US-China Education Review 2013(9B)

US-China

Education Review

B

Volume 3, Number 9, September 2013 (Serial Number 28)

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Publication Information: US-China Education Review B (Earlier title: Journal of US-China Education Review, ISSN 1548-6613) is published monthly in hard copy (ISSN 2161-6248) by David Publishing Company located at 9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731, USA. Aims and Scope: US-China Education Review B, a monthly professional academic journal, covers all sorts of education-theory researches on Higher Education, Higher Educational Management, Educational Psychology, Teacher Education, Curriculum and Teaching, Educational Technology, Educational Economics and Management, Educational Theory and Principle, Educational Policy and Administration, Educational Sociology, Educational Methodology, Comparative Education, Vocational and Technical Education, Special Education, Educational Philosophy, Elementary Education, Science Education, Lifelong Learning, Adult Education, Distance Education, Preschool Education, Primary Education, Secondary Education, Art Education, Rural Education, Environmental Education, Health Education, History of Education, Education and Culture, Education Law, Educational Evaluation and Assessment, Physical Education, Educational Consulting, Educational Training, Moral Education, Family Education, as well as other issues. Editorial Board Members: Asst. Prof. Dr. Gner Tural Associate Prof. Rosalinda Hernandez Professor Aaron W. Hughey Professor Alexandro Escudero Professor Cameron Scott White Professor Deonarain Brijlall Professor Diane Schwartz Professor Ghazi M. Ghaith Professor Gil-Garcia, Ana Professor Gordana Jovanovic Dolecek Professor Grigorios Karafillis Professor James L. Morrison Professor Kthe Schneider Professor Lihshing Leigh Wang Professor Mercedes Ruiz Lozano Professor Michael Eskay Professor Peter Hills Professor Smirnov Eugeny Professor Yea-Ling Tsao Manuscripts and correspondence are invited for publication. You can submit your papers via Web submission, or E-mail to [email protected] or [email protected]. Submission guidelines and Web submission system are available at http://www.davidpublishing.org or http://www.davidpublishing.com. Editorial Office: 9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731, USA Tel: 1-323-984-7526, 323-410-1082 Fax: 1-323-984-7374, 323-908-0457 E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] Copyright2013 by David Publishing Company and individual contributors. All rights reserved. David Publishing Company holds the exclusive copyright of all the contents of this journal. In accordance with the international convention, no part of this journal may be reproduced or transmitted by any media or publishing organs (including various Websites) without the written permission of the copyright holder. Otherwise, any conduct would be considered as the violation of the copyright. The contents of this journal are available for any citation. However, all the citations should be clearly indicated with the title of this journal, serial number and the name of the author. Abstracted/Indexed in: Database of EBSCO, Massachusetts, USA Chinese Database of CEPS, Airiti Inc. & OCLC Chinese Scientific Journals Database, VIP Corporation, Chongqing, P.R.C. Ulrichs Periodicals Directory

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US-China Education Review

B Volume 3, Number 9, September 2013 (Serial Number 28)

Contents Educational Economics and Management

Impact of High School Science Studies on Incomes of Japanese University Graduates 651

Kazuo Nishimura, Junichi Hirata, Junko Urasaka, Tadashi Yagi

Primary Education

Managing and Leading in Early Childhood Education: A Study of Heads of Centers in Greece 663

Eleftheria Argyropoulou

Educational Policy and Management Opportunities and Challenges for Vietnams Higher Education in the Globalisational Process: Experiences From Hanoi University of Social Sciences and Humanities 680

Nguyen Van Khanh, Tran Van Kham

Effective Communication in Educational Administration 690

Ibrahim Habaci, Efraim Ezgin elik, Mehmet Habaci, Fadime Adigzelli, Sultan Kurt

New Conceptions of Educational Systems in the Function of Projecting School of the Future 703

Miroslav Kuka, Jove Talevski, Ksenija Jovanovi Comparison Between Sino-British College Student Affairs Administration and

Its Enlightenment 709

Yan Yu-zhou, Xue Hui-feng, Wang Yi-ning, Kou Xiao-dong

Educational Sociology

Accessing Child Welfare Grants to Meet Orphan Children School Needs: Namibia and South Africa Perspective 716

Simon George Taukeni

Lifelong Education

Lifelong Learning From Ethical Perspective 722

Krystyna Najder-Stefaniak

Teacher Education

Study and Exploration on Chinese Teacher ProfessionalismFrom the Perspective of Teachers Development 727

