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US Malaria, circa 1850 - Health Today, Health Tomorro · Centers for Disease Control and Prevention...
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Allen S. Craig, MDResident Advisor
President’s Malaria Initiative – ZambiaCenters for Disease Control and Prevention
Tennessee Public Health AssociationSouthern Health Association
September 15-17, 2010
Malaria Control in Africa - Rolling Back the Map
Division of Parasitic Diseases and MalariaCenter for Global Health
US Malaria, circa 1850
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Global Malaria Eradication Program, 1955Global Malaria Eradication Program, 1955--19691969
Why Malaria Still MattersWhy Malaria Still MattersMalaria, which had been eliminated or effectively suppressed in many parts of the world, underwent a resurgence in the last 3 decades.
Attributable to many factors -- social, political, economic, and the emergence and spread of drug-resistant parasites and insecticide-resistant mosquitoes.
The global effects of this disease threaten public health and productivity on a broad scale, and impede the progress of many countries toward democracy and prosperity.
Source: Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences (1996), WHO (1999)
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World Malaria Situation• 3 billion people (40% of world population) at
risk of malaria• ~300 million cases each year• Causes 1 million deaths worldwide per year -
mostly young children under 5 years in sub-Saharan Africa
• Costs > $12 billion per year in direct losses (illness, treatment, premature death) but much more in lost economic growth
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World Malaria Situation• ~10,000 travelers from Europe, Japan and
North America (~2,000) contract malaria each year
• No vaccine; effective drugs expensive & counterfeited
• Resistance: parasites to drugs & vectors to insecticides
Distribution of P. falciparum Stratified by Endemicity Class
Hay SI, et al. PLoS Med 2009;6:286-302
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$0-70
$1941-2580 per capita GNP (1995)
Malaria is a Disease of PovertyMalaria is a Disease of Poverty
Distribution of P. falciparum Stratified by Endemicity Class
Hay SI, et al. PLoS Med 2009;6:286-302
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Why is this map deceiving?
Geographic distribution of malaria
Where do most people live?
World map adjusted for population
How much money is spent on health care?
World map adjusted for health care spending
Malaria in the World
Maps from:Dorling D (2007) PLoS Med 4(1): e1Snow RW, Guerra CA, Noor AM, Myint HY, Hay SI (2005) 434: 214–217Webb R (2006) Nature 439: 800
Sulfadoxine-Pyrimethamine resistanceMefloquine resistance
Chloroquine resistance
Rapid Emergence, and Rampant Spread of Drug-resistant Malaria
Rapid Emergence, and Rampant Spread of Drug-resistant Malaria
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Malaria Control
• Unprecedented funding and enthusiasm: Roll Back Malaria (WHO), Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis & Malaria, President’s Malaria Initiative, World Bank, Gates Foundation, etc.
• Gates Foundation meeting in 2007 - talk about malaria elimination / eradication
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Clinical PresentationSymptoms• Fever, chills, sweats • Headaches • Nausea and vomiting • Body aches, general malaise
Physical Exam• Elevated temperature, perspiration • Weakness • Enlarged spleen and liver• Mild jaundice
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Clinical PresentationSevere Malaria – Coma, severe anemia, hypoglycemia,
respiratory failure, renal failure– High mortality rate
Diagnostic Testing• Now recommended for all suspect
malaria patients– Fever in a child under 5 years old
• Rapid diagnostic tests• Microscope slides• Clinical diagnosis where lab
& / or staff not available• Children < 5 years – Integrated
Management of ChildhoodIllness (includes diagnosis)
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Plasmodium falciparumThin blood film
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Treatment• Artemisinin containing compounds
(artemethur-lumefantrine = Coartem®) for uncomplicated malaria
• Intravenous then oral quinine for severe / complicated malaria
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U. S. President’s Malaria
Initiative (PMI)
United States Agency for International Development
(USAID) / CDC Project
President’s Malaria Initiative• 30 June 2005, President Bush
announced a new 5-year, $1.2 billion initiative to rapidly scale up malaria control interventions in 15 high burden countries in Africa
• Global Health Initiative continues PMI
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Funding Levels and Coverage
YearAnticipated
Funding Level Coverage2006 $30 million 3 countries2007 $135 million 7 countries2008 $300 million 15 countries2009 $300 million 15 countries
2010 $500 million 15 countriesTOTAL $1,265 million
Countries Selected for PMI
First Year (FY06): Angola, Tanzania, Uganda Third Year
(FY08): Benin, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Liberia, Madagascar, Mali, Zambia
Second Year (FY07): Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Senegal
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PMI Goal and Targets
• Goal: To reduce malaria-related mortality by 50% in 15 selected countries
• Targets: To achieve 85% coverage of vulnerable groups with four key interventions
PMI Interventions• Artemisinin-based
combination therapy (ACTs) - Coartem®
• Insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs) – “herd immunity”
• Intermittent preventive treatment in pregnancy (IPTp) - Fansidar®
• Indoor residual spraying (IRS), urban & periurban – “herd immunity”
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What will PMI fund?• Commodities
– Antimalarial drugs for treatment of uncomplicated malaria (ACTs)
– Rapid diagnostic tests
– Long-lasting nets
– Equipment and supplies for IRS (pyrethroids & DDT)
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Zambia• Population - 13 million, 45% < 15 years old, 2.5 million households
• Malaria incidence rate in 2009 - 239 / 1000 population
• Malaria is a leading cause of illness and death in Zambia
• Malaria contributes 20% to maternal deaths and 40% to under 5 year old deaths
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Malaria hot spots in Zambia
Predicted Parasitemia Risk for Children <5 years in Zambia.
