US-China Education Review2013(8B)

US-China

Education Review

B

Volume 3, Number 8, August 2013 (Serial Number 27)

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Publication Information: US-China Education Review B (Earlier title: Journal of US-China Education Review, ISSN 1548-6613) is published monthly in hard copy (ISSN 2161-6248) by David Publishing Company located at 9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731, USA. Aims and Scope: US-China Education Review B, a monthly professional academic journal, covers all sorts of education-theory researches on Higher Education, Higher Educational Management, Educational Psychology, Teacher Education, Curriculum and Teaching, Educational Technology, Educational Economics and Management, Educational Theory and Principle, Educational Policy and Administration, Educational Sociology, Educational Methodology, Comparative Education, Vocational and Technical Education, Special Education, Educational Philosophy, Elementary Education, Science Education, Lifelong Learning, Adult Education, Distance Education, Preschool Education, Primary Education, Secondary Education, Art Education, Rural Education, Environmental Education, Health Education, History of Education, Education and Culture, Education Law, Educational Evaluation and Assessment, Physical Education, Educational Consulting, Educational Training, Moral Education, Family Education, as well as other issues. Editorial Board Members: Asst. Prof. Dr. Gner Tural Associate Prof. Rosalinda Hernandez Professor Aaron W. Hughey Professor Alexandro Escudero Professor Cameron Scott White Professor Deonarain Brijlall Professor Diane Schwartz Professor Ghazi M. Ghaith Professor Gil-Garcia, Ana Professor Gordana Jovanovic Dolecek Professor Grigorios Karafillis Professor James L. Morrison Professor Kthe Schneider Professor Lihshing Leigh Wang Professor Mercedes Ruiz Lozano Professor Michael Eskay Professor Peter Hills Professor Smirnov Eugeny Professor Yea-Ling Tsao Manuscripts and correspondence are invited for publication. You can submit your papers via Web submission, or E-mail to [email protected] or [email protected]. Submission guidelines and Web submission system are available at http://www.davidpublishing.org or http://www.davidpublishing.com. Editorial Office: 9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731, USA Tel: 1-323-984-7526, 323-410-1082 Fax: 1-323-984-7374, 323-908-0457 E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] Copyright2013 by David Publishing Company and individual contributors. All rights reserved. David Publishing Company holds the exclusive copyright of all the contents of this journal. In accordance with the international convention, no part of this journal may be reproduced or transmitted by any media or publishing organs (including various Websites) without the written permission of the copyright holder. Otherwise, any conduct would be considered as the violation of the copyright. The contents of this journal are available for any citation. However, all the citations should be clearly indicated with the title of this journal, serial number and the name of the author. Abstracted/Indexed in: Database of EBSCO, Massachusetts, USA Chinese Database of CEPS, Airiti Inc. & OCLC Chinese Scientific Journals Database, VIP Corporation, Chongqing, P.R.C. Ulrichs Periodicals Directory

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US-China Education Review

B Volume 3, Number 8, August 2013 (Serial Number 27)

Contents Educational Sociology

Social Problem-Solving Skills of Children in Terms of Maternal Acceptance-Rejection Levels 581

Kezban Tepeli, Elif Ylmaz

Special Education

Examining Fundamental Movement Skills and Social Responsiveness of Children With Autism Following a Randomized Physical Activity Intervention 593

Crawford Susan, MacDonncha Ciaran, Smyth Patrick J.

Educational Economics and Management

Evaluations of the Functions of Money Before, After, and During Dual Currency Circulation Period Among University Students 603

Kristi Kiv

Educational Policy and Management

Views of Educational Managers on Stress Management Working in the Body of Province Directorate of National Education: Canakkale Case 612

efika ule Eretin, lknur Maya

Quality and Equal Education: A Case Study on the Ongoing Nutrition Improvement Program for Rural Compulsory Education in Yunnan, China 624

Tian Juan, Alexander Yuan

A Comparison Study on Education on Values of the Chinese and the US Universities 630

Zhou Yu-feng

Scientific Education

Secondary In-service Teachers and Pre-service Teachers Conceptual Understanding of Photosynthesis: A Cross Regional Study 636

Jocelyn D. Partosa, Michael A. Clores, Maria Aurora A, Conde, Maricar S. Prudente, Lydia T. Goingo, Arnulfo R. Reganit

Medical Education The Health Sector Towards the Information Age: The Telemedicine Virtual Organization 646

I. H. Monrad Aas

US-China Education Review B, ISSN 2161-6248 August 2013, Vol. 3, No. 8, 581-592

Social Problem-Solving Skills of Children in Terms of

Maternal Acceptance-Rejection Levels*

Kezban Tepeli Selcuk University,

Konya, Turkey

Elif Ylmaz Karamanolu Mehmet Bey University,

Karaman, Turkey

This study was conducted to find an answer to the question of Do social problem-solving skills of 5-6 years old

children differentiate depending on the levels of maternal acceptance-rejection? The participants of the study

included 359 5-6 years old children and their mothers. Wally Social Problem-Solving Test and PARQ (Parental

Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire) were used in the study. It was observed that the mean scores that the children

got from Wally Social Problem-Solving Test for the social problem-solving skills differed at a statistically

significant level according to the low, medium, and high rejection levels that mothers got from the PARQ.

According to the scores obtained from warmth/affection, hostility/aggression, and undifferentiated rejection

subscales of PARQ, social problem-solving skill scores of the children in three groups, also differed in these three

subscales depending on a rejection level of mothers. But it was determined that childrens social problem-solving

skill scores did not differentiate according to the scores obtained from indifference/neglect subscale. This result

proves that the interaction between the children and the mothers that accept their children positively contributes to

ability of the childrens social problem-solving skills.

Keywords: parental acceptance-rejection, parent-child relations, 5-6 yeas old children, social problem-solving

Introduction As a socio-cultural creature, human being has been endeavoring to adapt to the environment since birth. A

child faces many problems within the process of socialization which starts with the relationship between the baby and the caregiver and continues with interaction with peers and other adults as the child grows and develops. Social problem-solving skill emerges as an important determinant of social cohesion at this developmental stage (Biggam & Power, 1999; Dodge, Pettit, Brown, 1988; DZurilla & Sheedy, 1992; Elias, Rothbaum, Gara, 1986; Shure & Spivack, 1980; Siu & Shek, 2005).

DZurilla and Goldfrieg (1971) defined problem-solving as creating options of effective response for dealing with a problematic situation and choosing one of these options that is considered to be the most effective one. According to these researchers, social problem-solving is the individuals way of solving the problem by using the emotional, cognitive, and behavioral processes effectively while trying to cope with the problems in daily life.

Children face social problems in many areas in their daily lives and they often prefer inappropriate ways The study was presented at the Applied Education Congress, September 13-15, 2012, METU-Ankara.

