocomprisesoftheguitar,tres,doublebassormarimbula,maracasandclaves.Duringtheendofthedecadetrumpetwasadded.Thisresultedintheformergroupingbecomingknownasthesepteto.

Son-SoncubanoisastyleofmusicanddancethatoriginatedinCubaandgained

worldwidepopularityinthe1930s.Itisaduple-meterformthatemphasizespercussioninstrumentssuchasthemarimbula,thetres,(amodifiedguitarwiththreedoubleortriplestrings)orguitar,theclaveorpalitos(sticks),andtheguiro.(Glasser,23)ThestructureandelementsofsoncombineSpanishguitarwithAfricanrhythmsandpercussioninstruments.TheCubansonisoneofthemostinfluentialandwidespreadformsofLatinAmericanmusic,wasmademostpopularinsalsa,andhasspreadacrosstheworld.

Tres-Cubanstringedinstrumentwiththreesetsofdoublestringstunedinunison-

twoinahighoctave,theotheroneoctavelower,inDminor.Timba-PopularmusicgenreassociatedwithcontemporaryCubandance

originatinginthe1980sandutilizingacombinationofjazz,funk,rap,spokenword,synthesizersounds,andvariationsoftraditionalpercussionpatterns.

Timbales-Timbalesorpailasareshallowsingle-headeddrumswithmetalcasing.

Theyareshallowerthansingle-headedtom-tomsandareusuallytunedmuchhigher.Theplayer,calledatimbalero,usesavarietyofstickstrokes,rimshots,androllstoproduceawiderangeofpercussiveexpressionduringsolos.Theshellsofthetimbalarecalledcascara(shell),anditisalsothenameofarhythmicpatterncommoninsalsamusicplayedontheshellsofthetimbales.

Trovador-TheTrovadorisasingeroftraditionalPuertoRicanjibaromusic.The

trovadorismainlyknownforhis/herabilitytoimproviseintheformofthe

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décima.TheoriginofthetrovadorcomesfromthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturylyricpoetsinSouthernFrance,NorthernItaly,andSpain.Thissingerisalsoknownasastrollingminstrel.

Tumbadoras-Traditionalnameforcongadrums.

LimitationsoftheStudy

Themajorityoftheinterviews,andresearchfocusedonNewYork,New

JerseyandChicagoandLosAngeles.Severalothermetropolitanregions

throughouttheUnitedStatesalsoplayedlargeroles;however,NewYork

contributedthelargestimpactupontheresearch.Thedifficultyoftracingmusic

developmentsrelatedtothestudyoversuchabroadphysicallandscapecreated

anotherchallengeandlimitationtothestudy.Schedulebarrierswithparticipants

duetotimeconstraintscomplicatedthestudy.Thesheervolumeofworkpublished

relatedtothetopicincombinationwithschedulelimitationshowever,existedas

bothabarrierandanopportunity.Duetotheassistanceofmoderntechnologythe

accesstoresourcessuchasonlinepublishedinterviews,documentariesaswellas

networkingwithpotentialintervieweesviasocialmediaprovedtobeapreeminent

strategy.Withthevolumeofinformationalreadypublishedandconverselythe

pointofperspectivethatiscentraltothestudysooftenbeingaperipheralone,an

archivalapproachcombinedwithscheduledinterviewswasconducted.Thiswas

doneinefforttohighlighttheaforementionedperipheryissuesandtherefore

movingthemintofocus.Inthiscaseabalancedperspectivewaskey,howeverwith

manyofthenotableparticipants/musiciansalreadyhavingpublishedinterviews

thereseemednoneedtoreinventthewheel;especiallybeforeexhaustingthe

availableinformation.

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Assumptions

Startingout,myresearchwasbuiltonanassumptionthatthereisaunique

relationshipbetweentheislandsofPuertoRicoandCubaasopposedtootherLatin

Americannationsandterritoriesbaseduponsharedhistoryhencedirectly

impactingthemusic.Iexploredthenotionthatinsomecontexttherelationshipmay

beimaginedorbuiltuponvariousbiases.Therelationshipmayhavedramatically

changedovertheyearstoeitherbecemented,moreambiguous,orlayeredwith

expandingcomplexity.SinceIamathirdgenerationPuertoRicanlivingwithinthe

mainlandUS,IassumedIwouldbeacceptedandperceivedasbothanoutsiderand

insider.Manyoftheparticipantsweremusicalcolleaguesandmentorsofmineas

wellasthosewhoseworkhasinfluencedmyownovertheyears.

CHAPTER2

LITERATUREREVIEW Introduction

BothCubaandPuertoRicohaveadiverseblendoftraditionalmusicallegacies

comingfromtheAfricanslaves,Spanishcolonialists,andindigenouspopulation

suchastheTaino.ThefoundationsofPuertoRico’smusicdatesbackcenturies;

however,tokeeppointsspecificandconcisetosupporttherelativityoftheresearch,

IelectedtofocusprimarilyontheCubanandNewYorkinfluencesupontheisland

combinedwiththefolkloricruralmountainandcoastalregionsofPuertoRico

duringthetwentiethcentury.

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TheevolutionofmusicontheislandofPuertoRicohasbeendynamicforan

extendedtime.FromtheinteractionandtravelsoftheindigenousTainopeople,the

introductionoftheSpanishcolonists,andtheimportationoftheAfricanslaves,

PuertoRicohasbeenfertilesoilforit’sownuniquemusicalproduction(intermsof

thetraditionalmusicexclusivetotheisland)andhasmadeitsmarkonimported

stylesfromneighboringislands.Whenitcomestogenresofmusicsuchasthose

fromtheneighboringislandofCuba,PuertoRicohasbeenacontinualexampleof

acculturation(regardingmuchofthepopularizedmusicoftheisland).While

acculturationisstronglypresentinPuertoRico,afraternalexchangeofmusical

schoolsofthoughtbranchesfromsimilarorigins.

SeveralpublicationsIreviewedforresearchresourcesprovidedetailed

informationonvarioustraditionalmusicstylesofbothPuertoRicoandCuba.The

breadthofpublishedresearchmaterialprovidesanalysisonconnectionstovarious

musicaldistinctionsbetweentheislands,migrationtoandfromtheU.S.urbancities,

socio-economicissues,politics,communityculturaldynamicsawayfromtheislands,

musicvenues,musicassociations,andhistoricalsignificanceofthepopularmusic

stylessuchastheson,rumba,mamboandsalsa.Alsoincludedwereworksonthe

influencesoftheAfricanandEuropeanDiasporainPuertoRicoandCuba.Although

Africanslavescontributedheavilytothelocalmusicexistingonbothislands,having

theknowledgeoftheirrespectiveoriginsoffersadeeperexplanationonthe

differences(andsimilarities)withinAfricanbasedfolkloricmusicsuchastherumba

ofCubaorthebombaofPuertoRico.ThroughouttheprocessIalsoconsultedHelio

Orovio’sbookCubanMusicFromAtoZ.HelioOrovio’sworkisanencyclopedic

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referenceonpopularmusicians,composers,scholars,traditionalinstruments,and

iconichitsongsofCubanorigins.

TheevolutionofCubaandPuertoRico’smusicandhistoryiscomplexwith

numerouseddiesandcurrentsmuchlikeahealthybodyofwaterpouringintoa

changinglandscape.Itisbothanancientyetmodernlivingstorythatisstillbeing

written.Forhundredsofyears,exchangesofmusicalideas,religion,etc.traveled

backandforthbetweentheislandsthroughNatives,SpanishandFrenchcolonists,

andAfricanslavesfromdifferentethnicgroups.Thisinteractioniscrucialto

understandinghowtheislandofPuertoRico(amongstotherislandsandLatin

nations)wasreadilyabletoadoptandidentifywithsomanyoutsidemusicalstyles.

BeginningEvolutions

Beginninginthe1930s,CubanmusicianstraveledbackandforthtoPuerto

Rico,andpopularhitswereplayedontheairwaves.Inordertograspthe

contemporaryevolutionofthismusic,theearlyhistorymustbestudied.

BiographicalsketchesandChroniclessuchasMaxSalazar’sMamboKingdom:Latin

MusicinNewYorkhelpconnectthefusionofthemusicaltraditionsofislandssuch

asPuertoRicoandCubawiththeperspectiveofvariousmusicians’history,which

culminateinNewYorkCity.Alargeportionofthebook’sviewpointisfromboththe

populardancescenethathelpedtobringtheseworldstogetherinNewYorkaswell

asbroadcastradio.WithinSalazar’sworkarebiographicalaccountsofoverforty

importantPuertoRicanandCubanartistswhowereinfluentialinNewYorkCity.

ThemajorityoftheseartistseithermigratedfromPuertoRicoorCuba.Salazar’s

worklaysoutadetailedmapthatisbeneficialinresearchingconnectionsinthe

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evolutionanddevelopmentofthecontextualLatinmusicdevelopmentinNewYork

City.ThebiographicalworksandinterviewswithinSalazar’sbookhelpgivemore

backgroundtothedanceperspectivetiedtotheevolutionofthemusicinthecity.

Thetraditiontheseinfluentialmusiciansperformedwasoftenmarriedtodance.

Thisisanimportantconnectiontounderstandingthemusicmorecloselyand

exploringrelationshipsandconnectionsbetweenthedifferentcommunitiesinthe

metropolitanareasoftheUnitedStates(Salazar2002).

PopularDanceScene SydneyHutchinson’sarticle,“Mamboon2:TheBirthofaNewFormofDance

inNewYorkCity,”foundintheCentroJournalshowsthelargerpictureofthis

uniquerelationship(Hutchinson2004,109-37).JustasinSalazar’swork,havingthe

artist’sbiographicalinformationorthe“behindthescenes”knowledgehelpsto

explaintheevolutionandfusionhappeninginNewYork.JimPayne’sTitoPuente;

KingofLatinMusicpresentsanindepthwithahistoricalchartofpopularCuban

music.Payne’schartfollowsthepathoftraditionalandpopularstylesfromthe

originofCubauptothe1990s.Thenon-profittelevisionnetworkPBSoffersa

comprehensivetimelineofCubanmusichistoryontheirwebsitewww.pbs.org.

IsabelleLeymariebookCubanFire;TheStoryofSalsaandLatinJazz,

chroniclesandexploresthe“goldenyears”ofCubandancemusictotheevolutionof

LatinJazzintheUnitedStates.Herpublicationfocusesontheunderpinningsand

evolutionofpopularCubanmusicwhilealsodedicatinglargeportionsofthebookto

PuertoRicaninfluences.RelationshipsbetweenCubanandPuertoRicanmusicians

inNewYorkareregularlyincludedwithchaptersalsofocusingonPuertoRican

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musicinfluencesonpopularCubanmusic.Fiveofthechaptersincludeeitherthe

titleTheUnitedStatesandPuertoRico(Thistitleappearsseveraltimeswithvarying

sub-chapters,tyingthePuertoRicaninfluenceintoeachera)orsomeotherheading

withspecificPuertoRicaninfluence.ChapterthreeincludessubchaptersThe

AwakeningoftheBarrio,andMusicinPuertoRico.InChapterfiveDanceBandsin

PuertoRico,Leymariewritesabouttheinfluencethemambocrazedevelopingin

NewYorkandothercitieshadinPuertoRico.Leymarie’schoiceofintentionally

includingPuertoRicointhedevelopmentofpopularLatindancemusicintheUnited

Statesandabroadisreflectedinherintroduction.Shewrites“Thisbooktellsthe

storyofCubanmusicinitshomelandandintheUnitedStates,butitalsoincludes

PuertoRico–Cuba’smusicalsister–andtheDominicancurrentlymergingwith

salsaandLatinjazz.”(Leymarie2002,3)AnotherimportantperspectiveLeymarie

givesinherbookisthatofregionsintheU.S.outsideofNewYorkCity.Sheincludes

theinfluentialdancesceneontheWestCoast.WhiletheWestCoastdancescene

maynothavecarriedthesamecommercialsuccess,manypopularartistsofCuban

musicartformssuchasCalTjadermadelargeimpactsuponthedevelopmentofthe

music.

FromMambotoHipHopcentersonthestoryoftheSouthBronx’sinfluence

onthemusicscenesofmambo,salsa,andhip-hopfromtheLatingoldeneraofthe

1950stotheDJandhip-hopmovementofthe80s.Thisdocumentarygivesinsightto

theperspectivesofthemusicians,anddancersoftheera.Thedocumentaryis

producedbySteveZeitlinandElenaMartinezandincludesinterviews,and

performancevideoclip.Thedocumentaryiskeytotheurbanroleofinfluencingthe

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music.Thesecontributionsoftheurbanenvironmentincludepolitics,socio-

economics,violence,culturalcommunityactivitiessuchasstickball,etc.This

coincideswiththe“senseofplace”ElenaMartinezwritesaboutinherarticlewith

Robertal.SingertitledASouthBronxTale.(Singer,Martinez2004)Inthisarticle

bothSingerandMartinezdetailtheimportanceofhowphysicallocationinforms

andinfluencesthemusic.WithPuertoRicanandCubanmigrationconstantly

flowinginandoutofU.S.urbanenvironments,researchsuchasMartinezand

Singer’sareinstrumentaltounderstandingthehowandwhyoftheir(U.S.cities)

roleinthePuertoRicanidentificationwithvariousCubanmusicforms.

FromtheAfricanslavesintheFrenchcoloniesofHaiti,totheislandofCuba,

andtheplethoraofideascomingfromNewYorkafteryearsofmusicalexchange,

PuertoRico’smusicalfoundationsisbothadeepwellandactivespring.Otherthan

theisland’sownfolkloricmusic,PuertoRicohasoftenstampedit’sstyleonadopted

musicaltraditionswhichaftermanyyearsareconsideredit’sown.Forexample,

stylessuchasthebolero,son,sonmontuno,guaracha,guajira,rumba,etc.,which

camefromCuba,havebeensuccessfullyadoptedandindigenizedbymanyfamous

PuertoRicancomposersleadingtointernationalsuccessovertheyears.

PuertoRicanandCubanCulturalIdentitiesandDiaspora

Thisexchangeeventuallyled,inpart,tothemixingofPuertoRicanstyles

suchasbomba,plena,danza,decima,seisAguinaldoandothergenresfromvarious

partsofLatinAmericaintothepopularcontemporary“Salsa”createdbymusicians

intheNewYorkscene.PuertoRicanComposerssuchasRafaelHernandeztraveled

14

backandforthtoCuba,Mexico,theDominicanRepublic,andNewYorkCityadding

theirownflairand“tipico”PuertoRicanfolklorictraditiontothemusic.

WithRobinMoore’s“Música:SpanishCaribbeanMusicinNewYorkCity”

(Moore2009,241-44),RuthGlasser’s.MyMusicisMyFlag:PuertoRicanMusicians

andtheirNewYorkCommunities,1917-1940(Glasser1995),andNedSublette’sCuba

andItsMusic:fromtheFirstDrumstotheMambo(Sublette2004),acomparisoncan

bemadeamongCubaandPuertoRico’sfolkmusictraditions.Instrumentationalso

servesasabridgebetweenthecultures.EvenbeforePuertoRicansinNewYork

wereexposedtothecongadrummanyalreadyhadexperiencewiththeAfro-Puerto

Ricanbombadrums,whichwerealsoconicalinshapeanddependingonthe

particularstylecarriedpotentiallysimilarrhythmicstructuresandtone.

DonaldThompsongivesarareperspectiveonmusichistoryand

developmentinPuertoRicowithinhisbookMusicinPuertoRico.Whilethesubject

offolkandtraditionalmusichistoryandevolutionofthemusichasbeenwritten

aboutontheisland,thevastmajorityofdetailedresourcestobeusedforscholarly

workareprimarilyinSpanish.Thompson’sbookincludesperspectivesof

contemporarymusicplayedinPuertoRicobyinfluentialcomposerssuchasTite

Curet.MusicinPuertoRicoisahelpfulresourceofperspectivesanddevelopmentsof

musicalidentityontheisland.

JuanFloresexplorestheculturalexpressionofthePuertoRicanDiasporaand

ontheisland.Floresweavesvarioussocialandeconomicissuesthatinfluence

culturalidentityandinturndirectthemusicamongstdifferenterasofthetwentieth

century.ChaptersevenPan-Latino/Trans-Latino;PuertoRicansin“NewNuevaYork”

15

describeachangingethniclandscapeofNewYorkCityduringthewideranging

periods1940s-1980s.InthischapterFloresspecificallyaddressessocio-economic

andpoliticalsituationsthatcontributedtotheeconomicvitality,andinmanycases

lackthereofthePuertoRicancommunityinthemajorcitiesoftheUnitedStates.