Wang Xian-ming

US-China Education Review B, ISSN 2161-6248 September 2013, Vol. 3, No. 9, 651-662

Impact of High School Science Studies on Incomes of

Japanese University Graduates

Kazuo Nishimura Kobe University,

Kobe, Japan

Junichi Hirata Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University,

Ohita, Japan

Junko Urasaka, Tadashi Yagi Doshisha University,

Kyoto, Japan

In this article, we use an analysis of incomes of university graduates to examine the impact of changes in science

studies curricula on the cultivation of human capabilities and on worker labor market competitiveness. In addition,

we compare three separate generations to analyze the impact brought about by changes in curriculum guidelines.

One result derived from this analysis is the tendency for science and mathematics to become weaker subjects for

each succeeding generation, in line with the more relaxed curricula studied. Also, in confirming that physics study

has contributed to an increase in income, our research suggests that this is an important factor in the cultivation of

earning capacity in every generation.

Keywords: science studies, incomes of science graduates, physics studies, curriculum guidelines, relaxed education,

new concept of scholastic ability

Preface In this paper, we have verified that the content of science subjects that students study affects their

competitiveness as workers, and therefore, their annual income in the labor market. In earlier studies, Kane and Rouse (1995) had looked at the relationship among credits acquired at

universities and annual income as a way of gauging the rate of return to a university education. Arcidiacono (2004) studied the college education process, estimated the difference in earnings among majors, and discussed the factors which determine earnings. Then, he showed that the observed premiums are generated by both the learning of math and science and the abilities of individuals choosing the different majors. OLeary and Sloane (2005) examined the income of university graduates in Great Britain according to their department of graduation. Wolniak, Seifert, Reed, and Pascarella (2008, p. 132) also showed that statistically significant differences exist in earnings among college majors by using alumni data; especially, math/engineering majors earn higher income, which is consistent with our results in this paper.

Hirata, Nishimura, Urasaka, and Yagi (2013) had identified income gaps between science graduates and humanities graduates in Japan. The results of their research indicate that the cultivation of scientific capabilities makes workers relatively more competitive in the labor market. Included in the humanities category were principally graduates of cultural and social sciences departments, while those in the sciences category included

Kazuo Nishimura, Ph.D., professor, Research Institute for Economics & Business Administration, Kobe University. Junichi Hirata, Ph.D., professor, College of International Management, Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University. Junko Urasaka, Ph.D., professor, Faculty of Social Studies, Doshisha University. Tadashi Yagi, Ph.D., professor, Faculty of Economics, Doshisha University.

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graduates of science and engineering, medical, agricultural, and biological sciences and engineering departments. Workers who have developed their science and mathematics capabilities have a competitive edge since

only they can do a growing number of jobs. It is recognized that, in the labor market, such capabilities provide a sort of advantage.

Let us consider the significance of education in the molding of scientific and mathematical capabilities. An income gap later develops among successful applicants to university humanities departments, depending on whether or not they have studied mathematics (Nishimura, Urasaka, Hirata, & Yagi, 2006, pp. 538-542).

On the other hand, students who enter science departments, where they are studying mathematics, have studied science to widely varying extents. However, if the students learning level creates an impediment to study after entering college, there may be impacts on post-graduation career path selection and on income after securing employment. In this study, we seek to verify whether differences in the content of students science studies impact the cultivation of their personal capabilities and their competitiveness as workers in the labor market.

Data Survey Outline

The analysis in this paper is based on the results of an Internet survey conducted by Nikkeis research in February of 2011, as a research project of the RIETI (Research Institute of Economy, Trade, and Industry) titled Fundamental Research for the Construction of a Vibrant Economy and Society in Japan. From the population of 169,536 monitors registered with Nikkeis research, 100,000 were randomly selected and asked to participate. In the end, only those who had graduated from university were selected, from whom 11,399 responses were received. We conducted the following analysis on these 11,399 respondents.

On the survey, we asked respondents to name their graduated universities and departments. The response rate to this question was extremely high. Based on this data, we divided the respondents into groups of science graduates or humanities graduates. We have generally sorted information system majors based on their university and department, while classifying business information system graduates as being from humanities departments, and technological information system graduates as being from science departments. Art, domestic arts, and food-related science were classified as humanities. Those who were hard to be classified as humanities or science graduates were treated as missing values.