Kezban Tepeli, Ph.D., assistant professor, Faculty of Vocational Education, Selcuk University. Elif Ylmaz, Ph.D. candidate, research assistant, Faculty of Education, Karamanolu Mehmet Bey University.

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SOCIAL PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS OF CHILDREN

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of solution to overcome these problems. However, the development of students social problem-solving skills would facilitate the solution of social problems in appropriate ways and contribute to managing interpersonal relationships. Childrens behaviors that they exhibit in a case of facing social problem can be grouped under two basic concepts. They are prosocial and aggressive behaviors.

Prosocial behaviors, which are also called positive interpersonal relationships, indicate that voluntary behaviors are exhibited for the benefit of others and shaped by emotional consistency and social competence. These behaviors may include sharing, guiding, being polite, protecting from danger and violence, empathizing, collaborating, and providing help and support (Grusec, Davidov, & Lundell, 2004; Hawley, 2002; Hay & Lundell, 2003).

Aggression is any kind of behavior or action with an intent to harm or hurt others (Freedman, Sears, & Carlsmith, 1998). Aggression can be considered as behavior pattern damaging objects and people around. In order to establish positive relationships with others, children have to restrain aggression tendencies and learn to express them in a proper time and in a way that could be accepted by the society (Zembat & Unutkan, 2001).

Individuals who cannot solve their problems effectively are found to be more anxious, insecure, and insufficient in understanding the expectations of others and have more emotional problems in comparison with the individuals having effective problem-solving skills (Heppner, Baumgardner, & Jakson, 1985). In addition, ineffective problem-solving is also indicated to cause stressful situations and psychological incompatibilities (Heppner & Baker, 1997; Nezu, 1985; Nezu & Ronan, 1985). Individual can lead a happy life throughout his life when solutions to the problems of daily life are found. Family of individuals plays a significant role in gaining effective problem-solving skills. Family atmosphere where an individual grows up and the relationships with the parents take an important part in the formation of personality. The childs relationship with his/her father and mother has an importance that affects her/his whole life. In this respect, the parents of a child play an important role in the development of problem-solving skills (Martin, Stack, Serbin, Schwartzman, Ledingham, 2012).

The structure of the family unit together with personality characteristics of parents as an individual partly determines child-rearing approach of that family. Research in recent years focuses on two dimensions of the attitude of the parents. The first one is control-autonomy dimension which focuses on how restrictive or permissive the parents are about the implementation of rules of conduct. The second dimension is acceptance-rejection focusing on the behavior of the parents which can be warm (accepting or approving) or hostile (rejecting or disapproving). Warm or accepting relationships support sense of autonomy and independence and help children develop a positive self-concept. On the other hand, hostile and rejecting relationships cause childrens rejection by teachers and by their peers, and develop trustless and shy personality traits (Gander & Gardiner, 1998).

Parental acceptance-rejection theory is a theory that studies the acceptance-rejection behavior of a parent according to several variables. According to parental acceptance-rejection theory, the basic needs of children are care, comfort, support, and love that are provided by parents (Rohner, 2004; Rohner & Khaleque, 2005; Khaleque & Rohner, 2002a).

Parental acceptance-rejection theory has defined parental acceptance-rejection as a set of acceptance and rejection attitudes of parents towards their children and the acceptance and rejection attitudes that the children perceive from their parents. Accordingly, parental acceptance-rejection forms warm dimension of parent


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towards the child (Khalaque & Rohner, 2002b; Rohner, Chaille, & Rohner, 1980; Rohner & Rohner, 1981; Rohner & Chaki-Sircar, 1988; Rohner & Khalaque, 2002). Parental acceptance are closeness, love, warmth, care, providing physical comfort, paying attention, supporting the child, or expressing this warmth and closeness verbally and physically. Verbal statements of parental acceptance are praising, appreciating the child, making compliments, and saying nice and positive things about the child while the physical forms of expression are kissing, caressing, hugging, looking affirmatively, and smiling at him/her (Rohner & Khaleque, 2002).

Parental refusal is defined as withdrawal of closeness, warmth, and love for the child, failing to provide care and support, failing to meet childs physical and psychological needs, and displaying behaviors causing physical and psychological harm to the child. Physical expressions of parental rejection include beating, biting, shoving, pinching, and failing to meet physical needs of the child while the verbal expression forms are cursing, sarcasm, saying scorning words about the child, and answering to the childs verbal expressions in a rough and rude way (Rohner & Chaki-Sircar, 1988; Rohner & Khaleque, 2002; Rohner & Rohner, 1981). These types of behaviors exhibited by parents make the children feel that they are not loved and they are rejected by their parents (Rohner, 2004).

Cross-cultural studies conducted by Rohner and colleagues indicated that parental rejection is displayed by four key expressions which are coldness/unaffectionate or warmth/affection, indifference/neglect, hostility/aggression, and undifferentiated rejection (Rohner, Khaleque, & Cournoyer, 2004; Rohner, 2004; Ahmed, Rohner, Khaleque, & Gielen, 2010). The following features can be seen in childrens grown with rejective attitude in the future: aggression, dependency, low self-esteem, low self-efficacy, pessimistic point of view, being emotionally solid, emotional unresponsiveness, and emotional uncertainty (Kitahara, 1987).

As in all development areas of a child, support of parents and the environment are effective in the development of problem-solving education too. Establishing healthy relationships with family members, peers, and other people around, provision of opportunities, and improving all these are possible for an individual only with the support of parents and the environment. The children have to learn how to behave towards others, and how to cope with difficulties faced in society. Setting a good example in this field and responsibility of forming social behaviors of the child depend on family support (Eki, 1990).

It was wandered that whether mothers accepting or rejecting behaviors toward their children has an impact on the development of social problem-solving skills which affects quality of the interaction with people, and it was aimed to be studied. For this purpose, in this study, we search an answer to the question of Do social problem-solving skills of 5-6 years old children differentiate depending on the levels of maternal acceptance-rejection?

Method The Design of Research

Comparative type of relational survey method was used in the study in order to examine the effect of mothers acceptance-rejection levels toward their children on 5-6 years old childrens social problem-solving skills.

Participants Three hundred and fifty nine children from 5-6 years age group attending preschool education institutions


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affiliated with the Ministry of Education in the province of Konya in Turkey, and their mothers participated in this research. One hundred and eighty of the children were girls (50.1%) and 179 were boys (49.9%). The sample group was formed by random selection among the children of families who accepted to participate in the research. The average age of children was five years, five months, and six days (not less than five years, two days; not more than six years, two months, and 10 days).

Measurements In the current study, parent version of the PARQ (Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire) Turkish

Form, Wally Social Problem-Solving Test, and a demographic form were used for data collection. PIF (Parent Information Form ). The PIF was developed by the researchers to define the characteristics

of the sample of the current study. PIF included questions about the demographic variables, such as level of education, number of children in household, age, and gender of children etc..