AnotherJuanFlorespublicationPuertoRicanArrivalinNewYork;Narratives

oftheMigration,1920-1950givesfirsthandaccountsofPuertoRicansmigrating

fromPuertoRicotoNewYorkCitythroughaseriesofinterviewsgivenina

narrativeform.ThenarrativesincludedinFlore’spublicationare,asinhisown

words,“unfortunately,andsignificantly…writtenbymen”(Flores1997,7)“The

migrationstoryastoldandexperiencedthroughtheeyesofPuertoRicanWomenin

theearlydecades”,exclaimsFlores,“canonlybederivedfromdirectoraltestimony,

andfromthecountlesspersonalwritings,letters,poems,diaries,scrapbooks-that

nevermadeitintoprint.(Flores1997,9)

SilvioH.Alava’sSpanishHarlem’sMusicalLegacy1930-1980ispartofan

ImagesinAmericabookseriesthatchroniclesahistoricaleraandregionthrougha

collectionofimagesandoftendetailedcaptionsoftheirsignificance.WhileAlava’s

narrativeisafocusonNewYork’sSpanishHarlem,itisdonesobytributingits

legacyhencemanyoftheimagesareofperformancesthroughouttheUnitedStates.

Thisgivesinsighttotheweightofurbanareasculturalmusiccontribution,

transcendinglocalmetropolitanborders.

ChristinaD.Abreu’sRythmsofRace;CubanMusiciansandtheMakingof

LatinoNewYorkCityandMiami,1940-1960addressestheethnicdiversityamongst

CubanmusicianslivinginNewYorkCityandMiamipriortothe1959Cuban

16

revolution.ThroughoutRyhthmsofRace,Abreucoversdynamicsofrelationships

betweenCubanandPuertoRicanmusicianslivinginNewYorkCity.Usingconcert

posters,advertisements,journalismclips,andinterviewsAbreucraftsaunique

perspectiveofhowCubanandPuertoRicanmusiciansnavigatedurban

environmentstogether.ShedoesthisbynotonlyfocusingonNewYorkbutalso

offeringperspectivesfromregionssuchasMiamiaswell.

PeterManuel’sarticlePuertoRicanMusicandCulturalIdentity:Creative

AppropriationofCubanSourcesfromDanzatoSalsaisacriticalsourceoffering

directlyrelatedmaterialtotheresearchproject.Manuel’swork“[explores]the

processbywhichPuertoRicanshaveappropriatedandresignifiedCubanmusical

formsassymbolsoftheirownculturalidentity.”(Manuel1994,250)Thearticle

detailstheprocessofhowtheprocessofthemusicalappropriationofCubanmusic

byPuertoRicansasresultedintheknowledgeofwhichCubanmusicaloriginsonce

crucialinPuertoRicanculture,hasbecomeoflittleconsequenceorrelevanceto

PuertoRicansandNuyoricans.(Manuel1994,250)WhileManuel’sarticleexplores

theprocessofPuertoRicanappropriationandacculturationofCubanmusicand

expoundsuponthedebateofPuertoRicannationalmusicidentity(orthe

rearticulationofsuch)myresearchpivotsprimarilyonspecificoverarchingthemes

suchaspolitics,socio-economics,culturalidentity,migrationstatisticsandpatterns

dependentuponU.S.urbanizationimpactingthemusicalrelationshipofthetwo

diaspora.Manuel’sworkexploresthecreativeprocessofappropriationand“socio-

musicalrearticulation,whichcanbeseenasafeatureofPuertoRicanculturein

general-aculturewhichhasconsistentlybeenconditionedbyacomplex,

17

overlapping,andoften-contradictorysetofmultipleidentities.”(Manuel1994,250)

WhilethecentralfocusofmyresearchdealswithU.S.metropolitanbridges

connectingCubanandPuertoRicanmusiciansduringthe1920sandthe1970s,

Manuel’sarticleprovidesspecificdiscussiononvariousmusictheory/foundational

principlesofthecreativeappropriationprocessPuertoRicansusedintheevolution

ofmusicsuchassalsaduringthe1960sand1970s.

AfricanDiasporaContributions

BancoPopular’sRaíces(Paloma2001),amusicalandhistoricaldocumentary

onPuertoRicanbombaandplenagenres,providesarichamountofinformationon

thefamilies,pioneers,andculturalcuratorsofthemusic.Thefilmdocuments

famousfamiliessuchastheCepedasofPuertoRicowhopreservethemusicof

bomba.PublicationssuchasAlejoCarpenter’sMusicinCuba(Carpenter2001),

NolanWarden’s“HistoryoftheCongaDrum”(Warden2005,8-15),andSublette’s

CubaandItsMusic:FromtheFirstDrumstotheMambo(Sublette2004)describethe

originsoftheslaves’andtheirdescendents’musicsuchastheabakua,bembe,

rumba,etc.

InstrumentationandBandAssociations Onthecuatroprojectwebsite(awebsitededicatedtothehistoryand

evolutionofthePuertoRicancuatro;astringedinstrumentbelongingtothe

mandolinfamily),WilliamR.CumpianoandRamonM.Gomezexplainthe

connectionsbetweenthePuertoRicanandCubantres(Cumpiano,TheCuatro

Project).ThetresisaCubanguitarwiththreesetsofdoublestrings.Withsomany

PuertoRicanandCubanimmigrantstoNewYorkCity,havinganunderstandingof

18

howsimilaritiesinculturemayhaveassistedinformingauniquerelationship

outsideoftheislandhelps.CumpianosuggeststhattheCubantresmayhavebeen

introducedinPuertoRicopriortoPuertoRicansplayingitinNewYorkCity

(Cumpiano,TheCuatroProject)ThePuertoRicanCuatroProjectwebsitelists

influentialplayers,biographicalinformation,influentialmusicalworks,and

scholarlypublications.Thewebsiteisrunbyanonprofitorganizationlocatedin

NorthHampton,Massachusetts,andMoca,PuertoRico.Itbeganin1991andisrun

byartisans,technicians,teachers,writers,andartists.Althoughitisnotdirectly

connectedtoanacademicinstitutionithasbeenfundedandencouragedbyThe

NationalEndowmentfortheArts,TheinstituteofPuertoRicanCulture(APuerto

Ricangovernmentrunagency)and“fromthemusic,anthropology,and

communicationsdepartmentsofseveralNewEnglanduniversities--suchasthe

UniversityofMassachusetts,HunterCollegeandRutgersUniversity--andrecently,

fromtheSmithsonianInstitution”(PuertoRicansSearchingforTheirOwnLost

Culture,CuatroProject)

SonesCubanos-SextetosCubanosVol.1isacollectionofpopularsongs

composedbynotableCubanSextetosofthe1930’s.Withinthiscompilation’sliner

notesarevaluableinformationontheoriginofthegroupsincluded.Includedis

SextetoMachin,whichincludedaPuertoRicantresasareplacementtotheCuban

tres.MichaelI.Avalosnotesaddthattherecordingincludedonthecompilationby

SextetoMachinwouldbe“thefirstandonlyrecordingbyaCubanSextetoutilizing

thecuatroandnotthetres.”(Avalos,1991)Whilethismayhavebeentheonly

recordingofthePuertoRicancuatrointheCubanformofSextetos,itismore

19

importantlyavaluableresourcetomyresearchasitisanearlymanifestationofthe

statesideinfluenceofthePuertoRicanconnectiontoCubanmusic.SextetoMachin’s

bandleader,AntonioLugoMachinsoughtoutLatinomusiciansinNewYorkCity.

ManyofthesemusiciansthatwouldperformandrecordwithMachinwerePuerto

Ricansresidinginthecity.

LiseWaxer’sbookSituatingSalsa:GlobalMarketsandLocalMeaningsinLatin

PopularMusicisacomprehensiveguideofthetransnationalimpactofsalsamusic.

Waxerincludesdiscussiononsalsaasamusicgenre,exploresitssocialimpact,and

musicalevolutionfromitspreviousorigins.AdditionallyWaxerincludesthe

developmentalofdirection/evolutionsalsaintermsofLatinjazzandstylistic

uniqueness(WaxerincludesdiscussionontheroleoftheCubanclaveinsalsa)from

itsCubangenrepredecessors.SalsaisoftenviewedasaU.S.barriophenomenon

(Manuel1994,268).LiseWaxer’spublicationoffersuniqueinsight(Waxerincludes

musictheorydiscussiononstylisticdifferencesbetweensalsaandpopularCuban

styles)tothedevelopmentofsalsamusicwithintheU.S.urbancontext.

Migration Anothergeneralcategoryofmyresearchisintheareaofmigration.The

populationgrowthstatisticsofPuertoRicansinthefirsthalfofthetwentieth

centurywasmassiveanddirectlyrelatedtotheirmajormusicalinfluencesinNew

YorkCity.InIslandintheCity,DanWakefieldnotesthat“TheexodusofPuerto

Ricansthatbeganinthe1950swassomassivethattheroutebetweenSanJuanand

NewYorkbecameknownasan‘airbridge.’Dayafterday,planeloadsofmigrants

20

wereloftedfromtheirpatria,andafewhourslaterdescendedthestairwayintoa

newworld,1600milestothenorth.”(Wakefield1959,234)

AlthoughmigrationfromPuertoRicototheUnitedStatesMainlandwasslow

andsteadyfromthe1800son,notuntilWorldWarIIdidthemigrationexplodeon

thescene.Infactthewaritselfcouldbeconsideredaseparateresearchtopic

becauseitwasinstrumentalinbringingPuertoRican,Cuban,andBlackAmerican

musicianstogetherinauniquewaythatresultedinanevolutionofmusicalstylesof

Cuban,jazz,andsoulmusicthatwouldlaterbecomethefoundationsof

contemporaryLatinandjazzgenres.KalandOlgaWagenheimdocumentthevarious

stagesofthismigrationinThePuertoRicans;ADocumentaryHistory(Wagenheim

1973).Wagenheimwritesthatin“Thefirstyearafterthewar39,000PuertoRicans

cametothemainland,andtheannualstreamreachedanaverageofroughly50,000

inthepostwardecade…thetotalof600,000firstorsecondgenerationPuerto

RicansinNewYorkCityin1958wasexpectedtorisetoamillionbytheearly1970s.

Andforthefirsttime,thegreatmigrationhadbeguntospreadmoreheavilyincites

andtownsthroughoutthecountry”(Wagenheim1973,236)AlthoughPuertoRicans

werenottheonlyLatinosmigratingtoNewYorkCityandotherurbancenters

throughouttheUnitedStates,theywerebyfarthelargestinnumberswithin

northernmetropolises.ManyyoungPuertoRicanswholivedandworkedinrural

areasofPuertoRicoenlistedorweredraftedintheUnitedStatesmilitaryand

servedoverseasandinthecontinentalUnitedStates.Thisgavethemexposureto

thepossiblebenefitsoflivingandworkingofftheisland.Accordingtocensus

21

reportsPuertoRicanmigrationnotonlybegantoboominthedecadesafterWorld

WarII,butiteclipsedeveryotherLatinourbangroup.

Inthe1950sand60s,however,NewYorkbecamestronglyidentifiedwith

thegroupdesignatedinresearchliteratureasanairbornemigrationofAmerican

citizensandasstereotypicaloutsidersinpopularculture.Untilthe1960sPuerto

RicansconstitutedovereightypercentofNewYork’sentireLatinopopulationand

eighty-fivepercentofallPuertoRicansthroughoutthenation.Thecensusfiguresfor

PuertoRicansincludedsecondandthirdgenerationsandrevealedthatthreeoutof

everytenindividualswereborninthecontinentalUnitedStates.Moreover,the

populationwasexceedinglyyoung.Basedonacensusoftheschool-agepopulation

inNewYorkCity,12.5percentofeveryschooldistrictinManhattanandthe

majorityofthedistrictsinBrooklynandtheBronxwereofPuertoRican

parentage(Korrol2008,157).

InhisbookPuertoRicanAmericans:TheMeaningofMigrationtothe

Mainland,JosephP.Fitzpatrickstatesthat“Althoughamere7.9percentofthecity’s

totalpopulationwasPuertoRicanin1960,11percentofallyouthaged15through

19;11percentofchildrenaged10to14years;12percentofaged5to9yearsand

14percentofallchildrenunder5yearswerePuertoRican.”(Fitzpatrick1971,2)

TheamountofPuertoRicanyouthinNewYorkCityduringthe1950sand

60sissignificantinthatawholenewgenerationofyoungadultsestablishedand

evolvedculturaltrends.Manyoftheseyouthcombinedthecity’surbanculturewith

thatoftheirparentsandgrandparentswhomigratedfromPuertoRico.Manyof

themidentifiedwiththeLatinmusicthatwaspopularfromgenerationsbeforethem

22

whilealsoidentifyingwithfunk,soul,rhythmandblues,androckandroll.Ablend

ofthesestyles,withastrongCubanandPuertoRicanbase,wouldeventually

becomeknownasthepopularSalsamusicthatwaspopularizedinthe1970s.The

largemigrationofPuertoRicanstothemainlandoftheUnitedStateshoweverwas

notjustlimitedtoNewYorkCity.OthermetropolitanareassuchasChicagosawa

largegrowthofaPuertoRicanpopulation.Thisincreasedpopulationisdirectly

relatedtotheevolutionofculturalmusictrendsandthesharedsocio-politicalissues

ofthePuertoRicansandCubanswhomovedinandoutoftheselargecities.

Percussionist,composer,educator,activist,andmultipleGrammynominee

BobbySanabriastatedinaninterviewwithfamedcomposersandpercussionists

JoseLuisChanguito,andRobertoCarcassesthat“Since1962,whentheU.S.imposed

adefactoembargoontradewithCuba,encountersbetweenmusiciansfromthe

birthplaceof‘salsa’andU.S.basedmusicianshavebeenlimited.Politicshavealways

gotteninthewayofculturalexchangebutsomehow[NewYorkCity’sPuertoRican

communityhaskeptCuba’smusicalpresencealive,inlargepart.]”(LatinMusicUSA.

2009)

AsPuertoRicanmigrationexplodedontheUnitedStatesmainlandmany

immigrantsfoundthemselvesinanenvironmentthatwaslargelyforeigntothem.

PeterManuel,authorofCaribbeanCurrentsPeterManuelwritesthat“Asmigrants

foundthemselvesinthealien,English-speaking,stressful,andoftenviolentmilieuof

NewYork’stenements,itwasnaturalforthemtotrytomaketheirsurroundings

morefamiliarbytransplantingasmuchofislandcultureaspossibletothebarrio.”

(Manuel1995,65)

23

ManymigratingfromCubaandPuertoRicofoundsimilarhurdlesintheirtransitiontoAmerica.Wagenheimwritesthatbythelate1950s,severalAmericancitieshadlargeSpanishspeakingbarrios.Mostofthenewcomerswereillpreparedfortheirnewwayoflife,buttheytenaciouslyheldontothehardest,poorestpayingjobs,livedinoverpricedsubstandardhousing,andstruggledtoestablishthemselves.Somefellbythewayside,intopublicwelfaredependence,or-farworse-intodrugsandcrime.Soon,U.S.newspapersbeganreferringto“ourPuertoRicanproblem,”inmuchthesamewaythatnewspapersattheturnofthecenturycomplainedofthe“filthyHebrews,”or“thedangerousItalians“(Wagenheim2008,227).

Thehurdlesofpoverty,language,religiousdifferences,andracismwerenot

uniquetothePuertoRicans.ManyoftheCubans(andotherLatinogroupsinNew

YorkCityandotherurbanareas)alsosufferedfromthesamethings.Theseissues

createdbridgesbetweenthePuertoRicansandCubansanddirectlyaffectedthe

LatinmusicsceneacrosstheUnitedStates.

PuertoRicanmigrationisaheavilycoveredtopicwithawideangleof

perspectivestoexplore.IntheCommuterNation;PerspectivesOnPuertoRican

Migration,CarlosTorre,HugoRodriguezVecchini,andWilliamBurgosdiscuss

varioushistorical,political,social,cultural,economicandpsychologicalperspectives

onmigration.ThismultidisciplinarybookonPuertoRicanmigrationgivesinsightto

complexissuesregardingthetopicandalsotacklestoughquestionssuchasthe

differencesbetweencommutersandmigrantsregardingtheDiaspora.The

CommuterNation,whilegivingobjectivedata,hingesonexploringboththeplight

andaspirationsofthePuertoRicanDiasporaandthereforecontributesadiverse

narrativeofthesubjectoftherolePuertoRicansplayedinshapingurbanU.S.

environmentsandlikewisetheeffecttheconversehaduponthepeople.Acoupleof

thetitlesofchapterswithinthebookareTheEconomicsofMigration,Childrenand

24

theFamily,ThePsychologicalEffectsofMigrationonthePuertoRicanChildand

ReturnMigrantsandEducation.(Torre1994,9-10)

JoseA.CobasandJorgeDuanywriteaboutCubanmigrationtoPuertoRicoin

CubansinPuertoRico;EthnicEconomyandCulturalIdentity.Thisisanotherunique

perspectiveinthatitoffersalookintothesubjectofCubanmigrationtoPuertoRico

duringthetimeshortlyaftertheCubanmigrationandthedecadesfollowing.The

bookfocusesontheattemptto“balancetheimageofPuertoRicoasnotonlya

sourceofmigrantstotheU.S.butalsoasareceiverofoutsiders(Duany1997,3).

Additionallyandmostimportantlyformyresearchitexploresthepoliticaland

socio-economiccomplexitiesofPuertoRicoandCuba.Themajorityofthemigrants

wereconcentratedintheuppermiddletoaffluentsocio-stratayetitstillspeaksto

theroleofadaptationandmiddlemangroupsasitrelatestothePuertoRican

Diaspora.