As for respondent classifications, 3,456 (average age: 43.7), or about 30%, were graduates of science departments, while 7,879 (average age: 42.5), or about 70%, were graduates of humanities departments.

We then constructed a highly selective university dummy based on the names of respondent alma maters. There were a total of 12 highly selective universities: the seven former imperial universities (Hokkaido, Tohoku, Tokyo, Nagoya, Kyoto, Osaka, and Kyushu) and Tokyo Institute of Technology, as well as Hitotsubashi, Tsukuba, Keio, and Waseda universities.

Descriptive Statistics First, we have indicated age (see Figure 1) and income (see Figure 2) distribution. The average age of

respondents was 42.9, with a SD (standard deviation) of 9.98 years. Average income was 4.833 million Yen, with a standard deviation of 4.065 million Yen. Age distribution generally follows the normal (Gaussian) distribution, as indicated in the graphs. As for sex, 59.7% of the respondents were male, 40.3% were female.


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Figure 1. Age distribution (average: 42.90; SD: 9.975; responses: 11,399).

Figure 2. Income distribution (average: 483.33 (10,000 Yen); SD: 406.483; responses: 11,399).

Looking at the distribution of the entire sample, as well as at employed workers (i.e., income earners), we see that the largest number mention biology as the science subject they are good at (see Table 1), followed by chemistry, physics, and geology, in that order.


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Table 1 Good at Science Subjects

All sample Employed respondents

Responses % Cumulative % Responses % Cumulative % Science 2,350 20.6 20.6 2,183 21.9 21.9 Chemistry 2,822 24.8 45.4 2,504 25.1 47 Physics 4,506 39.6 85 3,771 37.8 84.8 Earth science 1,707 15 100 1,516 15.2 100 Total 11,385 100 9,974 100

Changes in Government Curriculum Guidelines The reason for the changes that have occurred in the high school science curriculum is the changes in the

curriculum guidelines. As is widely known, the introduction of a more relaxed curriculum in particular has limited the learning of subject matter and has resulted in the expend of academic deficiencies. To verify that impact, we have first identified the major changes in curriculum guidelines imposed by the MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, and Science and Technology in Japan).

Table 2 summarizes the changes in postwar curriculum guidelines, focusing on high schools. The birthdates of the sample for this paper range from 1945 to 1986. Accordingly, the sample does not include those who have been educated under the curriculum issued with the catchphrase zest for living.

Table 2 Changes in Government Curriculum Guidelines

Policy objectives of government guidelines

Revision (high school)

Implementation (high school) Targets

Applicable sample size

Applicable sample size (employed)

A

12/1955 1956 Born in 4/1940 or later

5,016 (prior to relaxation) 4,520

Systematics of subject learning 10/1960 1963 Born in 4/1947 or later

Modernization of the educational curriculum 10/1970 1973 Born in 4/1957 or later

B Relaxation and enrichment 8/1978 1982 Born in 4/1966 or later 4,440 (relaxation) 3,771

C New vision for scholastic attainment 3/1989 1994 Born in 4/1978 or later 1,943 (new vision for scholastic attainment)

1,696

Zest for living 3/1999 2003 Born in 4/1987 or later 0 0

The curriculum guideline revision in October of 1960 aimed to improve science and technology education, while focusing on a knowledge-centered systematic learning of the subjects. The high school science program at this time consisted of four subjects (physics, chemistry, biology, and earth science). Since at least 12 credits in these subjects were required, high school students took three or more courses in physics, chemistry, biology, or earth science.

In the October of 1970 revision, the catchphrase was modernization of the educational curriculum. The aim was to improve the quality of high school courses in response to the needs of the high-growth era. As for high school science, basic science courses were created, with two courses worth a total of six credits being compulsory. But, at that time, many high school students were taking classes in three science subjects.

After that, two revisions trimming curriculum content were implemented. The first was issued in August of 1978 under the banner of offering relaxation and enrichment. Both curriculum content and classroom time


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were cut. Concretely, the total number of instructional classes for the six years of elementary school was reduced from 5,821 to 5,785. Also, the total instructional classes for Japanese, mathematics, science, and social studies fell from 3,941 to 3,659. In junior high, total instructional classes for three years was cut from 3,535 to 3,150. As for high school science, a course called Science I was created, while the required number of science units, including Science I, was set at six, which resulted in the total number of students taking physics, chemistry, and biology courses falling to between 35% and 60%.