PARQ (Mother Form). This scale was developed by Rohner, Saaveda, and Granum in 1980. The PARQ is a 60-item self-report instrument designed to measure individuals perceptions of parental acceptance-rejection on a 4-item Likert type scale. The questions are organized into four scales: warmth/affection, hostility/aggression, indifference/neglect, and undifferentiated rejection. The warmth/affection (or its opposite, coldness and lack of affection) scale consists of 20 items, which refers to the parent-child relationship where parents are perceived to give love or affection without qualification. The hostility/aggression scale includes 15 items. The perceived hostility scale assesses the conditions where individuals believe that their parents are angry, bitter, or resentful toward them, whereas, perceived aggression assesses the conditions where individuals believe their parents intend to hurt them, physically and verbally. The indifference/neglect scale contains 15 items, assessing conditions where individuals see their parents as unconcerned or uninterested in them. The undifferentiated rejection scale includes 10 items and assesses the childs feelings of being rejected or unloved, although there may be no observable indicator for rejection. An overall possible score of perceived acceptance-rejection ranges from a low of 60 (reveals maximum perceived acceptance) to a high of 240 (reveals maximum perceived rejection) (Rohner & Khaleque, 2005).

The PARQ, parent version had been translated into Turkish by Anjel and Erkman in 1993. Erkman (2003) made a few changes in the instructions and some of the words in the questions for a better understanding and transliteration equivalence. In terms of reliability analysis, the Cronbach Alpha values were given by Anjel (1993) for the mother form as: 0.79 for warmth/affection; 0.80 for hostility/aggression; 0.64 for neglect/indifference; 0.57 for undifferentiated rejection for the subscales of PARQ; and 0.89 for the total PARQ scale. In addition, in another study by Erkman (2004), the findings revealed that the Cronbach Alpha values for the PARQ were 0.79, 0.68, 0.68, and 0.59 for the subscales of the PARQ, and 0.74 for the total PARQ (Ekmeki, 2008).

Wally Social Problem-Solving Test. Wally Social Problem-Solving Test (Webster-Stratton Hammond, 1997) is derived from Spivak and Shures (1985) Preschool Social Problem-Solving Test and Rubin and Krasnors (1986) Child Social Problem-Solving Test. It is designed to assess both qualitative and quantitative dimensions of social problem-solving. The child is presented with 15 brightly colored illustrations of hypothetical problem situations involving object acquisition (i.e., how to obtain a desired object) and friendship (i.e., how to make friends with unfamiliar person). The child is asked to resolve the problems in the pictures. As each picture is presented, the child is asked what the character in the situation could do or say


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to solve the problem. The child is encouraged to give as many answers as he or she can for each situation. The answers are scored on the basis of type of solutions offered (prosocial or agonistic). One point is given for each prosocial answer, and 0 point is given for a agonistic answer (Webster-Stratton Hammond, 1997). Reliability coefficient of the test was found to be r = 0.81 by a thesis study carried out by Dereli (2008). In this study, reliability coefficient of the test was calculated to be 0.79 (Ylmaz, 2012).

Procedure First of all, permission was taken from the Ministry of Education to conduct research in preschool

education institutions in Konya. Each school was visited by the researchers. The principal was informed about the study and the questionnaires that were used for the research. During the visits, the appropriate time and classes were arranged with the principal and school counselors to administer the questionnaires. The parents of the children were informed by the researcher, and written consent was prepared for the parents and children to sign.

The mothers were given the PARQ (Mother Form) and PIF to be responded to. At the beginning of the questionnaire, there were explanations about the purpose of the study. The parents were asked to return the questionnaire to the school counselors when they completed. Wally Social Problem-Solving Test was applied to the children whose mothers completed PARQ (Mother Form) by the researchers.

Mothers were divided into three groups with regards to the maternal acceptance-rejection assessed by the PARQ (Mother Form). SD (standard deviation) and mean scores that participant mothers got from total and subscales of PARQ (Mother Form) were calculated while establishing the groups (see Table 1).

Table 1 Minimum, Maximum, Mean Scores, and Standard Deviations of Mothers Obtained From PARQ (Mother Form) and Subscales of PARQ n Minimum Maximum x SD Warmth/affection 359 20 44 25.84 4.07 Hostility/aggression 359 15 43 22.78 5.33 Indifference/neglect 359 15 42 19.59 3.23 Undifferentiated rejection 359 10 31 14.96 2.99 Total rejection 359 60 140 77.17 12.11

Mothers whose maternal rejection scores were between +1 right and 1 left standard deviation were classified as medium level, mothers whose maternal rejection scores were above +1 standard deviation (x + SD = High) were classified as high level while the ones whose maternal rejection scores were below 1 standard deviation (x SD = Low) were classified as low level according to the mean scores that 359 participant mothers received from total of PARQ (Mother Form) and its subscales. Number of mothers (= children) in each subgroup is given in Table 2.

Data Analysis In order to determine the effect of maternal acceptance-rejection level on social problem-solving skills of

children, One-Way ANOVA (analysis of variance) was used and differences were evaluated by Tukey test. For data analysis, the SPSS 17.0 (Statistics Packages of Social Sciences) computer program was used for the recent study. Level of significance was found to be 0.05 at analysis of the data.


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Table 2 Maternal Acceptance-Rejection Scores Parental acceptance-rejection questionnaire Scores Levels n

Warmth/affection Between 20 to 22 points Low 37 Between 23 to 29 points Medium 236 Between 30 to 44 points High 86

Hostility/aggression Between 15 to 17 points Low 57 Between 18 to 28 points Medium 238 Between 29 to 43 points High 64

Indifference/neglect Between 15 to 16 points Low 66 Between 17 to 21 points Medium 211 Between 22 to 42 points High 82

Undifferentiated rejection Between 10 to 12 points Low 31 Between 13 to 18 points Medium 234 Between 19 to 31 points High 94

Total rejection Between 60 to 65 points Low 57 Between 66 to 89 points Medium 246 Between 90 to 140 points High 56

Results Analysis of variance was made in order to identify if childrens social problem-solving skills differ

depending on scores of coldness and lack of affection received from warmth/affection subscale of PARQ and the results are shown in Table 3.

Table 3 Results of Variance Analysis of Social Problem-Solving Scores of the Children According to the Warmth/Affection (or Its Opposite, Coldness/Lack of Affection) Subscale of Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire Maternal rejection level for warmth/affection subscale n x SD F p Low 37 11.38a 2.37

5.248 0.006 Medium 236 10.61ab 2.38 High 86 9.87b 2.83 Note. a, b, & ab: the difference between means, which is indicated with different letters, is significant according to Tukey test result (p < 0.05).