PoliticalInfluences

Whiletheembargoenactedinthe1960spreventedaconstantflowofmusic

backandforthbetweenCubaandtheUnitedStates,italsocontributedinparttoa

decadethathelpedproducethepopularcontemporarystylesofLatinmusicsuchas

salsaintheUnitedStatesandabroad.Manuelexclaims,“thisdecadeendedupbeing

anextremelyfertileoneforLatinmusicintheUnitedStatesandforAmericanmusic

ingeneral.”(Manuel1995,72)Manuel’sCaribbeanCurrentsalsogivesinsighttothe

significanceofcontemporarygenreslikesalsainrelationtoallofthesharedsocio-

politicalandeconomicissuesmanyLatinosintheUnitedStatessharedandanew

Americanyouthinfluencedgeneration.

25

Thenewsocialconsciousnesscalledforanewmusicalmovementthat couldatonceembracePuertoRicantraditionandcapturethespiritofthe barrioinallitsalienatedenergyandheightenedself-awareness.Thelogical musicalvehicleforthiswasnottheperceivablyquaintandprovincialseisor plenabutmodernizedCubandancemusic-especiallytheson,whichhadfor decadesbeenthefavoredidiomofurbanPuertoRicansandNewyoricans.In theprocess,theson’sCubanorigin,likethatoftherumbanowsoavidly playedbybarriostreetdrummers,wasde-emphasized,andthegenre becameresignifiedasasymbolofNewyoricanand,byextension,pan-Latino ethnicidentity(Manuel1995,73).

Conclusion Throughstudyingbothcontextssuchasmigrationandpopulationgrowth

statisticsandsimilaritiesinculturesuchaslanguage,religion,musicalroots,andthe

navigationofeconomicandpoliticaltensions,thesubjectofthePuertoRican

adoptionofCubanmusiccanbeseenasamaptoassistinunderstandingcultural

relationships.Sublette’sthoughtsonmusicevolutionassistinilluminatingissuesof

musicorigins.InhisbookCubaandit’sMusic;FromtheFirstDrumtotheMambohe

writes,“Inmusicthereisnoimmaculateconception”(Sublette2004,xiii)Assuming

and/orassertingthatanyonemusicalgenreorstyleismoresacredthananotheris

dangerous.Contextisimportantinunderstandingfunctionalityandwhatis

appropriate.Myresearchstemmedfromamerecuriositybuteventuallyledtoa

deeperissuerelatedtowhatIhadadvocatedwithintheChristianworshipcontext

formanyyears.Theterm“pure”inreferencetomusicmustbeusedwithcaution

andshouldalwaysemploytheknowledgeofcontext.Sowhilemyresearchrevolves

aroundthephenomenaofPuertoRicanadoptionandinmanyinstances

acculturationofCubanmusic,itisonadeeperlevelmoreabouttherelationship

26

betweenthetwoisland’smusicandhowoneculture’sidentificationwithanother

cantranscendphilosophicalandpoliticalborders.

Chapter3

Methodology

InterviewswithartistswhoeitherliveorhavelivedinNewYork,Chicago

area,LosAngeles,andCubawereconducted,andprimarilyusedtogiveaprimary

sourceperspective.CubanpercussionistLuisContewasinterviewedbasedonhis

internationalexperienceintheperformingandrecordingindustry.Withoverfour

thousandalbums(spanningmultiplegenres)andalonglistofperformanceswith

notablePuertoRicanandCubanartistssuchasSergioMendez,Cachao,Poncho

Sanchez,ArturoSandovalandmanymore,Luisbringsanimportantperspectiveto

thestudy.PercussionistChemboCornielisasecondgenerationPuertoRicanbornin

ManhattanandraisedinRedHook,Brooklyn.Cornielhasamasseddecadesof

traditionalCubanandPuertoRicanmusicaltraditionexperienceperformingand

recordingwithGrammyawardwinningmusicianssuchasEddiePalmieri,Chucho

Valdés,WillieColonandmore.LikeLuisConte,CornielisalsoaGrammynominated

artist/musicianwithseveralsolorecordings.Withamusicalpedigreethatincludes

suchLatinpercussionpioneersas“little”RayRomero,TommyLopez,LouieBauzo

andCacheteMaldonado,andfoundationalmusicbackgroundwithinNewYork,

ChemboCornielbringsaninterculturalperspectivedirectlyrelatedtothecentral

themeofthestudy.MusiciansraisedinU.S.citiessuchasChemboprovidedinsight

ofhowthemusic(andtheculture)waslearned,appliedanddisseminated

throughoutthevariousregions.JohnnyConga,apercussionistaforty-yearmusic

27

veteranandBronxnativewasalsointerviewed.JohnnyCongawasinterviewedvia

phonefromhishomeinMiami.Hehaslived,performed,taught(percussion)and

hostedradioshowsinMiami,LosAngeles,NewYorkandSeattle.Hisexperienceis

uniqueandinstrumentaltotheresearchinthatheoffersaperspectivefromthe

vantagepointofnotjustamusicianbutalsoanexpertinthegenreofpopularCuban

musicasaradiopersonality.LuisMirandaisapercussionistcurrentlylivingin

SouthernCaliforniaandthelastlivingmemberoftheiconicLatinbandMachitoand

HisAfro-Cubans.MachitoandHisAfro-CubanswasprimarilyaLatinJazzband

(activefromthe1940sthroughthe1970s)thatutilizedorchestrationsderiving

fromswingandcombinedthemwiththeCubanmamboamongstotherLatinstyles.

LuisperformedandrecordedwithMachitoandmanyotherpioneeringLatinbands

fromthe1940sonincludingCalTjader,TitoPuente,TitoRodriguez,MarioBauza

andmore.Luis’sexperience,spanningsevendecadesprovidesafirsthandinside

viewpointofthecommercialLatinmusicscenefromthe1950son.CiprianGarciais

asecond-generationPuertoRicanmusicianfromWaukegan,Illinois.Waukeganisa

suburbancityapproximatelyforty-fivemilesoutsideofChicago.Garcia’sexperience

isrelevanttothePuertoRicanmusicexperienceintheChicagolandregion.The

intervieweesprovidedanemicperspectiverelativetoculturalidentity,socio-

economics,political,technological(i.e.studio,radio,etc.)alongwiththeimpactof

migrationbetweentheUnitedStates,Cuba,andPuertoRico.

DescriptionsofResearchTools

Acombinationofregionallibraries,onlinedatabases,focusgroupsviasocial

mediaforumswereusedforpoolingpotentialresourceinformation.Tonarrowthe

28

datacollection,itwasnecessarytoemployspecifickeywordsandphrasesrelatedto

thetopic.Inordertoensuresuccess,astrategywasdevelopedconsistingof

categorieswithspecificinternettags/keywordsandphrasesthathelpednarrowthe

datacollectionthroughinternetsearchengines.Usingthepropertagsandphrases

inonlinesearchenginesisakeystrategyforfindingappropriateresources.In

addition,timeinonlineforumsrelatedtothemusicgenrescoveredintheresearch

provedusefulandeffectivetowardfindingdirection.Manyoftheseforumshave

hundredsofmusiciansandenthusiastswhoarefamiliarwithauthoritativeworks

onthesubject.AsidefrommajorsearchenginessuchasGoogle,BingandYahoo,as

wellastheonlineretailgiantAmazon(utilizingrelativeproductsearches).The

categoriesrelativetotheresearchprojectarelisted:

•Relative/SignificantCubanandPuertoRicancomposersandmusicians•Biographies•Documentaries•Interviews•Significantrecordings•Significantworks,trends,etc.•Popularradiodiscjockeys•Musicproducers•PerformanceVideos(online),DVDs•Filmmakers•Authors•Poets•Diaspora•Migration•Socio-Economics

FortheresearchprojectIhavelistedthecategoriesaboveinseparatetabs

andcolumnsonaMicrosoftExcelspreadsheet.Theinformationtitleswithinthe

spreadsheetarelinkedtoadocumentwithfurtherdetailsaboutthework/listing.

FortheInternetlistingsonthespreadsheetIhavecreatedhyperlinkstotheURLsite.

29

Publiccontactinformationsuchasworknumbersforauthorsarealsolinkedwithin

thespreadsheetforconvenience.Theresearchspreadsheet,literaturereview,and

annotatedbibliographyalongwithallrelativetopicdocumentsareplacedinspecific

researchfoldersandbackeduponaseparate(external)harddrive.Allphysical

documentsandpublicationsareheldinmypersonallibraryinreferencetotheir

specificcategory(DVD,book,magazine,printedacademicarticle,musicrecording,

etc.).WithprintedmaterialIhavetabbed(coloredbookmarkplacements)

importantpagesinreferencetotheresearchandtypedspecificpage

numbers/chaptersintheappropriateExcelspreadsheetcolumn.

ParticipantsintheStudy

TheamountofinformationonPuertoRicanandCubanmusicisplentiful.

EmployingthehelpofexpertsonthedevelopmentofCubanandPuertoRicanmusic

withintheU.Sprovedaclear-cutandefficientstrategy.Correspondencewith

academicscholarsinanthropology,musicology,andethnomusicologyprograms

alongwithGrammyawardwinningmusicians,authors,notablejournalists,and

radiopersonalitiesinlargecitiessuchasNewYork,Orlando,andLosAngelesfor

potentialinterviewsandinputonhelpfulpublications.

ChapterFour

ResearchFindings:PuertoRicanMigrationandDiaspora

Introduction

PuertoRicanmigration,socio-economic,andpoliticallandscapeoftheearly

andmidnineteenthcenturyiswelldocumentedinboththeSpanishandEnglish

30

languagecontext.AccordingtoscholarsonPuertoRicanculturalhistorythiswas

notalwaysthecase.Inher1995publicationMyMusicIsMyFlag,RuthGlasserstates

Onthemoreacademicside,Inotedthatalthoughthereseemedtobeaplethoraofbooksandarticleson,forexample,Mexican-Americanmusicalandculturalhistory,thereseemedtobenoequivalentforPuertoRicansinthecontinentalUnitedStates.Theyhadbeenexplainedadnauseuminsociological,anthropologicalandpoliticalsciencetreatise,whichdealtmainlywiththepost-WorldWarIImigrationprocess...”(Glasser,1995)

Glassercontinuestoexpressthatmuchofthelackoffocusregarding

academicworkthelackoffocusonPuertoRicanculturalaspectsoutsideofurban

migrationfromtheisland“beguntochangethroughtheHerculeanlaborsofthe

CentrodeEstudiasPuertorriquenosinNewYork,”andVirginaSanchez-Korrol’s

publicationFromColoniatoCommunity(whichwasanotherstepintheright

direction).(Glasser,xx)

ThemusicalconnectionbetweenPuertoRicanandCubanmusiciansisa

storyoftenwoveninthelargernarrativeofhistoryandtransnationalcultural

relationships.Throughtheacademicjournalarticles,interviews,books,selected

discography,linernotes,documentariesandoralhistoriessixoverarchingthemes

emergedassistingmeinconnectingthedotsregardingmetropolitanregionsinthe

UnitedStatesinfluenceontheadoptionofCubanmusic.

• Most popular and or far-reaching channels of music distribution:

i.e. popular or influential radio stations, promoters, community music stores; including technological innovations and advancements

• Important Venues: Music clubs, Ballrooms, Associations, etc, that cultivated important connections between Cuban and Puerto Rican musicians

• National, ethnic, and cultural identity within Puerto Rican and Cuban communities within urban U.S. cities

31

• Historical Significance of commercial popular music trends such as the Cuban danzon, son, charanga, rumba, and mambo

• Puerto Rican Migration (mainly to the New York City region): population Statistics, politics affecting migration back and forth from Puerto Rico, Cuba and the U.S.

• Socio-economics of Puerto Rican and Cubans within U.S. urban communities

ThelinkbetweenCubanandPuertoRicanmusicians,thoughoftenexpressedin

termsofthepostWorldWarIIerawasindeedinexistencepriortotheimportof

CubanmusicintheAmericasandthewidelyknownmambocraze.PuertoRican

musiciansandcomposerssuchasRafaelHernandeztraveledbackandforthfrom

PuertoRico,CubaandcitiessuchasNewYork,NewJerseyandChicago.Thepopular

EuropeancontradanzabecamecreolizedinCubaasthedanzaordanzonand

inspiredthePuertoRicandanza.PeterManuelstates“PuertoRico'samicable

relations,andindeed,fraternalsolidaritywithCubaappeartohavenullifiedany

potentialsenseofculturalrivalryorinferiority.TheseaspectsofPuertoRican

appropriationofCubanmusic,aswewillsee,foreshadowtheprocessofadopting

Cubandancemusicinthetwentiethcentury.”(Manuel,1994)Manuel’sstatements

refertothepoliticalandmusicalrelationshipsofbothislands.Hefurtherstates“

CubaandPuertoRicohaveenjoyedaspecialrelationshipsincethe

Spanishcolonialperiod.Themostimportanttie,ofcourse,wasthefactthatthey

weretheonlyremainingSpanishcoloniesaftertherestofLatinAmerica

gainedindependenceinthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcentury.Economic,political,

andculturalbondsbetweenCubaandPuertoRicointensifiedinthenineteenth

century,asagriculturalworkersmigratedtoandfro,commercialandmilitary

32

interactionincreased,andsharedanti-colonialmovementsforgedacommonsocio-

politicalbond.”(Manuel,1994)

Migration,Immigration,&Travels

WhileNewYorkandNewJerseywerenottheonlycitieswithintheUnited

StatestoreceivethosemigratingfromPuertoRicoandimmigratingfromCuba,the

impactPuertoRicansandCubanssettlingandworkingthereupontherespective

musicscenescannotbeoverstated.StatisticalresearchonPuertoRicanandCuban

settlementinNewYorkisoftenhighlightedinregardstomusical,culturalandsocio-

economicsubjects.Unfortunatelypublishedacademicresearchofthemusical

contributionofPuertoRicansandCubans(andtheircrossculturalrelationships)

outsideofNewYorkisoftenminimal.Since,however,Ihaveconcentratedthelarger

portionoftheresearchprojectontheareaofNewYorkCityIchosetomainly

includemigrationstatisticsintherelatedregioninordertogiveperspectiveonthe

influencethenumbersofPuertoRicanslivinginNewYorkandtravelingfromthe

citytootherregionsintheUS(oftenaftertimesafterreturningtoPuertoRico).This

isrelevantsincetherecordcompaniesandtechnologicalinnovationsreferencedare

mostlybasedoutoftheNorthEast.

Glasserwrites“althoughPuertoRicanshadbeenarrivingonthemainland

sincethemid-nineteenthcentury,itwasnotuntiltheyweregrantedU.S.citizenship,

in1917,thatpeoplebeganmigratingfromtheislandinsubstantialnumbers.”

(Glasser,1995)Glasserfurtherwrites“AsU.S.citizens,PuertoRicanswerenot

includedincensuspopulationcountsoftheforeign-born;thereforethereissome

33

controversyovertheirnumbers,withestimatesrangingbetween45,000and

100,000by1923.”(Glasser,1995)(Glazer/Moynihan,1963)Manyofthesesettlers

livedinscatteredneighborhoodsinBrooklynandManhattan.

Theyearsimmediatelyfollowingthesecondworldwarsawanincreasing

numberofPuertoRicansinNewYorkandChicago.“Morethan61,000Puerto

RicanswerelivinginNewYorkby1940.”(Leymarie,2002)Acombinationofan

economicrecessionontheisland,failedpoliticalpolicies,loweredairfareprices

fromSanJuantoNewYork,andtheexposuremanyPuertoRicanshadtotheU.S.

whileservingintheUnitedStatesmilitaryduringthewarsentavastnumberof

PuertoRicanstothemainland.“By1950thePuertoRicanranksintheBigApplehad

swelledtoabout200,000.(Leymarie,2002)DavidGarciaincludesthefollowing

statisticsinhisArsenioRodriguezpublication.“Inthemid-twentiethcenturyPuerto

RicansaccountedfortheoverwhelmingmajorityofLatinoslivinginNewYorkCity,

growingfromanestimated45percentofLatinoin1940to80percentin1960

(HaslipViera1993,pp.8-18).ThePuertoRicanpopulationitselfgrewfroman

estimated61,500in1940to612,574in1960.”(Garcia,2006)

EventuallythepopulationofPuertoRicansinNewYorkwouldoutnumber

thepopulationontheislandofPuertoRicoandfaroutnumberinganyotherLatino

representationinNewYork.LloydH.Roglerwrites,“Inthecity,thePuertoRican

populationgrewrapidly:comprisingin1950lessthanaquarterofamillionpersons

(3percent),in1980theyhadincreasedto860,000persons(12percent).(Rogler,

204)

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ThesheerpopulationsizeofPuertoRicansinNewYorkasitrelatestotheir

musicalinfluencecannotbeunderstated.Roglerremarks“ofallnewcomerstothe

UnitedStates,fewhavebeensoconcentratedinnewYorkCityaspersonsofPuerto

Ricanorigin.Between1930and1940theisland-bornpopulationinNewYorkCity

increasedmorethaneightfold,andthecity’sshareofnativesofPuertoRicolivingin

theUnitedStatesincreasedfrom62to88percent.In1950,81.6percentofall

personsofPuertoRicanbirthandparentagelivinginthemainlandwere

enumeratedinNewYorkCity.(Rogler,204)1TheculturallandscapeofNewYork

CitythereforewasripetocultivateanurbanstamponthenextevolutionofPuerto

Ricanmusicalinfluenceleadinguptothe1960sand1970s.