Malaria Journal 2010 9:37
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Malaria presents a major burden to Zambia’s population, healthcare system and economy
•Malaria is endemic throughout Zambia with seasonal and geographic variations
• Leading cause of illness and death - 3 million cases of malaria and 3000 deaths per yr
• Estimated GDP loss of 1.5% per year – Low productivity, high expenditure on medicines, supplies & control programs
2006 -2010 National Malaria Strategic Plan set a package of malaria control interventions
INDOOR RESIDUAL SPRAYING
• Anopheles gambiae and A. funestus main vectors; feed evenings or late at night
• Gorge themselves with blood• Move to vertical surface
and digest meal• If insecticide on surface,
they die
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Entire household protectedNo change in human behavior required
Indoor Residual Spraying
IRS Districts, 2009
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IRS Coverage by Household & Population, Zambia, 2003-2010
WHO Malaria Program Review 2010
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Modes of ITN distributionNational Objective• Ensure 100% of households have at
least three ITNs • Ensure at least 85% utilization rates
Strategies• Mass distribution (door-to-door,
through schools or health centers)• Malaria in pregnancy (Mama Safenite®,
antenatal clinics)• Commercial distribution (PermaNet®)• Last kilometer distribution (NetsforLife)
Types of ITNs• Permanet®, Olyset®, Netprotect®
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ITNs Planned for Procurement and Distribution in Zambia, 2009-2011
715557
176
515
1,218
2,494
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Thou
sand
s
Planned-PMI-SFHPlanned-WBPlanned-GF-CHAZPlanned-GF-NMCCAll nets
`
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ITN Distribution – Issues
• Availability of vehicles for transport from district to communities
• Effort to track down to facility / distribution point level to link back with routine malaria disease reports
• Efficiency – is there a better way to get the nets out?
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Zambia ITN Distribution, All Programs, 2004-2007
Numerator: all ITNs distributed to date per districtDenominator: 3*estimated household count per district
Source: NMCC, ITN distribution database
0-2021-4041-6061-8081-100
Percent coverage 3 ITNs
52
% coverage (3 ITNs per HH) 0-20
21-40
41-60
61-80
81-100+
Zambia ITN Distribution –All programmes
2006-2008
Source: NMCC, ITN distribution database
Numerator: all ITNs distributed to date per districtDenominator: 3*estimated household count per district
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Zambia ITN Gap Assessment 2009
Adjusting for IRS
Source: NMCC
No Gap
Low Gap (<25%)
Medium Gap (<=50%)
High Gap (>50%)
Critical (>75%)
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MALARIA IN PREGNANCY
• Pregnant women often carry the malaria parasite without symptoms
• Placenta does not have resistance to parasites and is often infected
• Complications– Miscarrages– Low birthweight– Maternal mortality
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MALARIA IN PREGNANCY
• Intermittent Preventive Therapy in Pregnancy (IPTp)– 2-3 doses of sulfidoxine-pyrimethamine
(SP or Fansidar®) during antenatal care visits
• Priority in bed net distribution
Malaria in Pregnancy Research
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Dubowitz / Ballard: Demonstrating the Heal to Ear Maneuver
Dubowitz / Ballard Gestational Age Determination
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Malaria in Pregnancy Research
• Sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) in vivo drug efficacy study– Does this drug still work to clear malaria
parasites in pregnant women?– Enroll pregnant women with
asymptomatic parasitemia, give SP and follow weekly to see if parasites clear
Malaria in Pregnancy Research
• SP birth outcomes effectiveness study– Do SP given in the 2nd and 3rd trimester of
pregnancy prevent negative birth outcomes?
– Enroll women at time of delivery and compare number of SP doses taken with birth outcome
– Dubowitz score, placental biopsy for malaria and maternal blood smear for malaria
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Placental Biopsy for Malaria – does anyone have a scalpel handle?