As displayed in Table 3, Wally Social Problem-Solving Test mean score of the children whose mothers received low score for coldness and lack of affection from warmth/affection subscale of PARQ, is 11.38; while Wally Social Problem-Solving Test mean score of the children, whose mothers received medium score of coldness and lack of affection, is 10.61; and Wally Social Problem-Solving Test mean score of the children, whose mothers received high score for coldness and lack of affection, is 9.87. Analyzing social problem-solving mean scores of children, its seen that childrens social problem-solving mean scores decrease as mothers scores of coldness and lack of affection increase. The F value was found to be 5.248 as a result of the analysis of variance (p < 0.01). As seen in Table 3, social problem-solving mean score of children whose mothers have low scores of coldness and lack of affection is significantly higher than the social problem-solving mean score of children whose mothers have high scores of coldness and lack of affection


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(p < 0.05) according to the Tukey test results. Table 4 shows the results of analysis of variance that was made in order to identify if childrens social

problem-solving skills differ depending on the scores on hostility/aggression subscale of PARQ.

Table 4 Results of Variance Analysis of Social Problem-Solving Scores of the Children According to the Hostility/Aggression Subscale of Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire Maternal rejection level for hostility/aggression subscale n x SD F p Low 57 10.91a 2.31


As presented in Table 4, significant difference at p < 0.05 level is observed between social problem-solving mean scores of the children whose mothers are with different levels of hostility and aggression (F(2,356) = 3.88). According to the Tukey test results, social problem-solving mean score (9.81) of children whose mothers are with high hostility/aggression scores is significantly lower than the social problem-solving mean score (10.91) of children whose mothers have low hostility/aggression scores (p < 0.05).

Results of analysis of variance that was made in order to identify if childrens social problem-solving skills differ depending on the scores on indifference/neglect subscale of PARQ are given in Table 5.

Table 5 Results of Variance Analysis of Social Problem-Solving Scores of the Children According to the Indifference/Neglect Subscale of Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire Maternal rejection level for indifference/neglect subscale n x SD F p Low 66 10.65 2.56

2.336 0.098 Medium 211 10.67 2.36 High 82 9.98 2.84

While analyzing in Table 5, where social problem-solving scores belonging to the children of mothers who have low, medium, and high scores from indifference/neglect subscale of PARQ are given, it is seen that the highest social problem-solving mean score (10.65) belongs to the children of mothers showing low level of indifference and neglect to their children. Children of mothers with low indifference/neglect are followed by children of mothers with medium (10.67) and high level (9.98) of indifference and neglect respectively. Yet, according to the results of variance analysis, the difference between these three means is not significant (F(2,356) = 2.336, p > 0.05).

Results of variance analysis that was made in order to identify if childrens social problem-solving skills differ depending on the scores from undifferentiated rejection subscale of PARQ are given in Table 6.

Analysis of numerical data in Table 6 indicates that the difference observed between social problem-solving mean scores of the children of mothers with different level of undifferentiated rejection is statistically significant (F(2,356) = 5.468, p < 0.010). As seen in Table 6, as in other subscales of PARQ, in undifferentiated rejection subscale, children of mothers showing low level undifferentiated rejection have the


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highest social problem-solving mean score (11.55). This mean of the children whose mothers show low undifferentiated rejection is significantly higher than social problem-solving mean score (9.93) of the children whose mothers show high level of undifferentiated rejection.

Table 6 Results of Variance Analysis of Social Problem-Solving Scores of the Children According to the Undifferentiated Rejection Subscale of Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire Maternal rejection level for undifferentiated rejection subscale n x SD F p Low 31 11.55a 2.31


Results of variance analysis that was made in order to identify if childrens social problem-solving skills differ depending on the total rejection score of PARQ are given in Table 7.

Table 7 Results of Variance Analysis of Social Problem-Solving Scores of the Children According to the Total Rejection Score of Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire Total maternal rejection level n x SD F p Low 57 11.11a 2.28


Looking through Table 7 where there are social problem-solving scores of the childrens mothers with low, medium, and high total rejection scores according to PARQ, we see that social problem-solving mean score of the children, whose mothers have low rejection level, is 11.11, while mothers with medium rejection level have children whose social problem-solving mean score is 10.53 and mothers with high rejection level have children whose social problem-solving mean score is 9.84. Analysis of variance was made in order to test the significance of the difference observed between the mean scores, and F value was found to be 3.616 (p < 0.05). Social problem-solving mean score of children of mothers with low levels of rejecting their children is significantly higher than the social problem-solving mean score of children of mothers with high level of rejecting their children.

Discussion Parental Acceptance-Rejection Theory grounds on the basic assumption that all the people in the world

need to get positive responses from people who are most important to them and it emphasizes the importance of acceptance or rejection by parents in parent-child interaction (Rohner, 1986). In this context, the impact of maternal acceptance-rejection on childrens social problem-solving skills was studied by this research. At the end of the study, it was determined that social problem-solving skills of children of mothers, who got low score from coldness/lack of affection (or its opposite, warmth/affection), hostility/aggression, undifferentiated


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rejection, and total rejection, were higher than social problem-solving skills of children of mothers, who got high score from coldness/lack of affection (or its opposite, warmth/affection), hostility/aggression, undifferentiated rejection, and total rejection. This result indicates that mothers who show closeness, love, and warmth; provide care and physical comfort, concern, and support, say nice and positive things; look and smile at their children, and hug them, have children with better social problem-solving skills. This finding of the study was an expected result. Because when we look through the literature, some thoughts, such as a person finds the solution to the problem is very hard to find, thinks he/she cannot solve the problem, believes facilities are insufficient, and sees himself/herself helpless and etc., are stated to block the solution to the problem (lm, 2001). It is quite natural that these kind of thought are developed in children of mothers who reject, in other words, humiliate, criticize, exclude, neglect, and fail to love and recognize their children.

In the literature, as the result of the research where the relationship between perceived parental attitudes and personality characteristics were studied, Schlette, Brandstrom, Eisemann, Sigvardsson, Nylander, Adolfsson, and Perris (1998) stated that parental rejecting behaviors experienced throughout childhood may constitute a risky factor for the individual in term of low warmth and low self-management.

In their researches where mothers social management, mother-child relations, and childrens competition with their peers were studied, Mize and Pettit (1997) evaluated the effects of mothers social assistance to and relation with their children on childrens competition with their peers. At the end of the study, they found that social management increases aggression in the relation between the child and friends when there is less mother-child interaction (as cited in akc, 2006).

Looking through the studies investigating effects of parental attitudes on social problem-solving skills, with the results of Terzis (2000) research with sixth grade students and Basmacs (1998) research with university students, it was found that students with a democratic attitude of parents have higher perceptions of interpersonal problem-solving skills than the students with a authoritarian attitude of parents. Similarly, in Hamartas (2007) research with the eighth grade students, childrens social problem-solving skills were found to be connected with perceived parental attitudes.