PoliticsandSocio-Economics

Whileseveralsocio-economicissueshavebeencoveredpreviouslyand

throughoutmyresearchfindingsthereareafewsignificantdevelopmentsthat

warrantaseparatesection.Politics,andeconomicsarenotindependentfromthe

evolutionofmusicwithinsub-culturesofaDiasporaandthiscertainlyappliestothe

evolutionofCubanandPuertoRicanidentityinthedevelopmentofthemusic.

IsabelleLeymariewrites:

PuertoRicanculturalexpressionsareinseparablefromthehistoricalsituationoftheislandand,inthecaseofthePuertoRicanpopulationintheU.S.,directlylinkedtothesearchfornationalidentity.Aswithallminoritygroups,culturaltraditionstendtoreinforcethefeelingofcohesionandtomaintaintieswiththeplaceoforigin.MusichasplayedthisroleforPuertoRicansintheUnitedStates.Ontheisland,duringthecolonialperiod,andsimplyinthecontextofeconomicandculturalalienation,musichasalsoexpressedemotionsthatwouldbeotherwisedifficulttovoiceandhasservedtoventfrustrations.(Leymarie,343)

1SeemigrationtimelineinAppendices

35

Itwasthissearchandalignmentofnationalandculturalidentitythatsalsa

emergedduringthe1960sand1970s.Leymariefurtherwrites,“Historianshave

extensivelydocumentedPuertoRicanmigration.Thismigrationhasconsistedof

progressiveurbanization:bothfromthecountrysidetothePuertoRicancities,as

wellasfromtheislandtotheurbancentersofthemainland.Duanyrightlypoints

outthatitisinthe“contextofmigrationurbanization,industrializationand

proletarianizationofthePuertoRicanlaborforcethatthesalsaphenomenon

emerges”(1984-1985).(Leymarie,344)

DuringtheperiodsofheavymigrationPuertoRicansarrivinginNewYork

oftenworkedinlowerpaidurbanoccupationalpositions.Roglersuggeststherewas

thepossibilityofsomeupwardmobilityoftheyoungerincomingPuertoRican

migrants,headdsthat“thefactstandsthatthemajorjobopportunitiesformale

PuertoRicanmigrantstoNewYorkCityin1950wereinthelowerstatusoperative

andservicejobs.”(Rogler,202)

Duringthelate1940sPuertoRicoexperiencedatransformationfroma

mostlyagriculturalbasedsocietytothatofanindustrializedeconomy.DuringWorld

WarIItheislandofPuertoRicosawanincreaseofindustrializationtohelpsupport

thewareffort.Thisindustrializationcontinuedafterthewarduetogovernmental

taxincentivesandcorporatebusinessinvitationsaimedatinvitingprivateU.S.

capitol.EmilioPantojasGarciahaswrittenanextensivestudyonthisdevelopment

andtheactknownasOperationBootstrap.Hestates“Theindustrialincentivesact

of1947formallyinitiatedwhatisknowntodayasOperationBootstrap.The

programofindustrializationwascoupledwithaprogramofagrarianreformaimed

atthesugarindustry.”(Garcia,1990) Whiletheislandsawanincreaseineconomic

growth,italsoexperiencedmassout-migrationtotheUnitedStates.JamesDietz

36

arguesthatariseinmanufacturingontheislandcontributingtoachangein

economicproductioncoupledwithaslowgrowthofemploymentopportunities

spurredacontinuousandgrowingmigrationtothemainland.

PuertoRicansdisadvantagedsocio-economicstatuscontinuedtodeclinein

manyareaswithintheNewYorkurbanenvironment.Rogler’swritinginhisarticle

FromPuertoRicotoNewYorkCityoffersinsightstotheDiaspora’seconomic

situationasawhole(withintherelativeregion)intheearlydecadesofthe20th

centuryandupthroughthe1970s.

Asnewcomers,PuertoRicansarehandicappedbytheirlackoffamiliaritywiththecity’sinstitutions,customs,andemploymentpracticesandbytheirlackoftransferableskills,educationalqualifications,andfluencyinEnglish…bynomeanstheleastimportantfactoristhediscriminatorypracticestowhichtheyaresubjected,asstatedbytheU.S.Departmentoflaborin1975:“PuertoRicanshavelowerincomesthanothernewYorkersevenwhenage,education,andvocationaltrainingaretakenintoaccount”(U.S.DepartmentofLabor,BureauofLaborStatistics.1975).(Roglerpage206)

Betweenthedecadesofthe1950sthrough1970NewYorkexperienced

economicchangesandadeclineinmanufacturing.Anotherkeyeconomicinsightby

RoglerreflectsfinancialhitstothePuertoRicancommunityduringthisera.Alarge

portionofPuertoRicansworkedinthecity’slaborforceincludingmanufacturing.

Forexample,apparelmanufacturinginNewYorkCity,oneofthelargestemployersofminorities,lost127,000jobs,or40percentofthetotalemploymentfrom1960to1970,thusincreasingtheunemploymentofPuertoRicanwomenwhomostlyneedlework.Thedeclineinmanufacturingjobscontinuedinthe70s.SincePuertoRicanswereconcentratedinmanufacturingjobs(40percentofPuertoRicanworkershadfactoryjobsin1970,asopposedto20percentofallNewYorkworkers),therapiddeclineinthenumbersofjobsdisproportionallyaffectedtheirlivelihood.Datafromthe1970censusindicatedthat,asagroup,PuertoRicanshadlowerlaborforce

37

participationratesandhigherunemploymentratesthanallNewYorkerstakentogether.(Torre1994,207)

AstheeconomicsituationinNewYorkcontinuedtodecline,boroughssuch

astheSouthBronxexperiencedfinancialdevastationthatliterallyleftthecityon

fire.Duringthe1970slandlordssetapartmentcomplexesonfiretocollect

insurancemoney.ThiscontinuedtodisplacePuertoRicanfamilies.Iconicsalsa

composerWillieColonremarks“Ilivedinthelastapartmentsinaburntout

buildingwithmygrandmotherandmysister,anditwasveryveryscary.”(Colon,

MambotoHipHop,2009).PuertoRicancomposersoftenusedsalsaasavehicleto

expresssocio-economicandpoliticalissueshappeninginthePuertoRicanand

AfricanAmericancommunities.“ThePuertoRicanlyricswerealittlebitmoresocial.

Setequemalacasawasaboutwhenthelandlordswereburningdownthebuildings

forinsurance.”(Colon,MambotoHipHop2007)Coloncontinuesinsaying“wenot

onlywantedtomakemusic,wehadagoal.Wewantedtoconveyasocialand

politicalmessage,andsalsawasveryimportantforthat,becauseitwasourvoice.It

wasoneoftheonlythingsthatwasnotcontrolled.”(Colon,MambotoHipHop

2007)ManyoftheyouthinLatinourbanareassuchastheBronxdidnotembrace

theriseofrockandrollastheirprimarymusicalvoice.Leymariewrites“The

emergenceofrockn’rollandthetwist,andtheclosingofthePalladiumintheearly

1960spushedLatinmusicbackintothecommunity.”(Leymarie,1994)

Thesocio-economicissueofsalsa’semergenceinLatinocommunitieswithin

NewYorkisdiscussedinlikemannerinPeterManuel’sarticlePuertoRicanMusic

andCulturalIdentity:CreativeAppropriationofCubanSourcesfromDanzatoSalsa.

Manuelwrites“SalsaemergedasaproductprimarilyoftheLatinocommunitiesin

NewYorkbarrios,affirmingtheirgrowingsenseofethnicandclassidentityinthe

faceofsocial,economic,andpoliticalmarginalizationandexploitation.”(Manuel

1994,271)Additionally,ManuelremarksonthesubjectofPan-LatinoidentityinU.S.

urbanenvironments.Headds“Forothers,howeversalsaservesasabannerfor

Afro-Latinculture,orforinternationalLatinosolidarityinconfrontationwith

38

Americanimperialism(seeFlores1991).Accordingly,manysongsexplicitlystress

themesofpan-Latinounity.”(Manuel1994,272)

ChannelsofMusicDistribution

Radiohaslongbeenaformativechannelofdistributionfortheintroductionand

promotionofmusictrends.Atvariouspointsinhistorythroughouttheworldthe

radiowastheforemostplatformofdistributingmusic.Cubawasnoexclusiontothis

notion.NedSublettewrites“Foratimeradioevencausedadipinthepopularityof

records.Itwasentirelyanimportedtechnology.Therewerenotsomuchasaradio

receiverassemblyplantinCuba,notevenbythe1950’sandeventhemaintenance

ofthebroadcastequipmentwasdonebyAmericantechnicians.”(Sublette,2004)

ThemusicalinfluencetheUnitedStates,andspecificallyNewYorkandNewJersey

hadupontheCubanculturallandscapethroughstudioandradiotechnologywas

paramount.Many,ifnotmostofthepopularLatinsongsfromthe1930sonwere

recordedandexportedfromtheU.S.mainland.

BythearrivalofthefirstsonbandsinPuertoRico,theinhabitantsonthe

islandwerealreadyfamiliarwithCubanmusictraditionssuchasthedanza(which

laterbecameindigenizedwithauniquePuertoRicancharacter)throughCuban

immigrantsandtravelers.WhiletheoriginofthePuertoRicandanzaislargely

debateditisoftendirectlyrelatedtotheCubandanzon.TheCubandanzonis

synonymouswiththetermdanza.UnderstandingthepopularityoftheCuban

danzonduringthemid19thcentury(anditsorigin-connectionintheEuropean

contradanza)givesclaritytothespreadofCubaninfluencesthroughoutthe

CaribbeanandtheUnitedStates.Likethemoderncontemporarygenresofsalsa,

39

bachata,merengue,oreventhemamboofthe1950s(orforthatmatteranyformof

popularmusic),itisimportanttounderstandthattheCubandanzonwas

widespreadthroughoutCubaandabroad.Itwasoftenpackaged,commercialized

andmainstream,especiallyamongSpanishspeakingLatinoaudiencesthroughout

LatinAmerica.Certainlyelementsofitderivedfromtraditionalformshowever,it

wasforallintensivepurposes“pop”music.Bythe19thcentury,Havana,Cubawasa

cosmopolitancityexportingmanyofthestylesofmusicdevelopingupontheisland.

Withtheslavetrade,alongwiththeinfluxofmigrantsandrefugeesfrom

neighboringislandsthroughoutthe19thcentury,Cubacontinuedtoevolveasan

islandbrimmingwithdiversity.Thisdiversityinturndirectlyimpactedthe

evolutionofthemusic.Asthediversityupontheislandimpactedthemusic,the

sameeffecttookplaceinNewYorkasimmigrantsandtravelingmusicians

influencedoneanother.

CubanDanzonandSoninPuertoRico

Duringthemidnineteenthcentury“CaptainGeneralMiguelTacon(1775-

1855)[governedCubaand]cleanedupHavanaandmodernizedit.Withtheisland

awashinSugarprosperity,duringthefortyfivemonthsofhisadministrationhe

createdthenineteenthcenturyimageofHavana.”(Sublette,2004)Sublettewrites

thatTacon’sworkofmodernizingCubaandbuildingtheGrandTeatroTaconwas

“thecrowningachievementof[his]urbanizationprogram;itsignifiedthecomingof

ageofCubantheatre,whichwasneedlesstosay,musicaltheatre.(Sublette,2004)

ThemusicaltheatreofCubaproducedtravelingacts/shows,whichwouldbe

importedintoPuertoRicoandfurtherintroducethePuertoRicanstovariousstyles

40

ofCubanmusic.Glasserwrites“StageshowsfromoutsidePuertoRicofollowed

establishedtraderoutestobecomeanotherimportantislandimport…FromCuba

camethebufosCubanos,atypeoflighttheatre,whichintroducednewgenresand

songsintoallsectorsofPuertoRicansociety.ThebufosandotheritinerantCuban

entertainmentensemblesintroducedintoPuertoRicoanumberofgenresthat

becamestaplesofboththeislandandtheNewYorkrepertoire.(Glasser,1995)

BythetimeensemblesinCubawerebeingrecordedbytravelingrecordcompanies

fromNewYorkandlaterintroducedintoNewYorkandPuertoRico,thePuerto

Ricansonboththeislandandthebigcitywereconnectedtothemusicbyprevious

foundationssuchasthetravelingmusicaltheatre.

MambopioneerandCubansongiantArsenioRodriguezhadamajorimpact

ontheculturalidentitiesofbothCubansandPuertoRicansmigratingtoNewYork

City(Garcia65,2006)Priortothishowever,Arsenio’s“ownrecordingsandhis

conjunto’salmostdailyliveperformancesonRadioMilDiezandRadioSalaswere

veryinstrumentalinestablishinghispopularityoutsideofCuba,especiallyinPuerto

RicoandtheNetherlandsAntilles.”(Garcia,2002)

LandmarkCubansonandgroupsSextetoMachinandSonoraMatanceraboth

haddeepPuertoRicanconnectionswithintheirorchestration.PuertoRicansinger

MyrtaSilvamovedfromArecibo,PuertoRicotoNewYorkinthe1930sand

eventuallyrecordedforRCAVictorbecominganinternationalsuccessthroughout

LatinAmerica.Duringthelate1940sSilvabecametheleadsingerfortheCuban

groupSonoraMatanceraandperformedthroughoutCuba.AntonioMachinalsoleft

CubaforNewYorkinthe1930sleavinghisarrangerbehindontheisland.He

41

recruitedotherLatinomusiciansforhisgroupinNewYorkCity,especiallyamong

thePuertoRicancommunity.UltimatelyMachinwasnotabletofindanadequate

tresplayerandenlistedthetalentofPuertoRicanguitarandcuatroplayerYayito

Maldonado.(Avalos,1991)Often(andespeciallyaftertheCubanrevolution)Cuban

musiciansthatspecializedinvariousCubangenreswerenotavailableinnorthern

U.S.cities.PuertoRicanmusicians,beingfamiliarwithmanyoftheCubanartforms

andbeingthemostpopulatedLatinodemographicinNewYorkCity,filledthisvoid

demonstratingthedeepconnectionandhistorybetweenthetwodiasporas.In

additiontheconfluenceofPuertoRicanandCubanmusicianswasfurtherdeveloped

inthepopularsongenrewiththehelpoftherecordingandperformingindustryin

NewYorkCity.

Technologicaladvancementsshortlyaftertheturnofthe19thcentury

sawCubanmusicpervadingtheairwavesreachingthroughouttheCaribbean

andLatinAmerica.Manyoftheseadvancementswerecomingdirectlyfrom

thenortheasternUnitedStates.

Ifthesonwasalreadyinhighgear,juicedbytheavailabilityofrecords(whichwerestrictlyimports,astherewasnorecordmanufacturingfacilityinCuba)itspopularizationbyradiobroadcastwasrevolutionary.Asradiobroadcastingdiffusedthesonallovertheisland,Cubaacquiredanewnationalmusicgenre.Andnotjustallovertheisland,butoveralongdistanceaswell.Therewerefewerstationsonthedialthen,andamedium-wavesignalcouldtravelthousandsofmilesatnight.CubanmusicwasheardallovertheCaribbean,attractinglistenersinPuertoRicoandMexico,andeveninNewYork…”(Sublette,2000)

Thisbringstogetherathoughtorbridgebetweentheonesmalllayerofthe

largercomplexrelationshipbetweenlargeurbanareasoftheUnitedStatesandthe

42

islandsofPuertoRicoandCubaandalsobringsintoplaytheroleofradioandthe

recordindustryofftheisland.

RecordCompanies&TechnologicalAdvancements

USrecordindustrycompanieshaddirectandindirectimpactsonthe

expositionofforeignmusictotheislandofPuertoRico.Withacombinationof

complexbusinessandmarketingexchangesbetweenmusiciansandrecord

executivestechnologicaladvancementsinmusicrecordingandamplification

producedanevenlargeracquisitionofoutsidemusicinfluences.Glasserremarks,

“Fromtheearlytwentiethcenturytheyinfluencedthemusicaltastesand

expectationsofforeignmusiciansandaudiences,Spanishspeakersbeingprominent

amongthem.Inturn,thiswouldhaveaneffectonmusicalcultureinLatinAmerica.”