The next revision, instituted in March of 1989 under the catchphrase of a curriculum with a new vision for scholastic attainment, aimed for education that promotes individuality. It further gutted the content of the curriculum. Concretely, in the first and second years of elementary school, science and social studies were eliminated and a new life environment studies course was introduced. As for science, a subject called comprehensive science was created, while physics, chemistry, biology, and earth sciences were subdivided into two courses: IA, IB, and II. Not only at private but also at national and public universities, the number of subjects for the entrance examination was reduced and the drift away from science accelerated. The number of required science courses fell to two subjects for four credits, while even students planning to enter science departments commonly studied only two science courses from physics, chemistry, biology, and earth science. The number of high school students taking Physics II and Biology II courses dropped to 10%.

Results and Discussion

Good at and Not-good at Subjects

To verify that revisions of curriculum guidelines have impacted post-graduation employment, we classified all respondents by generations into three groups, according to the curriculum guidelines, Generation A (respondents with birthdates up to March, 1966), Generation B (birthdates from April, 1966 to March, 1978), and Generation C (birthdates from April, 1978 and after). The corresponding samples (with the percentage of the total sample in parentheses) were 5,016 (44.0%) for Generation A, 4,440 (39.0%) for Generation B, and 1,943 (17.0%) for Generation C. To analyze only employed respondents (i.e., income earners), we established a corresponding sample, with 4,520 (45.3%) from Generation A, 3,771 (37.8%) from Generation B, and 1,696 (16.9%) from Generation C.

Figure 3 compares the good at subjects of the three generations. The first point to mention is that both Generations A and B liked mathematics the most. And only 10% of Generation C chose science as a good at subject, while the other four subjects are chosen by the 20%. Secondly, the numbers of respondents naming mathematics and science as good at subjects decline with each succeeding generation, while the numbers selecting English and Japanese as good at subjects increase. Graduates of humanities were good at English, Japanese, and social studies, while graduates of science preferred mathematics and science.

Meanwhile, Figures 4 and 5 compare the subjects which respondents are not good at, with respondents divided into two categories: humanities and science graduates. The younger the generation is, the fewer they chose English as a not-good at subject, in both science and humanities graduates, while the number choosing mathematics as a not-good at subject increased. In Generation C, the number of humanities graduates listing mathematics as a not-good at subject exceeds 40%. Among science graduates, the number taking science as a not-good at subject has grown as the generation becomes younger.


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Figure 3. Good at subject (person at work).

Figure 4. Not-good at subject (social science and humanities graduate: person at work).

Figure 5. Not-good at subject (science graduate: person at work).


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Next, let us look at each subject in science. Figure 6 compares the numbers naming science as a not-good subject at in each generation. While the numbers mentioning physics and earth sciences as good at subjects have shrunk, biology has grown in popularity. In fact, biology is the most popular subject in all three generations.

The obverse results can be seen in Figure 7, which compares not-good at subjects among the three generations. First, physics was overwhelmingly chosen as a not-good at subject. This tendency is particularly marked in Generation B. While slightly smaller in Generation C, the percentage is still greater than half.

Figure 6. Good at science subject (person at work).

Figure 7. Not-good at science subject (person at work).

To summarize, the younger the generation is or, to put it another way, in line with curriculum cuts, the greater the drift away from the study of science and mathematics subjects is and the fewer the respondents listing these subjects as good at are (while the more naming them as not-good at subjects). This tendency is especially marked with physics, among all science subjects: The number of respondents good at this subject decreases. Accordingly, when we compare the three generations, Generation A evidences the least deviation in


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its academic strengths. In line with succeeding government curriculum guideline revisions, severe academic insufficiencies seem to have developed in Generations B and C in particular subjects.

Average Income by Good at Subject

Do study deviances (i.e., differences in good at subjects) also impact post-graduation income? Figure 8 compares the average incomes of three generations of respondents by their good at subjects. Looking at this figure, we can see that in all three generations those who named mathematics as their good at subject have the highest income, followed by those mentioning science, social studies, English, and Japanese.

Figure 8. Average income by good at subject (10,000 Yen, person at work).