Another result of this study is that social problem-solving scores of the children do not differ depending on indifference/neglect scores of mothers and there is no significant difference between social problem-solving scores of children of mothers with medium level scores from warmth/affection (coldness/lack of affection), hostility/aggression, undifferentiated rejection, and total rejection and social problem-solving scores of children of mothers who got low and high level scores from warmth/affection (coldness/lack of affection), hostility/aggression, undifferentiated rejection, and total rejection. This result can be explained by the distribution of mothers scores on the scale. The scores that mothers receive from total and subscales of the scale are quite close to the mean scores that can be received from the scale. This shows that the sample group formed by mothers displays accepting attitude toward their children in general. In other words, the scores of the mothers are close to the acceptance point of warmth dimension. Other studies investigating acceptance-rejection of the parents in Turkey toward their children also support this conclusion (Ekmeki, 2008; nder & Glay, 2007; Varan, 2005; etin, 2005; Erkman & Rohner, 2006; Kayahan, 2002; Eryavuz, 2006; ngider, 2006; Batum, 2007; Varan, Rohner, Eryksel, 2008; Salahur, 2010; Karpat, 2010). In addition, this result is consistent with Kaba and Sunars (1992) definition of Turkish family in relational culture as a structure with strong emotional closeness and support among family members. Katbas (1990; 1996) definition of Turkish family as a structure within the culture where concern and commitment come into


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prominence, rationalized the fact that all the mothers who participated in this study got scores that were close to the acceptance point of warmth dimension. But this situation also reveals another fact. Although scores of the mothers who participated in this study were close to the acceptance point of maternal acceptance-rejection dimension, the fact that there is a significant differences even between social problem-solving skills of the children of the mothers classified in low, medium, and high levels according to the scores shows the importance of effects of parental acceptance-rejection behaviors on the childs social problem-solving skills.

Conclusions and Recommendations At the end of the study, it has been concluded that social problem-solving skills of children differentiated

according to maternal acceptance-rejection levels. This result indicates interaction between accepting mothers and their children contributes to childrens social problem-solving skills in a positive way. This result also highlights the fact that mothers acceptance-rejection behaviors and childrens social, emotional, and cognitive development are closely related.

The following recommendations can be developed with reference to the research results: (1) It is important to organize informative meetings on topics, such as child psychology, child education,

and child care for all parents, starting with candidate parents, through universities, Ministry of Education, public education centers, municipalities, and non-governmental organizations;

(2) Topic of the relationship between level of maternal acceptance-rejection and social-emotional development of the children should be studied with different sample groups and different variables (such as social maturity, social competence, sense of self, and self-control, etc.) and assessments should be made on different results.

References Ahmed, R. A., Rohner, R. P., Khaleque, A., & Gielen, U. P. (2010). Parental acceptance and rejection: Theory, measures, and

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Examining Fundamental Movement Skills and Social

Responsiveness of Children With Autism Following a

Randomized Physical Activity Intervention

Crawford Susan University College Cork, Cork, Ireland

MacDonncha Ciaran, Smyth Patrick J. University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland

Research indicates that children with autism have difficulties in the areas of social responsiveness and fundamental

movement skill development. This research sought to assess the effects of individualized APA (adapted physical

activity) programmes, on the fundamental movement skills and social responsiveness of children with autism and

co-occurring learning disabilities. Seventeen students with autism and learning disabilities (mean age 12.8 years)

participated in an APA intervention over a 10-week period three times per week, in a special school setting. A

non-active group (n = 8) were used as control. Results of paired t-tests indicated that significant improvements

occurred for 47% of the intervention group in fundamental movement skills total scores to retention with 76% of

participants showing statistically significant improvement in social responsiveness scores to the post-test.

Participants of the control group did not show significant change. Qualitatively, teacher and SNA (special needs

assistant) interview (n = 6) and diary indicated improvements occurred in physical, intellectual, social, emotional,

and attitudinal components for the intervention group only. Overall results indicate the benefits of APA

intervention programmes in promoting fundamental movement skills and social responsiveness for children with

autism and co-occurring learning disabilities in keeping with an ecological approach. Addressing whole school

approaches to APA delivery, appropriate support and training for teachers and SNAs, using mixed methods of

assessment, and maintaining ongoing low levels of intervention are essential for the overall health and wellbeing of

this population.

Keywords: autism, APA (adapted physical activity), intervention, movement skills, social responsiveness

Introduction Autism is a lifelong developmental disability, typically diagnosed in early childhood and characterized by

development that is delayed or what may be considered different from typical (Wing, 2002). For individuals with autism, research indicates that normative development in the areas of fundamental movement skills and social responsiveness is either delayed or absent (Staples & Reid, 2010; Todd & Reid, 2006). Many children Acknowledgement: The authors would like to acknowledge the participants and teachers who participated in the study. This research was funded by The Irish Research Council of Science Engineering and Technology.

Crawford Susan, Ph.D., Master in Teaching and Learning in Higher Education; B.Sc., lecturer, Sports Studies and Physical Education, University College Cork.

MacDonncha Ciaran, Ph.D., B.Ed., senior lecturer, Department of Physical Education & Sport Science, University of Limerick. Smyth Patrick J., Ph.D., B.Ed., lecturer, Department of Physical Education & Sport Science, University of Limerick.

D DAVID PUBLISHING

MOVEMENT SKILLS AND SOCIAL RESPONSIVENESS OF CHILDREN WITH AUTISM

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with autism are also diagnosed with co-occurring general learning disabilities which are also associated with varying degrees of motor impairment (Wing, 2002; Department of Education and Science, 1993; Department of Education and Science, 2001a). Addressing difficulties in the areas of fundamental movement skills and social responsiveness for individuals with autism and co-occurring learning disabilities is a challenge to educators and other professionals. Physical activity has been identified as a means of addressing movement skill impairments, reducing stereotypical behaviour (Levinson & Reid, 1993; Prupas & Reid, 2001), increasing appropriate responding (Kern, Koegel, & Dunlap, 1984), and increasing the potential for social interaction (Berkeley, Zittel, Pitney, & Nichols, 2001). Researchers indicate that physical activity needs to be appropriately adapted to accommodate children and adults with autism and co-occurring learning disabilities. An ecological approach to this adaptation is recommended, where the individual, environment, and task are all considered in the overall programme planning (Henderson & Sugden, 2007; Reid & OConnor, 2003; Block, 2000). Todd and Reid (2006) also indicate the need for mixed method intervention studies examining FMS (fundamental movement skills) and SRS (social responsiveness scale) with individuals with autism to further inform practice and policy.

This study was undertaken to examine the effects of a randomized mixed method APA intervention on the fundamental movement skills and social responsiveness of children with autism and learning disabilities in a special school setting in Ireland.

Methods Participants

Twenty five children (17 boys and eight girls) with a mean age of 12.8 ( 2.4) years participated in this Irish study. All participants attended one of three classes in a special school setting classified as catering for children and adolescents with moderate to severe learning disabilities. All of the participants were previously diagnosed by psychological assessment. Criterion for inclusion included a diagnosis of autism and learning disabilities. Participants had to be mobile and able to participate in the APA programme. Two classes, i.e., 17 of the children were randomly assigned to the intervention group. The third class, i.e., eight remaining children were chosen to act as the control. Assignment was carried out by the school principal to accommodate classroom scheduling resulting in imbalanced randomization. The six classroom teachers and SNAs participated in the study. Inclusion criteria were voluntary participation.