(Glasser,1995)Glassercontinuesthisdiscoursebypointingoutthatrecord

companiesusedintentionalmarketingstrategiesfueledbypopularmusictrends

basedoncommercialsuccess.Glasserfurtherstates“Bothrecordingethnic

musiciansintheirnativecountriesandmakingsoundsfromtheUnitedStates

availabletothem,VictorColombia,Edison,andothercompaniesmadesurethat

PuertoRicoanditsneighborsamixedmusicallegacy...LatinAmericanexpectations

ofmechanicalmusicalproductionandconsumptionweretemperedbya

commercialconnectiondatingtothelatenineteenthcentury.”(Glasser,1995131)

WhiletheislandofPuertoRicowasexposedtooutsidemusicalinfluences

priortotheglobalbusinessexploitsofcompanieslikeVictor,andColombiatheyno

doubtcementedthediverserelationshipsthusfurtherestablishingacultivationof

traditionalmusicfromnearbyislandssuchasCuba.

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TherepertoirerecordedwasquitedifferentfromthatlaterofferedbyPuertoRicangroupsinNewYork.Nevertheless,itreflectedthemultipleoutsideinfluencesonthePuertoRicanmusicoftheera.ThegroupssangandplayednotonlythearistocraticPuertoRicandanzabutalsosalondancesofCubaninfluence,suchasdanzones,andEuropeanorigin,includingpasodobles,valses,andmazurkas.Ontheotherhandtheelaboratestrophicmusicofthejibaros,subsistencefarmersofthePuertoRicanhighlands,andthecomplexrhythmsoftheAfro-PuertoRicansworkinginthecoastalsugarindustrywerevirtuallyignored.TheserecordingsthuscrystallizedacarefullyselecteddiversityofsoundsplayedandheardinPuertoRico.(Glasser,1341995)

Latinocommunityrepresentationwasnotaltogetherlackingfromthe

commercialrecordindustry.Latinomusicstoresandbusinessesinmajorcities

oftenactedasintermediariesbetweenmusiciansandrecordcompanies.Victoria

Hernandez,ownerofCasadeHernandezandbiologicalsisteroftheiconicPuerto

RicancomposerRafaelHernandezplayedalargeroleintheinteractionbetweenthe

twoentities.CasadeHernandezwasamongmanyotherbusinessesamongstLatino

communitiesthatservedasaheadquartersorbasetorecruitandliaisonmusicians

forrecordcompanies.RuthGlasserwrites“VictoriaHernandez’sactivitiesasa

bookingagentandliaisonwithrecordcompaniesservednotonlyRafaelbutalso

manyotherPuertoRicanmusicians…Shewouldserveasanintermediarywith

recordcompaniessuchasColumbiaandVictor,advancingpayforrecording

sessionstotheusuallyhand-to-mouthmusicians,inexchangeforacutofthefee.”

(Glasser109,1995)Shefurtheradds,“VictoriaHernandez’sbusinessactivitiesand

themusicians’attitudestowardthemreflecttheimportantconcreteroles

merchantscouldplayinmusicians’careers,aswellasthemixedfeelingsthey

evoked.”(Glasser,1995)Hernandezwasalsoresponsibleforbookingmanyartists

frombothCubaandPuertoRicotoperformintheatresinNewYork.Inthiswayitis

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importanttoseetherolebusinessownersandvenuesplayedinthedistributionof

CubanandPuertoRicanmusicalinfluences.

NotallbusinesseswereownedandoperatedbyLatinoentrepreneurs

however.JewishentrepreneurssuchasSidneySiegelplayedanimportantrolein

theevolutionanddevelopmentofLatinmusicinurbancommunitieswithinthe

mainlandUS.“Theonce-JewishcommunityofHarlemwasnowpredominantly

PuertoRicanandCuban,and[people]weredesperateforLatin-musicrecordings.

Mr.SiegelsignedupLatin-musicartists.”(Salazar,102002)Siegel’scousinHoward

Roseffrecalls,“WerecordedthePuertoRicantriosandtheCubanconjuntos.

EventuallySeecocateredmoretotheAfro-Cubansound,asitsoldthemost…Our

marketwasPuertoRico,anditwasbuyingtheCubansides.”(Salazar,2002)Siegel’s

recordlabelSeecobecameoneofthemostinfluentialproducersofLatinmusicout

ofNewYork.AccordingtoRoseff,therewerealbumsgoingfarbeyondthegold

recordsellingpointinPuertoRico.WhentheUnitedStatesenteredWWIIproducts

suchasshellac,whichwasnecessaryfortheproductionofrecords,waslimited.

Salazarstates“thelittlewhichwasallowedtobeboughtwasgiventoRCA,Columbia,

andDeccatorecordAmericanpopbands.”(Salazar,2002)Thisresultedinmany

Latinbandsbeingoutofwork.LatinrecordlabelssuchasSeecofilledinthegapsby

manufacturinginCanada.MarkSchwartzwrites“Throughoutthe40’sand50’sand

intothe60’s,SeecoanditssubsidiaryTropical,mannedbyHowardRoseff,

specializedinawidevarietyofLatinmusic,includingtangos,Mexicanrancheras,

Dominicanmerengue,SpanishFlamenco,andmore.”(Schwartz)Schwartzfurther

states,“SeecocarvedanichewithCubanrecordings,fromthebolerosoftheTrio

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Matamorostothefierybig-bandsoundofLaSonoraMatanceraanditsyoung

vocalistCeliaCruz.”(Schwartz,Mamboniks)

ProgramdirectorsoftendroppedbystoressuchasSiegel’sandCasade

Hernandezinordertopurchasemusictoairontheirprograms.Thedevelopingand

evolvingrecordingindustryintheUSNortheastprovidedproducttoseveral

influentialradiostationsthroughoutthemainlandandtherespectiveislandsof

PuertoRicoandCuba.

By1937ElBarriohadballroomsthatfeaturedthemusicofAlbertoSocarras,AugustoCoen,JoseMorand,VicenteSigler,NiloMenendez,JuanitoSanabria,andLoshappyBoys.TitoPuentewasthenlivingonEast117thStreet.WhenheheardAnselmoSacasa’spianosoloonCasinodelaPlaya’srecordingof“DolorCobarde,”hedecidedtostudythepiano.Thatwastheyeartheword“discjockey’’wasfirstused,inanarticleaboutmusicinVariety.A“recordhit”competitioneverybitasintenseasahorseracedevelopedamongcommercialradiostationsastheir“jockeys”triedtoplayadiscasmanytimesaspossibleandthus“ride”ittosuccess.(Salazar,2002)

The1920’ssawtheemergenceofcommercialradiostationsandLatinmusic

evolvinginSpanishspeakingurbancentersinthemainlandUSwasrightinthe

centerofthepopularmusicitpumpedout.

NedSubletteremarksthe“waveofCarbonizationbeganinNorthAmerica,

afterwhichnothingwouldbethesame.Itwasn’tusuallyreferredtoasCubanmusic,

butasLatinmusic,reflectingtherealitythattheorchestrasandaudienceswere

populatedbypeoplefromdifferentLatinAmericancountries,especiallyPuerto

Rico.”(Sublette,2000)TherecordingandreleaseofElManiserobyRitaMontaneris

notedbymanyhistorianstobeoneofthelargestcatalystsofthecommercialLatin

dancecraze.“OnMay13,1930,RCAVictorrecordedAzpiazu’sversionofthesong.

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Therecordwasreleasedsevenmonthslater,andwithit,popularLatindancemusic

wasborninNewYork.”(Salazar,2002)

Duringthe1940’scontroversysparkedbetweenradionetworksandmusic

publishers.“Thebroadcastershadlongobjectedtothefeestheypaidannuallyto

ASCAP,andtheywerethreateningnottorenewtheircontractin1941.”Theconflict

eventuallyledtoabanandcreatedaplatformforthebirthofBMIbybroadcasters.

Salazarwrites,“BMIwasresponsibleforexposingLatinmusicnationally.BMI

contractedmaterialfromtheMusicCorporationofAmerica(MCA)andaired

rumbas,congas,andXavierCugatballadsoverEnglish-languageradiostations.”

(Salazaar,2002)

Anotherissuetonoteisthatthisresearchhashighlightedurban

environmentsimpactuponthePuertoRicanDiasporaasawhole(giventhereare

manycomplexlayers).Likeinmanyethnicgroupsandcommunitiestheradiowas

andisanintegralpartofculturalidentification.CiprianGarcia,aPuertoRican

musicianoriginallyfromKenosha,WisconsinandraisedinWaukegan,Illinois

(raisedduringthelate1950sand1960-70s)recalls,“GoshIreallydon’tremember

exactlythefirsttimeIheardsalsamusic.Myearliestmemoriesareasakidofmy

motherdancingthroughthehousetosalsaandsinging‘lelolai…Irememberone

timehertryingtogetmetodancewithher.Igrewupwiththemusicplayinginthe

houseandIcanusuallydistinctlytell[uponhearingatune]whentheartistisPuerto

Rican.”(GarciaInterview,2017)Garcia’sexperienceisindicativetomanysecond

andthirdgenerationPuertoRicansexperienceintheU.S.;specificallythoseexposed

totraditionalPuertoRicanandCubanformsofmusic.Hiswordspointouttheissue

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ofrecognizingmusicsuchassalsa(whichhasoriginsintheCubanguaracha,and

son)asapartofhisownculturalidentity.ManyurbanPuertoRicanartists

developedanadmirationfortheagrarianlifestyleofthePuertoRicancountryside.

ThisoftenmanifestedinlyricsintributetothecountrysideofPuertoRicoorvocal

stylesoftenfoundintraditionalPuertoRicangenres.CiprianGarcia’sparents

movedtotheKenoshaareafromPuertoRicoduringthe1950slikesomanyother

PuertoRicansinsearchofabettereconomicsituation.Lookingatstoriessuchas

CiprianGarcia’shelpplacetheroleofUScitiesontheculturalbridgebetweenCuban

andPuertoRicancommunitiesasitpertainstomusic.

VenuesandMusicAssociations

Musicvenues,socialclubsandvariousmusicalassociationswereanintegral

partoftheLatinoculturalidentityinthecityofftheisland.Itallowedaspacefor

nostalgia,escapeoftheharshrealitiesofpoorurbanneighborhoods,anda

showcaseoffamousandupcomingentertainers.ManyyoungPuertoRican

musicianswereexposedtotalentfromvariousLatinAmericantraditionsand

attributethebirthoftheirmusicalaspirationstotheshowcaseofmusictalentat

localvenuessuchasParkPalace,HuntsPointPalace,TeatroPuertoRico,andthe

Palladium.IconicsalsaandLatinjazzpercussionistRayMontalvorecallshisown

experienceregardinghisearlymusicinfluences;“Well,atthattimeitwaslikethe

HuntsPointPalace.Igiveyouanexample,theyusedtohaveliketwelve

bands…buenowecouldgoonandon.”(Gotay,Youtube,2015)

InlookingattheroleofmainlandUnitedStatesurbanenvironmentsplayed

intherelationshipofCubanandPuertoRicanmusicians,theimportanceoflocation

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orasanthropologistsRobertaL.SingerandElenaMartinezputit,“place,”cannotbe

understated.BothSingerandMartinezhavewrittenhowtheverylocationofareas

suchasNewYorkCityorthevenuesthereinhavedirectimpactsuponcultural

musicscenesatlarge.“Oftentimes,memorableevenhistoric,turningpointsandthe

memoriesofthemarelinkedtoaspecificsite.”(Singer,Martinez2004,183)“Our

senseofplace…isrootedinnarration.Apersonisathomeinaplacewhentheplace

evokesstoriesandconversely,storiescanservetocreateplaces”(Johnstone

1990:5)SingermentionsthebridgebetweenCubansandPuertoRicansintheBronx

thatwascementedandcontinuingtobeestablishedinEastHarlem,or“ElBarrio.”

Shewrites,“MostwerePuertoRicanswhohadeithermovedthere[theBronx]from

ElBarrioordirectlyfromPuertoRicoorwerebornand/orraisedthere;agood

manywereorwouldbecomeinternationallyknown.”(Singer,2004)Whilethis

quotedoesnotmentionCubaorCubanmusicians,itdoesspeaktotheBronxasa

regionbeingaspringboardandcultivatinglandscapetomusicianswhoperformed

musicthatoriginated,andinfluencedbyCuba.ManyofthevenuessuchasHunts

PointPalaceandTeatroPuertoRicobroughtinpopularactsfromCuba.Singerand

Martinezpresentaphilosophyofalocalregiontranscendingfromameresuburbto

anindependentcommunitywithitsownlocalamusements.Theaftereffectsofthis

regionaltransitionresultinanenvironmentthatcultivates,andincubates

relationshipsbetweenpeoplegroupswhopopulatetheseareas.Singerwrites“Four

newtheatreshavebeenconstructedintheBronxwithinthelasttwoyears,andat

thepresenttimeafifthisnearlycompleted.Thisisoneoftheevidencesthatthe

Bronxisdevelopingintoacommunitybyitself,withitsownamusements,for

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withoutitsownamusementsalocalityneverbecomesanythingmorethanasuburb.”

(Singer,Martinez2004)Theimpactthatthetransformationofmanycitiessuchas

EastHarlem(ormorepopularlycalled“ElBarrio”)andtheBronxisheardinwords

suchaspercussionistAdolfo“lefty”Maldonado;“Youcouldwalkeveryblockand

hearthistun-tun-tun-tunfromtheroof,everyplace.Anditwassobeautiful.”

(Martinez2000b)ThesoundAdolforeferstoarethoseofthetumbadoras/congas

andbongos.TheseareinstrumentsthatoriginatedanddevelopedinCuba.

Manyofthetheatresbroughtbandsandmusiciansfromaroundtheworld

includingCubaasearlyasthe1920sand1930s.Thesebandswerebookedtoasa

resultofincreasingdemandforbothwealthyWhiteaudiencesandfromgrowing

Latinocommunities;althoughusuallynotatthesametime/venue.“Victoria

HernandezremembersbringingTrioMatamorosfromCubainthe1930stoplaya

showattheToreador,aclubgearedtowardwealthyWhiteaudiences,forone

hundreddollars.”(Glasser,1995)PuertoRicanandCubanartistswerenotonly

beinginfluencedandinfluencinglistenersoffandontheislandsbutalsobetween

localneighborhoods.Thisispartofthecomplexityofalocation’sroleincultural

identity;havingmanylayers.

PuertoRicantrio,cuartero,andorquestamusicianstraveledbetweendifferentmusicalworldsthatoftenexistedinahierarchicalrelationshiptooneanother.Theirprofessionallivesinvolvedcrossingnational,class,andgeographicalboundaries,evenfrontiersofgoodtaste,astheyself-consciouslycateredtoethnicstereotypesbothdowntownanduptown.Intheprocess,theybroughtnewsoundsbacktolocalaudiences.(Glasser,1995)

Chicago,IllinoisandsurroundingcitiesisanotherregionwithalargePuerto

Ricanpopulationwithgrowthalsobeginninginthe1920sandhighlyeffectedbythe

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massivepostWWIIPuertoRicanmigration.ManyareassuchasChicagohowever

havedifferentdynamicsthentheNewYorkandnorthernNewJerseyareasoften

focuseduponinrelevantresearch.OliverWangwrites“TheU.S.salsascenewas

dominatedbyPuertoRicanmusicians.InNewYork,theydrewheavilyonCuban

stylessuchastheguaguancoandsonmontuno,butinChicago,thelocalcommunity

turnedtoPuertoRicaninfluences,especiallyfolkloricdancerhythmsliketheplena.

(Wang,2011)TheChicagoLatinmusicscene(althoughthrivingwiththeirownlocal

soundandrecordings)washeavilyinfluencedbyotherurbanmunicipalitiessuchas

NewYork.ManymusiciansanddancersarrivedfrombothPuertoRicoandNew

York.Duringthe1950s,asthePuertoRicanpopulationgrewintheMidwest,venues

andrecordstoresbegantopopupinvariouscities.Wangalsomentionsthisinan

articleforNPR“CarlosRuizarrivedinChicagofromNewYorkin1950.ThePuerto

Ricannativewasadancerbytrainingandsawaneedforasocialandculturalvenue

tobringtogetherthecity’sgrowingimmigrantcommunity.Sohefoundedthe

PuertoRicanCongressofMutualAid,originallyhousedinabasementafewblocks

northofthestretchnowknownasPaseoBoricua–thePuertoRicanpromenade.”