Tropical Disease Research Center Staff
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Diagnostic Test Kits and Treatment Stock Outs
• Rapid diagnostic test kits• Artemisinin-containing compounds
for treatment• SP for pregnant women
Pilot to Determine Best Method for Drug / Supply Delivery and Inventory in Zambia, 2009-2010
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Malaria Indicator Survey 2008 Methods
• Representative probability sample– Rural and urban– First stage: 181 standard enumeration areas
(SEAs) in 71 of 72 districts– Second stage: 25 households selected after
all households mapped by PDA / GPS– 4405 households surveyed
• Household questionnaire– To identify members and demographics of
householdMalaria Indicator Survey, 2008, Ministry of Health - Zambia
Malaria Indicator Survey 2008 Methods
• Women’s questionnaire– Age 15 - 49 years
• Testing for children under 6 years of age– Parasitemia by both microscopy and RDT– Anemia
• PDA used for sampling and recording of data
Malaria Indicator Survey, 2008, Ministry of Health - Zambia
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Malaria Indicator Surveys, 2006 & 2008, Zambia
Indicator MIS 2006
MIS 2008
Household Ownership of at Least One ITN 44.4 62.3
Pregnant Women Slept Under ITN Previous Night 23.7 49.8
Children <5 Years Slept Under ITN Previous Night 22.8 41.1
Household Protected by at Least One ITN or IRS 43.2 65.5
Severe Anemia Rates, Children <5 Years Old 13.3 4.3
Parasitemia Rates, Children <5 Years Old 21.8 10.2
Malaria Indicator Survey, 2008, Ministry of Health - Zambia
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In-patient Malaria and Anaemia, Children <5 years Old by Year,1st and 2nd quarter 2000-2008, Zambia
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
140000
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Mal
aria
cas
es
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
18000
Ane
mia
cas
es
In-patient malaria cases, <5 yIn-patient anemia cases, <5 y
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008M
alar
ia d
eath
s0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
Ane
mia
dea
ths
In-patient malaria deaths, <5 yIn-patient anemia deaths, <5 y
Cases Deaths
WHO Draft Report, HMIS Data, Zambia, 2009
Howard Markel & Stephen Doyle The New York Times OP-Ed April 30, 2003
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Clinical Complexities of HIVCare in Malarious Africa
• Anaemia from HIV and / or malaria• Diagnostic challenges
– Fever ≠ malaria – consider TB, pneumonia, sepsis
– Parasitemia in semi-immune adults may not indicate malaria illness
• Atypical symptoms of malaria –gastrointestinal and respiratory
Impact of Malaria on HIV
• Increase in viral loads for up to 6-19 weeks
• Transient decrease in CD4 counts• Potential for increased HIV
transmission• Unclear impact on HIV progression
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Impact of HIV on Malaria• Partial loss of malaria immunity in
semi-immune patients• Increased risk of uncomplicated
malaria & increased parasite density• Increased risk of severe malaria,
correlates with CD4 counts• Increased mortality from malaria • Worsening of malaria-related anemia
Impact of HIV on Treatment of Malaria in Zambia
• 971 patients enrolled, 33% were HIV infected
• Treatment failure with sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine or artemether-lumefantrine not associated with HIV infection
• HIV infected patients with CD4 <300 had an increased rate of recrudescence
Van Geertruyden JP, et al. J Infect Dis 2006;194:917-25
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Malaria Research Activities – Zambia
• Sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine drug effectiveness and efficacy in pregnancy
• ITN longevity• Community health worker
compensation• Saliva malaria diagnostics
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Malaria Research Activities – Zambia
• Economics – cost effectiveness of interventions & impact of malaria on industry
• Impact of active case detection & treatment
• Vector insecticide resistance & vector mapping
• Field efficacy of larvicides
Malaria Vaccine Development• Antigenic variation• Pre-erythrocyte stage
– circumsporozoite protein – RTS, S– leading candidate vaccine– 30-50% effective preventing clinical malaria in
phase IIb trials• Erythrocyte stage
– merozoite proteins• “We may not know enough about malaria
to develop an effective vaccine”
Pierce SK and Miller LH. J Immunol 2009;5171-7
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Challenges• Net misuse / abuse• Low net utilization (approx. 43% - 2008 MIS)• Inadequate storage and transport at district• Late disbursement of funds• 2010: 1.7 M ITN gap• IRS refusals • Insecticide resistance
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Key Lessons Learned - ITNs
• Improving utilization of existing nets will require new approaches
• PermaNet® longevity is unknown in Zambia
• Replacement and disposal strategies need to be put in place
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Key Lessons Learned - IRS
• Insecticide resistance monitoring is needed
• Insecticide rotation is likely to begin in 2011 to mitigate resistance concerns
Children Saved by Vector Control Based on 2011-2015 Scale Up
Roll Back Malaria Progress and Impact Series 2010
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New Directions• Expansion of indoor residual spraying
• Use of electronic medical record for surveillance
• Collaboration on supply chain enhancement
• Use net longevity study data to plan future net purchases and replacement
Malaria Prevention for Expats in Africa• Recommended by CDC for travelers to
any location in Zambia• Decisions by long-term residents based
on local data about transmission• Drugs to use
– Larium® (mefloquine)– Doxycycline– Malarone® (atovaquone/proguanil)
• www.cdc.gov/travel
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Questions?