Ethical Approval and Considerations Ethical approval was sought and granted, by the ULREC (University of Limerick Research Ethics

Committee). Informed consent was sought from each school principal and teacher involved. Information leaflets and consent forms were distributed to the parents of each participant. As all participants were minors, parents were required to sign the consent form. Children were invited to sign where feasible.

Procedures The intervention was of 10-week duration. The intervention involved the children participating in an APA

programme which consisted of an obstacle course combining manipulation, locomotor, and balancing skills, delivered by their classroom teachers and SNAs. The MABC (Movement Assessment Battery for Children) (Movement ABC) Revised (Henderson, Sugden, & Barnett, 2007) and the SRS (Constantino & Gruber, 2005) were administered at pre-test, post-test, and retention. The SNAs and classroom teachers were given pre-intervention training and weekly guidance and were asked to work with the children at least three sessions


595

per week of 20 minutes duration. Both teachers and SNAs were asked to keep a diary of each session. The control group participated in the usual physical education class once a week per school curriculum.

The methods of intervention were based on a number of guiding principles in keeping with an ecological systems approach (Henderson & Sugden, 2007; Reid & OConnor, 2003; Block, 2000). The activities chosen were directly addressed using task analysis, i.e., breaking skills down into component parts and task adaptation, i.e., changing the tools or the environment to promote participation. The child, classroom teacher, and the SNA were involved in task-selection, monitoring, and goal setting. Groups of tasks that were similar were taught together, i.e., catching, throwing, and bouncing activities. Through the use of grouping tasks, variability of practice was encouraged, in order to promote generalization (Sugden & Chambers, 2007). Key elements essential for programme design, planning, and participation were incorporated into all programmes. These included individual instruction, low student to teacher ratio, task variation, stimulus generalisation of learning, self-determination, structured learning environment, and physical structure (Reid & OConnor, 2003; Block, 2000; Mesibov, Adams, Klinger, 1997). Assessment Instruments

Quantitative assessment tools included MABC and the SRS. Qualitative analysis included semi-structured interviews and weekly teacher/SNA diaries.

MABC revised. MABC (Henderson, Sugden, & Barnett, 2007) was used to assess movement ability in three specific domains including: (1) manual dexterity; (2) ball skills; and (3) static balance and dynamic balance. This assessment tool has established reliability and validity for use with this population. Raw scores, i.e., the number of seconds taken to complete a task were noted. Raw scores were also converted into scaled scores in order to ascertain where the childs performance lays in relation to the standardized sample. Raw scores falling below the fifth percentile were considered as a definitive motor problem, while scores between the fifth and 15th percentile were indicative of borderline difficulty.

SRS. The SRS (Constantino & Gruber, 2005) is a 65-item questionnaire, and in this instance, it was completed by teachers. It covers various dimensions of interpersonal behavior, communication, and repetitive/stereotypic behaviors that are characteristic of autism. Its subcategories include social awareness, social motivation, social cognition, social communication, and autistic mannerisms. It has established reliability and validity for use with this population. Total raw scores and subscale scores are converted to T-scores. Changes in SRS scores over time, were reported as point differences (post-test pre-test = point difference). Point differences one to two times greater than 1.7 (standard error of measurement) in SRS subscales, indicate improved intervention effects.

Teacher/SNA diaries. The teachers and SNAs completed weekly diaries and were asked to score and comment on each student based on the Pupil Evaluation Checklist (Wright Sugden, 1999). The checklist consisted of a series of closed questions that considered the participants progress under a series of headings including physical, intellectual, social, emotional, and attitudinal components. Each of these components was scored using a Likert format: Always = 1, Sometimes = 2, Rarely = 3, and Never = 4. An open-ended section was provided for any further comments and observations. If, during the course of the study, the participants required any additional help or interventions in any areas, i.e., behavioral issues, increased medication, and other pertinent issues, these were documented (Sugden & Chambers, 2007).

Teachers/SNA interviews. Semi-structured interviews of teachers and SNAs were held at the beginning


596

and the end of the intervention. The interviews focused on social and behavioral changes in performance during the sessions and any additional information on helping the children was receiving. Teachers and SNAs were also asked about their own experiences of delivering the sessions. Key themes were identified and coded. Teachers and SNAs were provided with copies of transcripts of interviews for verification (Creswell, 2007).

Data Analysis Quantitative data from MABC and SRS were inputted into SPSS (Statistical Program for Social Sciences)

version 18. Paired samples t-tests were used to establish intervention effects. Statistical significance was set at p 0.01, following Bonferroni corrections for multiple comparisons. Qualitative data from the interview were coded and emergent themes recorded.

Results The results examine data for both groups. These findings were further explored in the light of interview and

diary themes.

Total Impairment Scores As seen from Table 1, total impairment scores overall indicated that a statistically significant decrease

occurred for the intervention group from pre-test (M = 37.17, SD = 5.58) to retention (M = 30.35, SD = 12.62), t (7) = 1.34, p < 0.01 (two-tailed). The mean decrease in scores was with a 95% confidence interval ranging from 2.25 to 11.39. Statistical significance was not attained for the control group in total impairment scores.

Table 1 MABC Total Impairment Scores Pre-test Mean SD Post-test Mean SD Retention Mean SD

Total impairment scores Intervention group 37.17 5.58 32.64 10.51 30.35 12.62 Control group 34.00 8.48 31.37 8.71 31.12 8.79

Total Impairment Subscales Table 2 Total Impairment Subscales Pre-test Mean SD Post-test Mean SD Retention Mean SD

Manual dexterity Intervention group 14.29 2.20 11.52 4.91 11.41 5.01 Control group 13.75 2.81 11.75 3.45 11.62 3.46

Ball skills Intervention group 8.76 2.35 7.70 3.15 7.00 3.80 Control group 7.37 2.66 8.00 1.85 7.87 1.88

Static and dynamic balance Intervention group 14.05 2.16 13.41 2.82 11.82 4.36 Control group 12.37 4.10 11.87 4.15 11.57 4.12

As seen from Table 2, in the MABC subscales, the intervention group or the control group did not attain statistical significance in the manual dexterity category. Statistically significant decreases occurred in ball skills from pre-test (M = 8.76, SD = 2.35) to retention test (M = 7.00, SD = 3.80), t (16) = 2.86, p < 0.01 (two-tailed) for the intervention group. The mean decrease in scores was with a 95% confidence interval ranging from 0.45 to 3.06. No statistical significance was obtained for the control group in the ball skills category. In the static and dynamic balance category, a statistically significant decrease was obtained for the intervention group from pre-test (M = 14.05, SD = 2.16) to the retention test (M = 11.82, SD = 4.36), t (16) = 2.92, p < 0.01 (two-tailed). The mean decrease in scores was with a 95% confidence interval ranging from 0.61 to 3.85. The control group did


597

not attain statistical significance in static and dynamic balance.