(Wang,2011)Ruiz’sCongresseventuallybecamealocalLatinlandmarkand

developedintoarecordlabel;EbiracRecords.“Ebiracwasoneofthefewlabels

anywheredevotedtoChicagoSalsa.”(Wang,2011)Thisisaprimeexampleofhow

venuesheldasymbioticrelationshiptothedistributionofPuertoRicaninfluenced

musicwithCubanroots.Whilethenationaldistributionincertainregionsas

ChicagoorsurroundingMidwestcitieshadlittletononationaldistribution,itis

importanttonoteitsinfluenceonthecommunitiesdirectlybeingimpacted.Many

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regionssuchasChicagohadlargePuertoRicanpopulationsthatwerefluidinthat

theycontinuedtotraveltootherlocationsoverthespanofseveralgenerations.Itis

importanttonotethatthisfluiditydirectlyimpactedtheU.S.mainlandlandscapein

thatregionalculturaldistinctionsinfluencedoneanother.Whiletheboundariesand

differencesarenotalwaysclear-cut,certainaspectsinthesoundcanbenoted

dependinguponthecity.Forinstance,overvariousperiodsthroughthe20thcentury

certaindifferencescanbeheardinsalsamusicindifferentregions.Inaninterview

withChicagobasedmusicianDennisCalito,theideaofhowNewYorkingeneral,

duringthe1990’s,wasthefirsttomixtraditionalCubansoundswiththatofhiphop,

andmodernbeatsinadditiontothecontemporaryCubantimba.Hestates“New

Yorkwasthefirsttostartmoreofahiphop/salsafusionsalsastylewithmodern

beats(drumsandtimbaflavor).SergioGeorgewasthefirsttoputittogetherwith

thegroupDLG(DarkLatinGroove)inthe1990’s.(Interview,Calito).Hefurther

stated,“Whenyoulookatit,thereisnotmuchofadifference.[When]lookat

individualplayersthenyoucannoticethestylesofChicagoandNY.NYhasaloud

soundandveryaggressive;moreofastreetsoundingtypeofstyle.NYplaysalittle

morebehindthetwobeatontheconga.InChicagowetendtoplayroughbutalso

keepitclean.Weplayontopofthetwobeatontheconga.”(Calito,2017)What

CalitomentionsissimilartowhatwashappeningwiththefusionofCubanmusicin

NewYorkduringpreviousdecades.WiththeCubanson,jazz,popandAfrican

Americansoulgenresalsoinfluencedthemusic.Importanttonoteisthattheissue

offusionandregionalinfluenceshighlighttheurbanU.S.mainlandenvironment’s

impactuponthePuertoRicanDiasporaasawhole(giventherearemanycomplex

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layers).Salsa,beingafusionofdifferentLatinAmericanrhythmsandmelodicstyles

withanAfro-Cubanfoundationwasincidentallyasdiverseastheneighborhoodsin

whichitflourished.TheCuban,son,charanga,mambo,AfricanAmericanstylesof

blues,jazz,disco,hip-hop,andPuertoRicantraditionssuchasbombaandplena

shapedthecontemporaryevolutionofsalsaTheethnicandculturalcitiesinwhichit

flourishedwerereflectedintheebbsandflowsofthemusic.Whilethemusicof

salsainNewYorkmayhavereliedmoreheavilyuponCubaninfluences,theessence

ofChicagobasedsalsadrewmorefromPuertoRicantraditions.ManyofthePuerto

RicantraditionssuchasbombaandplenadidnotrelyupontheCubanclave(atwo

barrhythmthatdirectsthemelodyandoverallinstrumentationdirection.Clavealso

meanskeyinSpanishandinthemusicitessentiallyactsassuch.),althoughthe

PuertoRicanrhythmsofbombaandplenawereoftenfusedwiththeCubanstyleas

seeninpopularhitsofcomposersRafaelCortijoandIsmaelMiranda.Withthe

steadymovementofCubansandPuertoRicanstoandfromtherespectiveislandsto

mainlandU.S.cities(inadditiontothemassmarketingofpopularLatintrends),the

musicalbordersofdifferentregionsoftenbecameblurred.MoreoverwithNewYork

basedLatinmusicianstravelingthroughouttheU.S.toperform,theseboundaries

becamelessobvious.ArsenioRodriguez,aniconicperformeroftheCubansonand

pioneerofthemambotraveledfromNYtotheChicagoareaspendingseveral

monthsperformingduringthe1950s.DavidGarciawrites“Nevertheless,asin

Havana,hisconjuntoremainedactiveinandhadasignificantimpactonthelocal

musicallifeofthePuertoRicanandCubancommunitiesinEastHarlemandthe

SouthBronx.TheconjuntoalsoperformedforthelargelyPuertoRicancommunity

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inthenorthsideofChicagoforseveralmonthsin1958andagainin1962.”(Garcia,

2)PopularjazzclubslikeastheBlueNoteinChicagoalsohostedLatinjazzacts

suchasCalTjaderinthe1950s.

CubanandPuertoRicanmusicianstouredthroughouttheUnitedStatesand

abroadduringtheearlyandmid20thcentury.IconicbandstraveledasfarWestas

LosAngelesandSanFrancisco.Theirimpactandinfluencewasseenandheardfar

beyondtheirnortheastregionalborders.InaninterviewonCougarVideosYouTube

accountpercussionistLuisMirandastatedthatheperformedwithMachito’sbig

bandinthelate1940sand1950sinLosAngelesandSanFrancisco.Helaterleft

MachitosbandandmovedtoCaliforniatoperformregularlywithLatinjazz

vibraphonistCalTjader.(CougarVideos,YouTubeInterview)CalTjaderisoneofthe

mostnotableLatinbandleadersfromtheWestCoast.ManyoftheLatinbandsonthe

WestCoastalsoemployedpercussionistandmusiciansfromCuba,PuertoRicoand

NewYork.PuertoRicanandCubanswhowerenotnecessarilyprofessional

musiciansalsomigratedfromNewYorktoCaliforniaduringthe1960sand1970s

bringingwiththemtheirmusicalinfluences.AndtherebyimpactingtheWestern

regionsoftheU.S.CubanpercussionistLuisConteexplainedthatwhenhearrivedto

theStatesinthe1970sfromCuba(viaSpain)hewasunawareofthelargeCuban

musicindustrypresenceinNewYork.“InCubawhenIwaslivingthereIhadno

knowledgewhatwashappeningoutsideoftheisland…Iwasdetachedfromthe

actualworld.RightoutofhighschoolIleftCuba[andarrivedinCalifornia].I

rememberoneSundayafternoonIwenttoGriffithParkandtheirwasthisCuban

dudethereandayoungerPuertoRicanguy…theyhadatimbaleandcongasandthey

54

playedprettygood.IstartedtalkingtothePuertoRicanplayerandaskedhimwhere

didtheygetthismusicfrom[thattheywereplaying]?HetoldmetogotoDuran

RecordsinLosAngeles.ThereusedtobethisrecordstoreindowntownL.A.where

itwastheonlyplaceyoucouldgetaWillieColonrecord.Iaskedhim,wellwheredid

themusiccomefrom.HesaidNewYork.IamfromNewYork.Weplaythisstuff

there.”(Conte,2016)

InatelephoneinterviewwithLuisMirandaheexplainedtomethathis

motherwasPuertoRicanandfatherwasCuban.Luisconfirmedthisinhisinterview

intheinterviewpublishedonYouTubebyCougarVideos.Manyofthefamousbig

bandsinNewYorksuchasMachito’semployedamixtureofPuertoRicansand

Cubans(includingDominicanandColombianmusiciansaswell).Machitohimself

wasmarriedtoHildaTorres,aPuertoRicanwoman.(Salazar,5)Cubanvocalist

MiguelitoValdes,anothericonicperformerofCubanmusicduringtheearlyandmid

20thcenturywassingingthesongsofPuertoRicancomposerPedroFlores.(Salazar,

5)AmongstothernotableCubansingerstoperformPedroFlorescompositions

wereCeliaCruz,andBenyMoré.

Upintothe1940svenueownersinNewYorkandothercitieswereoftennot

Latino,whileLatinomanagerswereusuallyfrombackgroundsotherthanPuerto

Rican.Thisalsoextendedintolargerbands.Whatwasperformedinthesespaces

andbythesebandswasoftendictatedbythecurrenttrend.

ThroughoutNewYorkCity,ItalianandJewishmobsterscontrolledmanyoftheclubsandcabaretsoftheprohibitionera….Indeed,reminiscingaboutthebeginningofhiscareerintheearly1940s,pianistCharliePalmiericouldstillremarkthat“MostclubswereownedbyWhites.ThemanagerswereLatin.”(Centro,1974)Even

55

whenclubswhereownedormanagedbyLatinos,TheywererarelyPuertoRicans.(Glasser,1995)

Oneofthemosticonicvenuelandmarksthathelpedshapeanddistribute

LatinmusicwithCubanrootswasthePalladiuminElBarrio.Itwasperhapsthe

mostpopularLatinvenues(anddancevenuesoverall)ofthegoldeneraofthe

1950sandintothe1960s.AccordingtoMaxSalazartheinceptionofthepalladium

isthethirdmostimportanteventinthehistoryofpopularLatindancemusic.He

states“ThethirdmostimportanteventinthehistoryofpopularLatindancemusic

occurredonJanuary23,1942,whentheDreamlandDancingAcademyatFifty-third

StreetandBroadway,akatheAlmaDanceStudios,becamethePalladiumBallroom.

(Salazar,2002)NedSubletteremarks,“InNewYork,thePalladiumwastheplaceto

beseen.Mambohadbecomeasceneforpeoplewhodressedtoimpressanddanced

competitively.TherewerearticlesaboutitinNewsweek,Time,andeverywhere

else.”(Sublette,2000)

Asmentioned,socialclubswereregularfixturesinthecityduringthe1930s

throughthe1960s.ManyoftheBlackCubansocialclubshadhistoricalrootsinthe

Blackneighborhoods,orcabildos,inCuba.IntheU.S.adiversityofsocialclubs

emergedinLatinocommunities.ManyofthesesocialclubsinUScitiessuchasNew

YorkdidnotexceptCubansandPuertoRicansofcolor.Theonesthatdidhowever,

suchasClubCubanowereinstrumentalplatformsnotonlyfortheexpressionof

Latinocultureinaregionsofarfrom“home”butalsoprovidedanincubatorand

cultivationforthebridgebetweenCubanandPuertoRicanrelationships.Theroleof

raceamongstPuertoRicanandCubanmusiciansintheU.S.wascomplexand

tensionwasoftennotabsentamongthepopularbands.Eventhoughlighterskinned

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PuertoRicanmusiciansweresubjecttoracismfromnon-minorities,racialtension

stillensuedinternallybetweentheDiaspora.Often,evenafterbreakingthrough

colorbarriersincitiessuchasNewYork,popularbandleaderssuchasMachitoand

ArsenioRodriguezstillsufferedtheresultsofracialbiasfromLatinobandmanagers.

DavidGarciawritestheperspectiveofmusiciansclosetothemambopioneer

ArsenioRodriguezandtheracialstereotypingheexperiencedfrompowerfulNew

YorkmusicbookingagentJoseCurbelo.Garciawrites“Curbelomayhavehad

personalreasonsforhiscontemptforArsenio;asBerriosandotherinsinuated,

racismmayhavebeenonefactor.Forexample,somemusiciansfeltthatPuenteand

TitoRodriguezreceivedpreferentialtreatmentbyCurbelobecauseofthe

bandleaderslighterskincolor.AsflautistMauricioSmithexplained:“Machitoonly

gottokengigsfromJoseCurbelo.HewaspushingTitoPuenteandTitoRodriguez,

thelighterbands.ButtheBlackartists?Forgetit.Blackmusicians?Very,verylittle.

Hehadthepower,hehadtheconnections”(Smithinterview1999)(Garcia,111)

MarioBauzaalsoremarkedontheracialtensionandprejudicebetweenPuerto

RicanandCubanmusicians.InaninterviewwithCubancomposerMarioBauza

conductedbyRuthGlasser(transcribedbyChristineAbreu)Bauza“describeda

complexracialnegotiationamongtheLatino/aslivinginNewYorkCityinthe1930s

and1940s:lightskinnedLatino/asrarelyinteractedwithorwantedanyassociation

withdarker-skinnedLatino/asandAfricanAmericans.(Abreu2015,49)(Bauza,

InterviewwithRuthGlasser)Abreuwrites,“TensionsbetweenPuertoRicansand

CubansinNewYorkCityintensifiedinthemid-1930sdueto‘competitionfor

housing,employment,andpoliticalidentity’.Immigrationlawsalsoworkedto

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aggravaterelationsbetweenthetwoethnicgroups.”(Abreu,49)Shefurtherstates

“ManyCubansgrewresentfulofPuertoRicans,whoasU.S.citizenscouldtravel

freelybetweentheislandandthemainland,whileCubanswhoremainedinthe

UnitedStatesformorethantwenty-ninedayswithoutavisariskedarrestand

deportation.”(Abreu,49)MarioBauzaalsorecalledthatmanyPuertoRicansand

AfricanAmericansrejectedhisCubanmusicsincethedrumssuchasthebongos

weresymbolicofAfrica.(Abreu,50)Bauza’sexperiencedisplaysthecomplex

racismthatensuedthroughoutthe20thcenturynotonlyoutsideofLatino

communitiesbutalsoinsideamongsttheranksofLatinomusicians.JohnnyConga,a

percussionistfromNewYorknowbasedinMiamidescribedtheprejudiceagainst

theCubandrumsthatheexperiencedduringthe1960s.“Itwasprettyhardtofind

someonewhoplayedcongasorownedcongas.Theyweren’tcommonliketheyare

today.Itjustwasn’tacommoninstrumentforpeoplewhoplay.Itwasfrownedupon.

Wewouldgetchasedoutofparks.Policewouldchaseus.Itirritatedtheignorant

oneswhothoughtitwasjust‘junglemusic’orvoodoo…itwasastereotyped.”

(Conga,2017)Suchexperiencesalsohighlightthehistoricalsignificanceofsocial

clubssuchasClubCubano,whichpossiblycontrastthisexperience.

SpeakingoftheClubCubanoontheborderoftheSouthBronxandHunts

Point,Garciastates“althoughthemajorityofitsmemberswereCubansandPuerto

RicansofColor,thesocialclubwelcomed,asRaulTravieso[brotherofArsenio

Rodriguez]emphasized“whites,blacks,everyone”(Garcia,2006)Asseeninthe

interviewswithMarioBauzatheroleofskincoloramongstCuban,AfricanAmerican

andPuertoRicanmusiciansiscomplex,multi-layeredandplaysacentralrolein

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LatinoandAfro-Latinopan-identity.ChristineD.Abreuwrites“InNewYorkCity,

CubanmigrantsandmusicianssettlednearandamongmuchlargerPuertoRican

andAfricanAmericancommunities,mostlyinHarlemandtheSouthBronxbutalso

inlowerManhattananditwasinthesecontextswhichweresometimesfriendly,

sometimeshostile,thatBlackandWhitemusiciansengagedwithideasabouttheir

music,raceandnationalidentity.(Abreu,4)Socialclubswerenotimmunetothe

complexrelationshipsofethnicdiversitywithinNewYorkandotherU.S.cities;they

oftenplayedacentralroleinperpetuatingethnicsegregationorconverselyaPan-

Latinofraternity.DavidGarciawritesabouttheclubAteneoCubanoincontrastto

othersocialclubsintheU.S.duringtheearlyandmid-20thcentury.Garciawrites

“Thiswasincontrasttoothersocialclubs,suchastheAteneoCubanoandtheClub

Caborrojeno(althoughlikemanyothersocialclubs,Caborrojenoeventually,inthe

1960sbecameadancehallthathostedsalsamusicpioneerswhowereablendof

ethnicitiesincludingBlacks),bothofwhichwerelocatedinManhattanandwere

knowntodiscriminateagainstCubansandPuertoRicansofcolor.”(Garcia,2006)

Healsomentions“thepurposeoftheclubwastoprovidemembersandtheirfamily

andfriendswithsocialandrecreationalactivities,mostlyinvolvingthecelebration

mostlyinvolvingthecelebrationofCubanpatrioticholidays.”(Garcia,2006)This

dynamicspeaksalsototherolethatneighborhoodssuchasElBarrioandtheBronx

playedincultivatinganenvironmentwhereLatinomusicandculturecouldthrive.

Whileracialtensionsandcompetitionforresourcesamongstdifferingnationalities

(suchasCubansandPuertoRicans)wasfarfromabsentinthesecities,thedesireto

beapartofasharedLatinidentitythroughmusicandsocialactivitiesstillthrived

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amongstmanyLatinoslivinginpredominantlyLatinneighborhoods.Inmanyways

largegroupsofPuertoRicanswhowereacceptedinthesesocialclubsthroughout

NewYorkandothercitiesdidnotautomaticallyseepartsofCubancultureas

something“other”oralien.Thisisoftenheardinstatementsorwordsusedby

PuertoRicansreferringtovariousformsofCubanmusicsuchas“ours”or“we.”

PuertoRicanpianistRayCoenpointedoutthattheClubCubano“waslikeanoutlet

forourtypeofmusic(Coeninterview2000).Thefactthatthemusicwasinvariably

CubandidnotpreventnonCubanmembersandmusicians,suchasRayCoenand

othersinArseniosconjunto,fromembracingitastheirs.”(Garcia,2006)Priortothe

creationofLatinosocialclubsinNewYork,manyPuertoRicanmusicianswere

alreadyfamiliarwithCubanmusicandhadlongsinceadopteditintotheirown

culture.Coen’swordsregardingthemusicas“ours”affirmsthisadoptionand

associationamongstCubanandPuertoRicanmusicians.Manyofthesocialclubs

continuedtoevolveandhadadiversemixofCubansandPuertoRicans.Bothislands

werecoloniesofSpain(andlatertheU.S.),populatedbyamixtureofindigenous

natives,andAfricanslaves.WhiletheamountofAfricanslavesmayhavedifferedon

respectiveislands,thesimilaritiesintraditionalrhythmicstructures,andtheshared

colonialSpanishlanguageexistedasabridgebetweenthecommunitiesinU.S.cities.