Looking at Figure 9, which compares the average incomes of science graduates who are good at science subjects, we see that those good at physics have the highest income, followed by chemistry, earth science, and biology, in that order. This tendency is the same for all three generations.

Figure 9. Average income of science graduates by good at science subject (10,000 Yen, person at work).


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As can be seen from the above, those who are especially good at physics have been more competitive in the job market, but, the contents of curriculum guideline revisions over the past 30 years have not supported the study of this subject.

Viewing from another perspective, we can say that revisions in curriculum guidelines have compelled many students to submit to a distorted program of studies. As a result of the drift away from the study of science and mathematics subjects and physics, the relative scarcity value of mathematical and logical thought, which those who have diligently studied these subjects have acquired, has grown, while being connected to a higher valuation in the labor market.

Tables 3 and 4 show the actual amounts (in units of 10,000 Yen) of the average incomes as well as the actual numbers of those good at each subject. Since income determination varies considerably with age, we have also recorded the average age of respondents, though, as can been seen in the charts, no great variation by subject exists.

Table 3 Average Income by Good at Subject (in 10,000 Yen)

Good at subject

All sample Generation A Generation B Generation C

Responses Average income Average age Responses

Averageincome

Average age Responses

Averageincome


Averageincome

Average age

English 1,869 519.3 41.8 756 651.6 52.0 725 476.6 38.1 388 341.2 28.8 Japanese 1,764 437.4 42.3 742 518.6 52.0 693 409.7 38.2 329 312.8 29.2 Math 2,649 619.9 43.9 1,304 724.2 52.2 961 560.6 38.4 384 414.1 29.0 Science 1,214 607.6 44.4 626 707.7 52.6 413 544.6 38.5 175 398.3 28.9 Social studies 2,036 575.7 42.7 870 689.7 52.2 825 540.0 38.3 341 371.6 29.1

Not in particular 455 473.6 43.7 222 548.6 52.4 154 426.0 38.7 79 355.7 29.2

Total 9,987 551.7 43.0 4,520 660.8 52.2 3,771 504.9 38.3 1,696 364.9 29.0

Table 4 Average Income of Science Graduates by Good at Science Subject (in 10,000 Yen) Good at science subject



Averageincome


Averageincome


Averageincome

Average age

Physics 1,397 681.4 44.9 768 762.2 52.4 452 645.6 38.3 177 422.0 29.1 Chemistry 1,148 620.0 43.0 497 728.2 52.7 458 591.7 38.4 193 407.8 29.1 Biology 499 548.5 41.9 222 660.4 51.5 167 525.1 38.0 110 358.2 28.4 Earth science 162 646.9 47.0 106 707.52 53.1 41 582.9 38.0 15 393.3 28.9

Total 3,206 636.9 43.8 1,593 733.88 52.3 1,118 603.2 38.3 495 401.4 29.0

The Average Income of Science Department Graduates by Good at Science Subject and University Selectivity

Regarding the above-mentioned average incomes of those good at science subjects, let us focus on a comparison of science department graduates, considering university selectivity. Figure 10 shows the average incomes of those good at science subjects among science department graduates of 12 highly selective universities. Figure 11 shows the average incomes of those who are good at science subjects and are science department graduates from non-selective universities. Both graphs compare the three generations.


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Figure 10. Average income by good at science subject (high rank university science graduates: person at work: 10,000).

Figure 11. Average income by good at science subject (not high rank university science graduates: person at work: 10,000).

Tables 5 and 6 break down the actual numbers and average incomes (given in units of 10,000 Yen) of those good at various subjects for each of the three generations. Since income determination changes considerably by age, we have added average ages to each category, though no great variation by subject exists.

First, graduates of highly selective universities have high incomes overall. Also, while large numbers in the general sample of employed respondents are good at biology and chemistry, we see that many are also good at physics and chemistry, when we limit the sample to science department graduates. In addition, since only a few respondents are good at earth sciences, when we compare those who are good at physics, chemistry, and biology, we see that, in general, the high income earners are those who are good at physics first, followed by chemistry and biology, in that order. Only among graduates of highly selective universities in Generation C does chemistry take precedence over physics.