Social Responsiveness Scores As seen from Table 3, in the SRS total scores, a statistically significant decrease was obtained for the

intervention group from the pre-test (M = 70.05, SD = 7.39) to the post-test (M = 64.35, SD = 6.67), t (16) = 3.27, p < 0.01 (two-tailed). The mean decrease in scores was with a 95% confidence interval ranging from 2.01 to 9.39. The control group did not attain a statistically significant decrease in overall social responsiveness scores.

Table 3 Total SRS Scores Pre-test Mean SD Post-test Mean SD Retention Mean SD

Total SRS scores Intervention group 70.05 7.39 64.35 6.67 70.11 10.01 Control group 69.75 8.90 66.75 10.79 64.00 6.32

Social Responsiveness Subscales As seen from Table 4, within the SRS subcategories, statistical significance was not found in either social

awareness or social cognition for either the intervention or control groups. In the social communication subcategory, statistical significance was established in the pre-test, (M = 66.29, SD = 7.57), to post-test period (M = 59.47, SD = 7.00), t (16) = 3.01, p < 0.01 (two-tailed) for the intervention group. The mean decrease in scores was with a 95% confidence interval ranging from -1.39 to 6.57. Statistically significant decrease was established in social motivation in the pre-test (M = 69.11, SD = 8.72) to post-test period (M = 61.94, SD = 8.87), t (16) = 3.59, p < 0.01 (two-tailed) for the intervention group. The mean decrease in scores was with a 95% confidence interval ranging from 2.94 to 11.40. The intervention group showed statistically significant decrease in the pre-test (M = 79.17, SD = 7.80) to post-test (M = 72.17, SD = 11.13), t (16) = 2.77, p < 0.01 (two-tailed) period in the autistic mannerism subcategory. The mean decrease in scores was with a 95% confidence interval ranging from 1.65 to 12.34. The control group did not obtain statistical significance in these subcategories.

Table 4 Social Responsiveness Subscales Pre-test Mean SD Post-test Mean SD Retention Mean SD

Social awareness Intervention group 59.47 15.81 62.35 8.49 65.58 8.68 Control group 59.00 14.96 54.87 9.35 61.62 5.92

Social cognition Intervention group 68.70 7.08 66.82 6.52 71.11 9.25 Control group 57.12 7.64 54.62 5.39 56.37 6.04

Social communication Intervention group 66.29 7.57 59.47 7.00 66.88 10.54 Control group 62.12 9.68 53.62 11.64 59.37 5.85

Social motivation Intervention group 69.11 8.72 61.94 8.87 66.52 9.04 Control group 54.75 11.70 55.75 13.66 56.25 8.71

Autistic mannerisms Intervention group 79.17 7.80 72.17 11.13 76.94 13.87 Control group 67.75 15.21 60.50 11.50 65.00 10.75

Key Themes From Teacher/SNA Diaries and Semi-structured Interviews Teacher/SNA diaries and interview themes shared a number of common themes. All respondents felt the

participants of the APA intervention gained immensely from participation in the APA programme both from movement skill perspectives and overall engagement and enjoyment of activities.

Mary really looked forward to the sessions. She started out not being able to throw or catch a ball but by the end of the


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programme she was really getting involved and you could see the enjoyment in her face, turn-taking, and tidying up after. (Teacher A)

All respondents felt the protocol for programme delivery worked very well. Having a definite programme to deliver with clear guidelines was great. I knew exactly what to set up and how to

progress each skill as we went on. It was also good to have the reinforcers identified and at hand to keep John on task. (SNA B)

However, it was also felt that issues of programme duration and frequency could be problematic in the long term in a school setting.

The only problem I would have with the programme was the actual time duration. It is difficult to schedule over 30 minutes each day to address fundamental movement skills when we have such a full curriculum, although I know it really should be a priority. (Teacher B)

Pre-intervention training was welcomed by both teachers and SNAs for developing their competence and confidence in programme delivery.

It was great to have the training beforehand. I would not have known how to plan a session like this, how to break down the skills, learning about throwing techniques, and use of different equipment and reinforcers. (SNA C)

All felt that this was an area that needed to be addressed at pre-service training and also for continued professional development. Both groups felt that a whole school approach to promoting APA was also necessary.

The principal and all the staff need to buy into these programmes, if they are to be delivered properly and often enough to be effective. It is difficult if you do not have the whole school involved. (Teacher D)

They felt the Pupil Evaluation Checklist helped focus their monitoring of the students in a meaningful and holistic manner.

I definitely will use the Pupil Evaluation Checklist again; it really focussed my thinking on different areas of development for each of the children. We are not nearly holistic enough in our assessing the children. (Teacher C)

Summary of Overall Findings Statistical significance was obtained in overall total impairment scores for 47% of the intervention group to

the retention test. Statistically significant improvements occurred in ball skills and static and dynamic balance for 41% of participants to retention testing. For overall social responsiveness, statistically significant improvements occurred for 76% of participants for the duration of the programme. In the subcategories, statistically significant improvements occurred in social communication (59% of participants), social motivation (59% of participants), and autistic mannerisms (53% of participants) for the programme duration. Pupil evaluation subcategories indicated improvements as follows: physical components (n = 9) for the programme duration, intellectual components (n = 9) for the programme duration and in social components (n = 14), emotional components (n = 14), and attitudinal components (n = 10) to the retention test. The control group did not show statistically significant changes in either fundamental movement skills or social responsiveness for the duration of the study. In the pupil evaluation subcategories, participants of the control group indicated improvements as follows for the programme duration: physical components (n = 3), intellectual components (n = 3), social components (n = 4), emotional components (n = 4), and attitude components (n = 4).

Discussion Inferential statistical analysis from the intervention study has found that APA programmes significantly

affected movement ability (47%) and social responsiveness (76% to post-test) of children with autism and


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co-occurring learning disabilities. The control group did not attain significant change. Qualitative analysis also provided equally important information as subtle changes are not necessarily obvious on quantitative analysis (Todd & Reid, 2006; Prupas & Reid, 2001; Celeberti, Bobo, Kelly, Harris, & Handleman, 1997). The study also confirms evidence that children with autism and co-occurring learning disabilities show varying profiles in movement ability and social responsiveness over time (Wing, 2002; Frith, 2003; Jordan, Jones, & Murray, 1998). These profiles have distinct characteristics related to events in the childs life, in this case, intervention which concurs with an ecological approach to explaining development (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998). Researchers in the fields of APA, support this approach (Henderson & Sugden, 2007; Reid & OConnor, 2003; Block, 2000).