Bythe1950scommonbondsinpolitics,socio-economics,andnostalgiafor“home”

establishedaconnectionthatmanifestedinsocialclubs,ballroomsandwithinthe

actualbandsperforminginthem.

Whatthemixinginthesevenuesdidcontributehoweverwasthecontinued

developmentofthemusicalandculturalevolutionbeingconceivedincitiesoffthe

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respectiveislands.ChemboCorniel,aPuertoRicancongaplayerfromNewYork

recallsaccompanyingpercussionistTommyLopeztoCubanrumbaceremoniesand

socialclubperformances.“ReallyitstartedouttobeallCubansocialclubrumberos

thatsomePuertoRicanswereacceptedatthetime…thattheyknewTommywasone

ofthem.Eventhoughthey[knewTommy]wasonehundredpercentPuertoRican,

therewasahandfulofPuertoRicanrumberosthatwereletintothatclub.Icamein

becauseIwaswithhim.Youknowheiswithmekindofthing.IfIwasn’twithhimif

Iknockedonthedoorbymyselftheywouldn’tletmein.”(Corniel,2017)Corniel

creditsTommyLopez,apercussionpioneerinthesalsamusicgenre,forhisinitial

musictraining.TommyLopezlearneddirectlyundertheiconicCubancongaplayer

andcomposerChanoPozo.OnavisittoaSanteriaceremonyinNewYorkduringthe

1970sCubanbandleaderandpercussionistLuisConterecallsasimilarmixingand

theauthenticityofthemusic.“IwenttoaSanteriabembe,man,inNewYork…thisin

theseventiesthough;youcouldhavebeeninHavana.Buttheguysthatplayed…It

wasFrankieRodriguez…greatrumbero…SothebembewasledbyFrankiewhowas

aPuertoRicancat.Hewasthe[singer]andtherewasaPuertoRicandudeanda

CubandudeplayingthedrumsintheSanteria.Itwasatotalmixture.Butyou

thoughtyouwouldbeinCubabutallthepeoplewerePuertoRicans.”(Conte,2016)

ArtistssuchasArsenioRodrigueztranscendedsingularnationalismand

becameculturalfixturesfortransnationalLatinoidentity.Infact,artistssuchas

ArsenioRodriguezperformednotonlyforsocialclubsinNewYorkbutalsosimilar

associationsandsmallhousepartiesincitiesthroughouttheUnitedStates.He

particularlymadealargeimpactonfirstandsecondgenerationCubansandPuerto

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Ricans.“Nevertheless,formanyfirst-generationCubanandPuertoRican

immigrantsinNewYorkCity,Chicago,andLosAngelesaswellasforCuracaoans,

Arseniowasneverforgotten,andhismusicandperformancescontinuedtohavean

importantimpactontheirlocalmusiccultures.”(Garcia,2006)

Asthe1960semergedthedevelopmentofLatinmusicbegantotakeaturn

anditsplatformswerebothdirectlyandindirectlyimpacted.JohnStormRoberts

referstothiserainhisbookLatinTingeasatransitionforLatinmusicintheUS;

whenLatinmusicwentunderground.TheCharangawasquicklycatchingonin

citiessuchasNewYorkandLatinmusicsuchasthemamboandotherpopular

styleswasreturningtoCubanroots.Robertswrites“Theapparentretrenchmentof

Latinmusiccontinuedduringthe1960s.TheCuban-basedcorestylereturnedtoits

islandroots.Hollywoodlostinterest.”(Roberts,1979)Whiletheregenerallywasa

largeshiftinpopulartrendsandinterestswithayoungergenerationinthe1960s,

especiallywiththeemergenceofrockandroll,manyPuertoRicansinlargeurban

areasontheEastCoastgravitatedtothemoreintensebrassheavyLatinmusicthat

wouldeventuallybelabeledas“salsa.”IsabelleLeymariealsoreferencesthismore

“undergrown”developmentofsalsaanditsCubanrootsinherpublicationCuban

Fire,theStoryofSalsaandLatinJazz.Shewrites“TheearlyNewYorksalsawas

admittedlyderivedfromthesonandsonmontuno,butithaditsowncallejero

(street)feel,forsalsawasessentiallyaproductofthebarrio.Oneofitsmainstaysis

the“cuchifritocircuit”(theLatinequivalentoftheBlack“chittlin’circuit”)–small

socialclubsinsometimesdismalneighborhoodswherethelocalscongregate.”

(Leymarie2002,268)

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ThePuertoRicanmusictraditionsbombaandplena(originatingfromthe

coastalBlackcommunitiesontheisland)oncelargelypopularofftheislandbegan

tolosemomentuminthelate1960samongstPuertoRicanslivinginNewYork.

ManyyoungerPuertoRicansturnedtheirsightstowardmorecontemporarystyles

suchastheCubanbasedsalsa,merengue,androck.InPeterManuel’sarticlePuerto

RicanMusicandCulturalIdentity,hequotesLatinmusicianandproducerRene

Lopezconcerningthe“NewYorkrumba-dominatedstreetdrummingvoguestarting

fromthelate1950s:”(Manuel1994,261)

Lookingbackatthosejamsessions,IcannotrememberplayingPuerto Ricanrhythms.Iguesswethoughtofourparents’musicasjibaro (hicky),oldfashioned,andnotreallypercussive.Ithinkthis impressionwasformedbecausepopularPuertoRicanmusicofthe ‘50swascomposedmainlyoftrios,quartets,andpopularbigbands thatweremainlymelodyoriented.AlthoughwehadheardofPlena andBomba,theywereveryvagueimagesbecauseBlackPuertoRican musicwasnevergivenanyimportance.Asamatteroffact,tillseven oreightyearsagoIneverknewPlenaandBombawereBlack expressions.IntheschoolstherewasnohistoryofPuertoRicobeing taughtandnomusicprogramsthathadanythingtodowithPuerto Ricanculture.(Lopez1976:108-9)

PuertoRicanbandleaders,composersandmusiciansinNewYorkwere

returningtotheCubanrootsintermsofperformanceandsongwriting.Manuel

writes,“Accordingly,assomeNuyoricanandPuertoRicanmusiciansrealizedthat

theirfavoredgenreswereprimarilyCubaninorigin,theytookarenewedinterestin

studyingtherootsthrougholdrecordings.”(Manuel1994,267)Manuelfurther

quotesLopez’sstatements(quotedfromRobertaSinger’s1982dissertationMy

MusicIsWhoIAm)onPuertoRicanmusiciansinterpretationofthefoundational

63

Cubanstyles;hiswordsgivingperspectiveontheCubanrootsofthemusicandthe

beginningofanerawherePuertoRicanswouldleadachargeofproducingthe

continuedevolutionofpopularCubanmusic.(Manuel,267-268)

By then I had met most of the band leaders and had all their albums and could then trace the tunes that were on the albums… I could trace them especially to Cuba through these old 78s that I had collected. And I realized that they [contemporary musicians] were just reinterpreting things. And not only that- a lot of the time they would do the same inspiracion [semi-improvised vocal lines in the montuno]. (QuotedinSinger 1982:143) Duringthe1960sPuertoRicanmusiciansinspiredbytheCubancharanga,

son,guaracha,rumba,AfricanAmericanjazz,swing,Rhythm&Blues,andRockand

Rollexperimentedwithinstrumentationbyaddingsoundsthatwouldnotnormally

beheardintypicalCubanconjuntos/groups.Theblendoftheaforementionedmusic

genreswithintheLatinbandcontextultimatelyledtotheformationofwhatwould

eventuallybelabeledassalsamusicbypopularradioDJsintheU.S.PuertoRican

jazzpianistCharliePalmieriwroteabouthisyoungerbrotherEddiePalmieri’s

pioneeringfusioninthe1962albumlinernotesofLaPerfecta.

WhileplayingpianowiththeTitoRodriguezband,Eddiedecidedto leavethefinancialsecurityofoneofthemostsuccessfulLatinbands aroundandformedhisownband.Thebandbusinessisroughenough, butEddiemadeitevenrougherforhimselfbygoingagainstthetide andinsteadoforganizingaCharanga,thepopularsoundoftheday,he organizedwhatIcalla“Trombanga,”abandfeaturingtrombonesand flute.Novel?...yes.Afreshsound?...yes.Commercialpossibilities?…a verybiggamble.HisgamblepaidoffthoughbecausehisBand“La perfecta”isoneofthebusiestworkingbandsinNewYorkCity.(As citedinWaxer2002,28)

PuertoRicanmusiciansinNewYorksimultaneouslydrewfromtheir

previousgeneration’sislandfolkmusictraditionwhilebuildingexperimental

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developmentsonCubanrhythmicfoundations.Tite Curet speaks about the influence

Puerto Ricans performing Cuban music in New York have had both off the island and

then ultimately back on the island.

Cubanmusiciansdefinitelycreatedthemusic,whichwenowcall“salsa,”anditallbeganwiththearrivalinNewYorkofsomegreatmusicians.ThefirstgenerationofPuertoRicanmusicians,datingfromthe40s,weregreatlyinfluencedbytherhythmsofMarioBauza,MachitoandhisorchestraandLuisVarona,allCubans…Afterthatandundertheinfluenceofjazzandrock,theCubangroupsbegantovarytherhythmicandharmonicstructureoftheirtunes.ItwasthenthatthegreatmusicianslikeTitoPuente,Palmieri,andotherscameonthescene.AsitwaseasiertorecordinNewYork,amarketforAntilleanrhythmscameintobeingasakindofmusicalbridgebetweenthereandPuertoRico.(Curet,1973)StickBall;UrbanCommunityConnectionstotheMusic

Stickballwasagameformedbyneighborhoodcitychildreninurbanareas.In

NewYork“playingstickballwasaformofrecreationbutalsoanopportunityto

meetfuturenotablemusicians.(Garcia,2016)Thedevelopmentofathletic

communityactivitiesinNewYorksuchasstickballisanexampleofhowtheurban

metropolisontheU.S.mainlandwasuniqueindevelopingrelationshipswithPuerto

RicanmusiciansperformingCubanbasedmusic.Thisdevelopmentalsospeaksto

the“senseofplace”SingerandMartinezhavewrittenaboutinthearticleASouth

BronxLatinMusicTale(Singer,Martinez,2004)andhowaphysicallocationor

landscapecanshapeculture.TheevolutionofstickballisauniquePuertoRican

experienceinNewYork.ItisuniqueinitsrelationshipwithPuertoRico(theshared

heritageofitsparticipants),howeveraltogetherindependentaswell;arecreational

sportcreatedinthestreetsofNewYorkCity.

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DuringthebeginningofthemamboerayoungPuertoRicanmusicianssuch

asOrlandoMarinandBennyBonillawereheavilyinvolvedincommunity

recreationalactivitiessuchasstickball.Bonillarecalls“stickballiswhatgotmeinto

music.”(Martinez,2006)Bonilla’swordsspeaktotheuniqueplatformsand

opportunitiescreatedbyheavilypopulatedurbanenvironmentsofU.S.citiessuch

asNewYork.Thisrelatestothe“senseofplace”Manyoftheyoungmusiciansduring

the1950s“agroupoflocalteenagerswhowerealumnioftheschoolandplayed

stickballinfrontofthebuildingformedaband.Thisbandincludedmusicianswho

wouldlaterbecomemajorfiguresinLatinmusicincludingEddiePalmieri,Orlando

Marin,andJoeQuijano.(PlaceMatters,2017)PS.52rehearsalswasamagnetfor

youngmusicianswhoalsostudiedattheschoolandwentontobeiconicfixturesin

theNewYorkLatinscenesuchasRayBarretto,MannyOquendo,andmanyothers.

(Martinez,2006).EdwinGarcianotesthat“Theimportanceofstickballasaconduit

tothemusicindustrycannotbeoverstated.”(Garcia,2016)OrlandoMaringives

insighttosocialclubsimpactonmusiclivedistributionthroughdancesatHunts

PointPalace.AlocalstickballteamcalledtheSparksstartedthesedances.

TheSparkswerethefirstsocialclubintheBronxtogivedancesattheHuntsPointPalace.And,sincemyteamplayedagainsttheSparksallthetime,theywereallmyfans.TheywenttoP.S.52todance.So,attheHuntsPointPalace,theyputmetoplay.(Bonilla,2006)

CulturalIdentity

PuertoRicanandCubanculturalrelationshipstracebacktoSpanishcolonial

rule.Bothislandsshareaconnectionoflanguage,andblendofAfrican,Spanish,and

Indigenousethnicities/cultures.Whilethehistoricalethnicbackgroundand

populationoftheAfricanslavesontherespectiveislandsmaydiffer,bothPuerto

66

RicansandCubanssharemanysimilaritiesincludingtheSpanishlanguage.There

havebeenseveraldifferentstagesthroughthegenerationsthatarecomplexand

multi-layered.ManyPuertoRicansandCubansmaybefamiliarby19thcenturypoet

LolaRodriguezdeTio’sliterarywork“ACuba,”whereshewrites“CubayPuerto

Ricosondeunpajarolasdosalas…”“CubaandPuertoRicoareastwowingsofthe

samebird…”Thesesimilaritiesarehowevermulti-facetedandhavemanypolitical,

national,ethnic,andculturallayers.Whiletherelationshipbetweenthetwoislands

isnotwithoutcontention,theirinfluencesupononeanotheraremonumental,often

withindistinguishableborders.InCubansinPuertoRico;EthnicEconomyand

CulturalIdentity,JoseA.CobasandJorgeDuanywrite“thetwoislandswereSpain’s

remainingtwopossessionsintheAmericasafterthelossofmostofitsformer

coloniesintheearlynineteenthcentury…ManyillustriousPuertoRicans

participatedinCuba’swarsofindependenceagainstSpain…TheCuban

RevolutionaryParty,basedinNewYork,hadaPuertoRicansection.Cubansand

PuertoRicansmingledeasilyintheimmigrantcommunitiesofNewYork,New

Orleans,KeyWest,andElsewhere.”(Cobas/Duany,1997).Itisimportanttonote

thathistoricalconnectionssuchasbothislandsbeingcoloniesofSpainandlaterthe

U.S.,aswellastheconnectionoftheSpanishlanguagehelpedfosterthisconnection.

CobasandDuanyfurtherwrite“In1915deDiegofoundedaculturalassociation,

UnionAntillana,topromoteliteraryandartisticexchangesamongCuba,PuertoRico

andtheDominicanRepublic…MoreimportantwasthePuertoRicanexodustoCuba

duringthefirstthreedecadesofthiscentury.By1930abouttwenty-fivethousand

PuertoRicanswerelivingandworkinginCuba…”(Cobas/Duany,1997)

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ThelyricsofRafaelHernandez,perhapsoneofthemostreveredPuerto

Ricancomposers,givethesomeofthemosticonicrepresentationsofnationalistic

prideandnostalgia.Hernandezlifeandtravelsareahistoricalrepresentationofnot

onlyPuertoRicanfolkmusicbutalsoAmericanmusicasawhole.Hernandezplayed

instrumentalrolesasapioneerinAmericanjazztheCuban,sonandmambo.While

stayinginNewYorkwithhissisterVictoria,RafaelHernandezpennedLamento

Borinquen;astapleinPuertoRicanfolkmusic.Thesongreflectsthehardeconomic

timesofPuertoRico.Thecompositioncarriesathemeoflamentandnostalgic

longingfortheislandaffectionatelycalledbyitspre-colonialnameBorinquen;a

namegivenbytheindigenousTaino.

HesetsoffhappilywithhiscargoTothecity,tothecityCarriesinhisthoughtsAwholeworldfilledwithhappinessOh,ofhappinessHeplanstoremedythehouseholdsituationWhichisallthatheloves,yeah!

Andhappy,thepeasantgoesThinking,saying,singingontheway:"IfIsellmyload,mydearGodI'llbuyasuitformylittleoldlady"

AndhismareishappyalsoWhenheknowsthatthesongisAllajoyfulhymnAndthenthedaylightcomesunexpectedlyAndtheyarrivetothecitymarket

TheentiremorninggoesbyWithoutanyonewantingTobuyhisload,oh,tobuyhisloadEverything,everythingisdesertedAndthetownisfullofneedOh,ofneedThemourningisheardeverywhereInmyunhappyBorinquen,yeah

Andsad,thepeasantgoesThinking,saying

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Cryinglikethisontheway:"WhatwillhappentoBoriquen,mydearGodWhatwillhappentomychildrenandmyhome?"Oh!

Boriquen,thelandoftheEdenTheonethatwhensungbythegreatGautierHecalledoutthepearloftheSeas"NowthatyoulaydyingfromyoursorrowsLetmesingtoyoualsoBoriquenofmylove"

I'machildofBoriquenandnoonewillchangethatI'machildofBoriquenandnoonewillchangethatAndonthedaythatIdie,IwanttorestinyouIloveyou,PuertoRico,andnoonewilltakethataway,yeah!(Hernandez,1947)

Duetoeconomichardships,massivemigrationofftheislandtoNewYork,

andpoliticaltensions,PuertoRicansincreasinglygravitatedtowardnationalistic

themesintheirmusic.WithmanyPuertoRicanspreviouslyadoptingCubanart

formsastheirown(asseenintherelationshipwithPuertoRico’srelationshipwith

thedanzonandthesonofCuba),manyofthepopularcompositionsweresetto

Cubanrhythmicstructures.HernandezhimselftrainedandperformedinCuba.