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Table 5 Average Income of Science Graduates From Highly Selective Universities by Good at Science Subject (in 10,000 Yen) Good at science subject



Averageincome


Averageincome


Averageincome

Average age

Physics 283 853.4 45.3 156 973.1 52.7 96 772.9 38.4 31 500.0 29.3 Chemistry 208 776.0 43.1 87 927.6 53.4 81 744.4 38.7 40 510.0 29.5 Biology 53 628.3 39.5 16 712.5 52.6 23 682.6 36.7 14 442.9 29.0 Earth science 27 685.2 46.4 16 650.0 53.1 9 811.1 39.1 2 400.0 26.5

Total 571 796.3 44.0 275 924.7 52.9 209 753.6 38.4 87 493.1 29.3

Table 6 Average Income of Science Graduates From Non-highly Selective Universities by Good at Science Subject (in 10,000 Yen) Good at science subject



Averageincome


Averageincome


Averageincome

Average age

Physics 1,109 638.9 44.8 608 710.2 52.3 355 612.7 38.3 146 405.5 29.1 Chemistry 934 583.5 42.9 405 682.7 52.5 376 559.0 38.3 153 381.0 29.0 Biology 446 539.0 42.2 206 656.3 51.4 144 500.0 38.2 96 345.8 28.4 Earth science 135 639.3 47.1 90 717.8 53.1 32 518.8 37.7 13 392.3 29.3

Total 2,624 602.2 43.8 1,309 693.7 52.3 907 569.2 38.3 408 381.9 28.9

Among graduates of highly selective universities, no wide academic knowledge gap may exist between their most good at subject and other subjects. For that reason, we calculated a ratio of average incomes of respondents who are good at and those who are not, in each subject. Those who preferred physics had the highest average income, while those who liked biology had the lowest. The results suggest that a preference for physics is the most advantageous, income-wise, among all subjects.

Multiple Regression Analysis Related to Income Focusing on average income by good at science subject, we have conducted a more detailed analysis using

multiple regression analysis techniques, while controlling the effect of age. In Table 7, we can see that the effect of good at science subjects on income for all three generations. Since average income changes greatly with age, we have compared using standardized coefficient values. If the p value is 0.05 or less, we can statistically determine that the significant variable with a critical p value of 5% on both sides. Information derived from the estimation results is given as follows.

First, in Generation A, the physics-good at dummy is positive and significant, while demonstrating that respondents who are good at physics are also high-income earners. In this generation, age exerts a large and positive impact on income determination. In Generation B, the age effect is weaker, but the physics-good at dummy obtains positive and significant results. Also, we should note that the biology-good at dummy obtains a negative significant result. In Generation C, age does not exert an effect on income determination. Also, the biology-good at dummy does not obtain a significant result, but for this generation as well, the physics-good at dummy does attain a positive and significant result.


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Table 7 Results of Multiple Linear Regression Analysis

Generation A Generation B Generation C

Standardized coefficient

Significance probability





Age 2.509 0.000 -0.746 0.137 1.347 0.108 Age squared -2.587 0.000 0.908 0.070 -1.161 0.165 Physics-good at dummy 0.079 0.003 0.076 0.015 0.113 0.015

Chemistry-good at dummy 0.018 0.491 -0.025 0.438 0.040 0.426

Biology-good at dummy -0.044 0.094 -0.121 0.000 -0.049 0.345

Our analysis of this data confirms that the study of physics contributes to a higher income in every generation. The data also suggest that it is an important factor in the cultivation of earning capacity.

Concluding Remarks We classified all respondents by generations into three groups according to the curriculum guidelines and

examined whether revisions of curriculum guidelines have impacted post-graduation employment or not. In line with curriculum cuts, the greater the drift away from the study of science and mathematics subjects is and the fewer the respondents listing these subjects as good at are (while the more naming them as not-good at). This tendency is especially marked with physics, among all science subjects: The number good at this subject decreases.

Then, we compared the income of the respondents depending on which subjects they are good at. In all three generations, those who named mathematics as their good at subject have the highest income, followed by those mentioning science, social studies, English, and Japanese. If we limit the respondent to the science department graduates, those good at physics have the highest income, followed by chemistry, earth science, and biology, in that order. This tendency is the same for all three generations. Our research suggests that mathematics and physics are an important factor in the cultivation of earning capacity in every generation.