Motor Impairment Scores Multiple sessions appear to have the greatest effect on skill development (Henderson & Sugden, 2007) and

behavior modification (Prupas & Reid, 2001) as distinct from weekly physical education sessions for the control group. Additional SNA support was necessary for hand over hand prompting and assisting with behavior difficulties that arose (Lovaas, 1987; Reid & OConnor, 2003). In this study, the teachers/SNAs reported that they developed greater confidence in their own abilities to deliver the programmes as time progressed and as they themselves gained greater experiences.

Varying degrees of motor impairment of children with autism, found agreements with that of previous research during this study (Berkley, Zittel, Pitney, & Nichols, 2001; Manjiviona & Prior, 1995; Ghaziuddin & Butler, 1998). Those children who did not show any improvements in overall movement ability, after intervention in the current study, also presented with moderate to severe behavioural and comprehension issues, but seven of these participants showed a positive change in total SRS scores. Teacher/SNA reports indicated that in the ball skills task, the participants had difficulties in throwing and catching a ball with their preferred hand. The children had the most difficulty in controlling the force and direction of the ball, which suggests that these problems may be an indicator of dysfunction of the cerebellum (Muller, Pierce, Ambrose, Allen, Courchesne, 2001). Approximately, half of the subjects had difficulty in taking a slow, careful approach to the tasks, no matter how much they were reminded to do so; instead, they tended to rush through the tasks and appeared to be unable to slow down. There was also the tendency for many of the participants to act impulsively, for example, on a ball skills task that required the participants to throw the ball at a target, it was observed that they often would not look in the direction of the target before throwing the ball, and had to be reminded before each attempt. These observations of impulsivity and an inability to take a slow considered approach to tasks are possibly indicative of the executive function deficits theory, as postulated by Frith (2003), who stated that the absence of higher-level control of action and attention indicates a difficulty in the self-organisation of any behaviour that is not routine, in this instance, throwing a ball. Lovaas (1987) and other proponents of ABA (applied behaviour analysis), indicated that the very consistent approach of ABA helps overcome this difficulty in self-organisation of non-routine behaviours. Hence, it is possible that a programme which ran exclusively on the principles of ABA may have yielded greater results. Further, Sugden and Chambers (2007) indicated that children with fundamental movement skill difficulties and other co-occurring disabilities need to have intervention built into their everyday lives to maintain lasting effects. The control group also indicated high levels of motor impairment. Where improvement occurred it was to a lesser degree than the intervention group, which confirms that the intervention had a positive effect on MABC results, for a number of participants in the intervention group. Lacking of significant change in manual dexterity could be attributed to it not being specifically addressed in the intervention


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programme.

Social Responsiveness Scores In relation to social responsiveness, the majority of the children participating in the intervention, showed

positive change (n = 13) concurring with findings of previous researchers (Prupas & Reid, 2001; Celeberti, Bobo, Kelly, Harris, & Handleman, 1997; Schleien, Krotee, Mustonen, Kelterborn, & Schermer, 1987). The four participants, who did not improved in social responsiveness scores, did so at the retention test, in the subscale of autistic mannerisms. The retention test happened after a months summer holidays. It is possible that the lack of school routine or temporary upset or reactions to events at home for this subgroup may have contributed to this (Constantino & Gruber, 2005). Positive changes in social responsiveness did occur for the control group but were not statistically significant.

The study had certain limitations. Overall, participant numbers were small. Where MABC was found to be particularly suitable for some participants, there appeared to be a core group that assessment would be better served using qualitative means to establish individual change. As a number of participants in the intervention group overall showed a trend toward improvement, had the individualised APA programmes been run for a longer duration, it is felt that greater improvements would have taken place. Further, greater change might have taken place with more intensive input using applied behaviour analysis. Future studies should involve parental input and feedback from the participants to ensure a very clear picture which is obtained of each participating student and their thoughts on the programme.

Conclusions and Recommendations There is clearly a group of children with autism and co-occurring learning disabilities for whom intervention

is effective and for a number of the participants this intervention appeared to be relatively permanent in nature. This would appear to have important implications for the everyday management of the disorder, with the inference that intervention cannot be simply short term, but must be built into the everyday life of the child (Henderson & Sugden, 2007). For those children who did not show improvement, a more intensive approach to intervention using ABA may show greater results (Lovaas, 1987; Szapacs, 2006). One to one therapeutic intervention from a trained professional, such as an occupational therapist or physiotherapist, may also be necessary (Sugden & Chambers, 2007).

Training for teachers and SNAs, in the delivery of APA programmes, warrants attention. Training of special educational needs organisers in the area of APA/APE (adapted physical education) is also essential to ensure staffing levels are maintained for the delivery of quality programmes. It also has further implications for promoting participation in lifelong physical activity for individuals with autism and co-occurring learning disabilities (Sandt & Frey, 2005). Future recommendations include that following professionally planned interventions, some form of low-level intervention be continued at school and at home. Studies examining those variables and markers during intervention that influence the progressions, individual children will make, are essential (Sugden & Chambers, 2007). Replication of intervention studies, such as this, using a variety of assessment tools and qualitative analysis, is recommended. It is recommended that different teaching interventions (intensive ABA) for the delivery of APA programmes to this particular population be examined (Lovaas, 1987). Parent and child input also need to be included in programme planning and delivery.


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Evaluations of the Functions of Money Before, After, and

During Dual Currency Circulation Period Among

University Students

Kristi Kiv University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia

The purpose of the study was to determine the attitudes toward five economic functions of money (medium of

exchange, measure of value, standard of deferred payments, store of value, and transfer of value) of university

students over a three year period: before (year 2010), after (year 2012), and during dual currency period (year 2011)

in Estonia, whereby, the time interval between each time point was the samea year. In longitudinal panel study, a

sample was followed and measured by self-reported questionnaire in January 2010 (N = 251), 2011 (N = 237), and

2012 (N = 221). The functional meaning of money for university students has over the time stable meaning in terms

of economical exchange, but also has changing components. Even if the national currency was considered more

important than the Euro during dual currency circulation, research results provide clear evidence that attitudes

toward currencies in terms of economic functions were influenced by currency exchange in the society: high

evaluations of the Euro versus low evaluations of the national currency across four functions of moneymeasure

of value, standard of deferred payments, store of value, and transfer of value.

Keywords: dual currency circulation, national currency, Euro, money attitudes, functions of money

Introduction Virtually, everybody agrees that money is an important aspect of daily life. In the economic perspective,

money is viewed as a financial instrument that fulfills the functions of money (Furnham, 2002), whereby, economics handbooks (C. D. Campbell, R. G. Campbell, & Dolan, 1988; Jain, 2007) list functions of money more or less unanimously following standard criteriaits importance in market economy. Comprehensively used classification of functions of money describes the most important functions of the money as primary functions (medium of exchange and standard of common measure), which are common to all economics of the world; and less important functions of money as secondary functions (standard of deferred payme

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