CubancomposerandperformerArsenioRodriguezusedpoliticalracialthemesin

hislyricsthatnotonlyintentionallyspoketoBlackCubansbutalsoincludedother

BlacknationalitiesrepresentingtheAfricanDiaspora.Rodriguezalsoreferencedhis

ownempathyforPuertoRico’spolitical,economicandcolonialstatusinhis

composition“APuertoRico.”ThesongwasrecordedinHavanaoneyearafterhis

triptoNewYorkin1947.(Garcia,2006)

TherehavebeenscoresofPuertoRicancomposerswho,overtheyears,have

writtenpieceswithintentionallyricsintributetotheCubanrootsandconnectionto

theirownculturalidentity.Fromthe19thcenturydanza,anddecimatothe20th

centuryrumbasandsonboomfromCubathatwassuccessfullyimportedtoPuerto

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Rico(duetotherecordindustrymarketing)inadditiontothefluidmigrationoff

andontheislandandthroughoutthemainland,PuertoRicanshavedevelopeda

traditionofcultivatingvariousCubanartforms.PeterManuelwrites“Fromthe

early1800suntiltoday,PuertoRicanshaveavidlyborrowedandmasteredvarious

Cubanmusicstyles,includingtheCubandanzon,son,guaracha,rumbaandbolero.”

(Manuel1995,52)PuertoRicancomposerssuchasTitoMatoshavehelpedrevive

interestsinPuertoRicanfolkmusicwhilesimultaneouslycontributingtothe

evolutionofCubanandPuertoRicanfusiondirectlyimpactedbyU.S.cities.Such

artistsdothisbystayingauthentictoPuertoRicanfolktraditionslikebombaand

plenahowevercontinuetoevolveandcombineelementsofjazz,andAfro-Cuban

traditionstothemusic.Whiletoocomplextogeneralize,certainlythisislargelydue

totheimportandtravelbackandforthtourbanregionsontheU.S.mainland.I

believethis,inturn,influencesnotonlytheactivemusicparticipantsbutalsothe

audiencesdirectlyconnectedtothemusic.

Conclusion

Ibeganmyresearchwithaquestionoffoundationandrootsbetweenthe

PuertoRicanadoptionofvariousformsofCubanmusic.Iwasawareofabasic

knowledgeregardingthecross-culturalexchange(primarilyduringthe1950s,60s

and70s)howeverdesiredadeeperlookatanearlierbeginning.Duringmytravels

toPuertoRico,andcitiesinthemainlandU.S.withhighconcentrationsofPuerto

Ricans,IcontinuallyencounteredthosewhoeitherplayedCubaninstrumentsor

identifiedwiththemastheirown(culturallyspeaking).Duetotravelrestrictions

betweentheU.S.andCuba,manystudentsofAfro-CubanmusictraveledtoPuerto

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Ricoinordertolearnfrommastersofthevariousgenressuchasrumba,pachanga,

bembe,etc.IhavebeenfullyawareofothercloseconnectionsoutsideofCubaas

wellsuchastheDominicanRepublic,Columbia,Venezuela,etc.howeverPuertoRico

byandlargeseemedtoprevailasasortoffraternalbrother/sisterisland.Thisis

reflectedinthepoetryofLolaRodriguez,andmorerecentlyinpublicationson

CubanmusicsuchasIsabelleLeymarie’sCubanFire;TheStoryofSalsaandLatinJazz.

Leymariewrites“ThisbooktellsthestoryofCubanmusicinitshomelandandinthe

UnitedStates,butitalsoincludesPuertoRico-Cuba’smusicalsister…”(Leymarie,3)

InanNBCnewsarticleaboutCubaandPuertoRico’sintertwinedhistoricalpath

(writtenshortlyafterFidelCastro’sdeath)LuisitaLopezTorregrosawritesrecalls

thebirthoftheCubanRevolutionandtheriseofFidelCastro.Shewrites“Sheand

myjournalistauntandmyactor-directoruncleandtheirfriendsinourisland

home,PuertoRico,celebratedthetriumphoftheCubanrevolutioninJanuary

1959asifitwereourown.”(AsofNovember26,2016,“OnFidel’sDeath,Cubaand

PuertoRico,TwoPathsIntertwined)ThemusicalpathsofCubaandPuertoRico

areintertwined,howeverasseenhereinTorregrosa’swordsconcerningthe

adulationofFidelCastroandtheCubanRevolutionontheislandofPuertoRico

duringthelate1950s,theconnectionbetweentheislandstranscendedthe

boundariesofmusic;moreoveritwasthistranscendencethatfosteredthe

connectionandhencethecultivationofCubancultureamongstthePuertoRican

diaspora.ThisisnottosaythatallPuertoRicansontheislandandabroad

supportedtheRevolutionorallofCubanpoliticaldevelopments,howeveritis

anothermanifestationoftheveryrealconnectionbetweentheislands.

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Anoverwhelmingamountofinformationconcerningthemusicrelationships

betweenPuertoRicansandCubansrelevanttothisresearchhasbeenpublishedin

books,articles,anddocumentaries.CubanandPuertoRicanmusichasbeen

approachedinamyriadofapproachesandthereseemstobenodearthofmaterial

onthesubject.IhaveconcludedhoweverthattheissueofPuertoRicanandCuban

musicalandculturaltiesisoftenaperipheralone.Inthepublicationswhereitis

emphasized,itisoftenshroudedinamultitudeofdifferingperspectives.

If,withtwentyoneLatinAmericancountriesandterritories,PuertoRicohas

themostunique(intermsofcloseconnection)tietoCuba,musicallyspeaking,I

desiredtoknowwheretherootslayandhowisthisperceivedbydifferent

communities.Inotherwords,isitaromanticizedthoughtpervadedbypopular

songsandliteratureimmortalizedbypowerfulrecordlabels,radionetworks,

publishers,andcharismaticperformers?AsIbegantosearchdeeperIquickly

discoveredmyfocuswouldnotbeonthediscoveryofwhetherauniquerelationship

betweenCubaandPuertoRicotrulyexistedandtowhatextent,butratherhow

largemetropolitanregionshaveinfluenced,cultivated,andincubatedthecross

culturalmusicalconnectionbetweentheCubanandPuertoRicanDiaspora;how

theyhaveinfluencedcultural,nationalandethnicidentity.Theebbandflowof

PuertoRicanmigrationfromtheislandtoU.S.citieswasacrucialcomponenttothe

evolutionofPuertoRicanmusicalidentity.Concerningthecontroversyof

appropriationasitpertainstothePuertoRicanadoptionofvariousCubanmusic

forms,IamremindedofNedSublette’sreferencethatinmusicthereisno

immaculateconception.(Sublette,2000)Musicisnotcreatedinavacuumand

certainlyneitherwasthepopularCubanmusicofthe1920s,30s,40sandthegolden

eraofthe1950s.CubaheldclosetieswiththeUnitedStatesindomestictrade,

tourism,entertainment,etc.andthisresultedinwhatIhavepreviouslyreferredto

asacrossculturalexchange.EvenCubanmusicisanevolutionofcomplex

multilayers.ForinstanceAfricanslavesfromHaititraveledbetweenbothCubaand

PuertoRicoinfluencingthecultureandtraditionallandscapeofbothislands.Raul

Fernandezwrites“In1994,twohundredyearsafterthebeginningoftheHaitian

revolution,aGrammyAwardwasgivenintheUnitedStatestotheCubanAmerican

72

singerGloriaEstefanforherCDMiTierra.Thebombarhythm-socloselyassociated

withPuertoRicanfolklore-maybeheardbehindthetitlesong,withitslyricsthat

speakrepeatedlyofCubanthemes,Cubantraditions,andthegeneralnostalgiaof

CubanAmericansfortheirislandhomeland.”(Fernandez,2006)InFernandez

writingonthebombaandtheCubanconnectionofEstefan’ssongMiTierraweseea

fullcirclemusicconnectionbetweenwhathasbeenpreviouslyreferredtoas“sister

islands.”(Leymarie,2)Inadditiontothefluidmotionofcrossculturalexchange

betweenthetwoislandsanddiaspora,CubanexilesfledtoPuertoRicoinmassafter

theCubanRevolutionofthelate1950smakingPuertoRicothesecondlargest

Cubanexilecommunity.

CubanandPuertoRicanmusiciansinNewYorkandotherU.S.citieswerein

searchofbettereconomic,racial(thisisespeciallyandspecificallyforthoseofcolor

fromPuertoRicoandCuba)andpoliticalsituations.Theirsharedlanguageand

colonialgovernanceoftenmanifestedinadesireforunifiedLatinandAfro-Latin

identity.TheracismBlackandPuertoRicanmusiciansexperiencedontheisland

wasnotabsentonthemainlandU.S.howeverwhatearlymusicpioneersdiscovered

inthemetropolitancitiessuchasHarlemwasaspacethatcouldincubate

opportunitiesthatwerenotfoundbackhome.BlackCubansandPuertoRican

musiciansthereforereliedupontheirsharedtalentsandrespondedtodemandsfor

theLatinsoundstheycouldproduce.Thisdevelopedintoafoundationforyounger

LatinogenerationswhoreliedontheLatinmusictraditionsthatevolvedinthe

urbanenvironmentasopposedtothepopularAmericanrockandrollmovement.

ThemusicalconversationofCubansandPuertoRicanswasnegotiatedin

populardancevenues,socialclubs,andconcerthallsinplacessuchasNewYorkCity,

NewJersey,andMiami.Thefluidmovementofperformersandlistenersofthe

DiasporaebbedandflowedthroughoutthemainlandU.S.frommajormusic

industrialhubsknownastheSouthBronx,ElBarrio,andBrooklynNYtotheurban

regionsofChicago,LosAngeles,Philadelphia,Boston,andSanFrancisco.Likean

intricatenetworkofriverdistributaries,thefluidityoftheCubanmusicinurbanU.S.

communitiesthroughoutthe20thcenturyhasinfluencedthemusicalcultural

identityofPuertoRicansonandofftheisland.Thisphenomenoncannotbefully

73

exploredwithoutunderstandingthemigrationhistoryandpatternsofthePuerto

RicandiasporapriortoWorldWarIIandespeciallyinthedecadesimmediately

followingit.PoliticaldevelopmentssuchastheJonesActof1917conferringU.S.

citizenshipuponPuertoRicansandtheaftereffectsofPuertoRico’sgovernor

MuñozMarín’sOperationBootstrap(1940s)resultedinanincreasedinfluxof

islanderstocitiessuchasNewYork.Politicaleconomicsledto“Theloweringofthe

SanJuan-NewYorkairfares[accelerating]theexodusofPuertoRicans,mostof

whomwerebetweenfifteenandfortyyearsofage.”(Leymarie,157)Thesemigrants

arrivedinNewYorkinsearchofabetterfinancialsituation.ManyofthePuerto

RicansandCubanswhotraveledbackandforththroughoutthe20thcenturywere

musicianswhotookfulladvantageoftechnologicalinnovationsintheU.S.andthe

recordingopportunitiesoftennotfoundontheisland.

Technologicalinnovationsintheradioandrecordingindustryplayedmajor

rolesintheimportinganddisseminationofCubanandPuertoRicansoundswithin

theUnitedStates.InadditiontotheimportingofLatinmusicinthemainlandU.S.,

recordcompanieswerealsoresponsiblefortemperingpopularmusictrendswithin

theislandsofCubaandPuertoRicoaswell.InCaribbeanCurrentsPeterManuel

quoteshistorianJorgeJavarizstatementonthemassivemusicrecordingproduction

takingplaceinNewYorkduringthemid20thcentury.Hequotes“Thebulkofwhat

wecallpopularPuertoRicanmusicwaswrittenandrecordedinNewYork.Puerto

RicoistheonlyLatinAmericancountrywhosepopularmusicwasmainlycreatedon

foreignsoil.Thecuriousthingaboutthisphenomenonisthatitwaspreciselyin

thoseyearsthatthepopularPuertoRicansongbecamemorePuertoRicanthanit

haseverbeenbeforeorsince.”(Manuel,67)(Glasser,Spring1991)Thisstatement

carriesprofoundconsequenceinthatitpointsoutthemajorroleU.S.citiesplayin

theshapingofPuertoRicanmusicalidentity.Thetechnologicalinnovationinthe

recordingindustryisadirectresultoftheerainwhichitwasproduced.The

northeastregionoftheUnitedStatesservedasahubfordevelopmentofthis

technologyandconsequentlycitiessuchasNewYork,NewJerseydirectlyimpacted

PuertoRicanandCubancommunities.Often,thepurveyorsoftheseindustrieswere

notversedinethnicandnationaldifferenceswithinthemusic.Moreovertheyoften

74

followedpopulartrendsandperceiveddemandstherebybecomingmajorbridgesof

culturalconnectionbetweenLatinocommunities.

Asmentionedpreviously,themovementofCubanandPuertoRican

musiciansthroughouttheUnitedStateswasfluid.Throughracialtensions,and

musicalcompetitionamongstpopularbands,asharedLatinoidentityemergedin

theurbancitiesoftheUnitedStates.ThisislargelyduetotheSpanishlanguage

connection,sharedmusicalhistories,andcolonialandpoliticaltiesoftheDiasporas

homelandsofPuertoRicoandCuba.Theveryphysicallocation(itsdistancefrom

theCaribbeanislands)fosteredaculturalidentityamongstPuertoRicansand

Cubansinurbancommunities.TherootsofPuertoRicanadoptionofCubanmusicis

amulti-layeredhistory.MajormetropolitanregionsoftheUnitedStatesevolved

intolandscapesthatshapedinterculturalconnectionsbetweenthetwocommunities.

Thephysicalmanifestationsoflandmarkvenues,concerthallsandsocialclubs

withintheU.S.urbanenvironmentsfilledthevoidofculturalandnationalidentity

amongstLatinocommunities.AsPuertoRicansnavigatedaforeignenvironment

distanttowhatwasfamiliar,theirexperiencesinturndirectlyresultedinshaping

theirmusicalidentity.Moreoftenthannot,PuertoRicansreachedforand

respondedtowhatwasfamiliar.CubanmusicwasmarketedinmasstoPuertoRican

communities.Thiswasmainlyduetothelanguageandsharedculturalconnection.

PuertoRicansoftenrelatedtoCubanmusicwithpositiveacceptanceandadoption

astheirown.VenuessuchastheTeatroPuertoRicointheSouthBronxfeatured

popularCubanmusicians.TheedgyurbanlandscapeofU.S.cities,andtheirdiverse

blendofethniccommunitiesbecamecentraltotheculturalidentityofthePuerto

Ricandiaspora.PeterManuel’sexplanationofPuertoRico’samicablerelationship

andfraternalidentitywithCuba(Manuel,1994)isnotonlyfosteredandcultivated

incitiessuchasNewYork,butrather,theroleoftheurbanmainlandlandscapeis

crucialtotherelationship.Thepurposeofthisresearchistohighlighttherolelarge

U.S.citiesplayedinthePuertoRicanadoptionofCubanmusic.Largemigrationsofa

diasporaoversequentialperiodsoftimeoftenresultindirectimpactsofthe

Diaspora’sculturalidentity.WithoutthepoliticaldevelopmentsbetweentheU.S.

andtheislands,themusicassociationscreatedinthecity,theurbansocio-

75

economicsofLatinocommunities,thetechnologicaladvancements,thecreationof

popularvenuesoftheAmericanmetropolis,andthePuertoRicanmigrationback

andforthfromtheislandtotheU.S.,thePuertoRicanmusicadoptionofCuban

musicwouldcertainlynothaveevolvedintoitscurrentexistence.

76

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Appendices

Mid-19thCentury 1917 1923 1945 1950 1960 1980

*SeeMigration,Immigration,&Travels.Page32-34

JonesAct EndofWWII

200,000PuertoRicansinNY

45,000-100,000PuertoRicansLivinginNYupto1923

612,574PuertoRicansinNY

860,000PuertoRicansinNY

PuertoRicanpercentageofLatinopopulationIncreasesfrom40%to80%duringtheyearsbetween1940-1960

MigrationTimeline

82

CubanTheatreDanzonSonSeptetoLatinJazzMamboChaChaChaCharangaGuajiraSalsa

CubanCubanMusicMusic GenreGenre TimelineTimeline

19thCentury 1870 1940s1920s 1940s-1950s

1950s *1950s-1960s

*1960s 1960s-1970s

*ApproximateeraPopularizedinUnitedStates

ThedatesaboveareapproximationsoftheerasinwhichtheCubangenreswerepopularizedorheldsignificanthistoricalvaluewithintheUnitedStates

83

PuertoRicanMusicIdentity

U.S.MetropolitanRegions

PuertoRico

Cuba

PuertoRicanMusicIdentityPuertoRicanMusicIdentityTriangularTriangularModelModel

BridgingCubana BridgingCubanandPuertoRicanMusicCulturesfndPuertoRicanMusicCulturesf romtheromthe

1920s1920s--1970s1970s

84

85

86

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