References Arcidiacono, P. (2004). Ability sorting and the returns to college major. Journal of Econometrics, 121, 343-375. Hirata, J., Nishimura, K., Urasaka, J., & Yagi, T. (2013). Mathematics & science education and income: An empirical study in

Japan. Journal of Reviews on Global Economics, 2, 1-8. Kane, T. J., & Rouse, C. E. (1995). Labor market returns to two- and four- year colleges. American Economic Review, 85(3),

600-614. Nishimura, K., Urasaka, J., Hirata, J., & Yagi, T. (2006). Parents educational background, subjects good-at in school and

income: An empirical study. Japanese Economic Review, 57(4), 533-546. OLeary, N. O., & Sloane, P. J. (2005). The return to a university education in Great Britain. National Institute Economic Review,

193(1), 75-89. Wolniak, G. C., Seifert, T. A., Reed, .E. J., & Pascarella, E. T. (2008). College majors and social mobility. Research in Social

Stratification and Mobility, 26, 123-139.

US-China Education Review B, ISSN 2161-6248 September 2013, Vol. 3, No. 9, 663-679

Managing and Leading in Early Childhood Education: A Study

of Heads of Centers in Greece

Eleftheria Argyropoulou University of Crete, Rethymnon, Greece

This paper presents ECE (early childhood education) Headteachers perceptions of their managing and leading

roles, as well as their attitudes towards their professional careers as leaders in an EC (early childhood) educational

organization. This research, as a case study, collected data from EC Headteachers in Greece. The case study found

that, despite local/national level particularities, many of the common elements and issues for discussion raised by

the Greek EC Headteachers participating in the study were similar to those reported in studies from other national

contexts.

Keywords: ECE, kindergarten Headteachers, management, leadership

Introduction This paper studies the managing and leading perceptions of ECE (early childhood education) institutions

heads, in Greece. The research was conducted only in state institutions for young children 4-6 years old (called kindergartens, or Nipiagogeia, in Greek), which outnumber by far the private ones (97.6% state to 2.4% private in 2008) (OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development), 2011b).

Previous research (Argyropoulou, 2011a; Argyropoulou Hatira, to be published in 2014) indicated that the ECE heads in Greece are more satisfied with their teaching role than with their managing and leading roles, the latter being considered a necessity coming with seniority in the job. Hence, the purpose of this paper is two-fold: (1) To identify EC (early childhood) Headteachers specific attitudes towards their management and leadership roles; and (2) To seek evidence as to why these attitudes were caused and how they have affected EC Headteachers career paths and personal attitudes. The Early Childhood Education in the Greek Context

At the macro level, the Greek educational system, which includes EC, is characterized by heavy centralization both in its organization and the delivery of knowledge (Argyropoulou, 2011b; Tsatsaroni et al., 2011). More specifically, Greece is the third country in the OECD scaling in terms of educational centralization (OECD, 2011a, indicator D 6.1). The average centralization rate for the Greek educational system is 78% (OECD, 2011a, pp. 509-510). The percentages for Greece are shown in Table 1.

Decision-taking is split at several levels only in the domain organization of instruction. This means that the Head and the Teachers Board are responsible for the implementation of the curriculum, the grouping of students, the day-to-day students attendance, and their assessment, according to the existing regulations.

Another significant characteristic of the centralized context is the bulk of the legislative regulations

Eleftheria Argyropoulou, Ph.D., senior lecturer, School of Education, University of Crete.

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(Andreou Papakonstantinou, 1994). At the school level, the Headteacher is accountable for the implementation of the educational law in all four domains mentioned above. Thus, the Head has the minimum of autonomy to take decisions for the school (Papakonstantinou, 2012).

Table 1 Degree of Centralization in the Greek Educational System (Data: 2009-2010) OECD D 6.1 domains Decision-taking level Central Regional Local School Planning and structures 100% - - - Personnel management 75% 25% - - Resource management 84% - 8% 8% Organization of instruction 56% 32% 11% 11%

The EC area covers two distinct age groups, 0-4 years of age, called EC care, and 4-6 years, called ECE. The field of EC care is under the auspices of the Ministry of Labor, Social Security, and Care and includes institutions of both private and public sectors. Institutions of the public sector are usually run by the municipalities within a framework of decentralized social care activities.

ECE is in the responsibilities of the Ministry of Education. Institutions of ECE are state schools, called kindergartens, and they consist of two classes: 4-5 and 5-6 years old. There is a specific curriculum (Integrated Interdisciplinary Framework for Study Program) for both years 4-5 and 5-6. Emphasis is placed on the childrens transition from the kindergarten to the primary school. Moreover, specific care is taken for children with SEN (special educational needs), immigrant children, and children of ethnic minorities. In regard to SEN, an inclusive strategy is used, allowing special children to be educated in the same environment with the rest of children. Only severe SEN cases are taken care in specific SEN kindergartens. In 2006 (Law 3518/21.12.2006), the 5-6 years was made compulsory.

State kindergartens are rather small-size schools with no more than 60 pupils. Most of them offer full-day programs. In urban and sub-urban areas, they often include a SEN class. Thus, the total number of staff in a state kindergarten may vary from two to five members. However, there is only one class with only one teacher in remote kindergartens, in rural, mountainous, or small-island areas. These are called one-teaching position kindergartens.

Contrary to what happens in primary and secondary schools, kindergarten Heads selection criteria are based on seniority. This means that the person with the most years in service in the kindergarten is appointed as head (by the LEA (Local Educational Authorities)). Each headship term lasts four years and the nominee has the right to be re-selected many times, provided he/she is the senior in the centre.

EC Headteachers roles and responsibilities are similar to those in any type of school. In case of one-teaching position schools, the only teacher is also the head of the kindergarten, performing all administrative tasks along with their teaching tasks. EC Heads in Greece keep on teaching even during their headship (A typical day of a Greek state kindergarten is provided below) (see Table 2). Kindergarten Heads receive minimal training for the post.

ECE professionals are mostly women (99.04%, well above OECD average which is 97%), according to the Ministry of Education Statistics (2008). They graduate from special university-level, four-year, initial teacher training schools called Departments of Pre-school Education. Up to 1982, EC staff used to attend only a


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two-year kindergarten teachers training school called the Pre-school Academy. The rationale behind the transition from the two-year to the four-year university level training schools was raising the pedagogical background and the professional level of the kindergarten teachers in order for them to meet the increasing demands of their profession and to get to know the rich research body in their field of expertise (Law 1268/1983, Presidential Decree 320/1983). As university graduates, the ECE professionals hold ISCED (International Standard Classification of Education) (2011) Level 6 qualifications. To enter the teaching profession, they have to sit a competitive nationwide examination.

Table 2 A Typical Kindergarten Class Timetable Morning session (main teaching session) Typical kindergarten program

8:00-8:15 Childrens reception 8:15-9:00 Free activities 9:00-12:00 Organized/planned activities 12:00-12:15 Children depart Afternoon session (expansion of morning activities) Only for full-day kindergartens

12:15-13:00 Lunch and rest (The morning teacher cooperates with the afternoon teacher to coordinate the activities) 13:00-16:00 Afternoon activities

Literature Review Two major themes are discussed in this paper: managing and leading in early years and ECE Heads

constraints during performing their roles and responsibilities. As the external school environment changes dramatically, an attempt is made to pass from principalship to

leadership. The recent tensions in the Western and/or Europe in the field of education subsume management into leadership (OECD, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c; Leading Ahead; EPNoSL), although the two sets of roles remain distinct: Management is more closely associated with maintenance of current operations while leadership involves steering organizations by shaping other peoples attitudes, motivations, and behaviors (Bush Glover, 2003). A bit earlier, Dimmock (1999) had provided a distinction between school management, administration, and leadership: Management involves routine maintenance of present operations, administration has to do with lower order duties while leadership includes higher order tasks designed to improve staff, student, and school performance. The OECD report (2008a) concluded that the above elements are so closely intertwined that is unlikely for one of them to succeed without the others.

The international organizations reports have been based on literature and research from decentralized (UK, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and USA) systems (Leithwood Day, 2007; Leithwood Riehl, 2005; Woods, 2005; Moos Johansson, 2009; Yukl, 2002). In these texts, school leadership appears as an umbrella term covering both managerial and leading domains, competences, and skills.

However, the understanding of leadership in the Greek educational context is differentiated. The Greek equivalent word is largely used for the persons on top of the Ministry of Education or anyone with political power in the field to design policy and take decisions. Although the content meaning of the word remains the same, that is, the power and/or role to shape behaviors, performances, and attitudes, leadership is considered the highest order task attributed to ministers, politicians, or successful entrepreneurs (Mpourantas, 2005). The


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conceptualization of leadership in western literature is new to the Greek school context. The notion has been introduced quite recently through the recommendations of international organizations (i.e., OECD, 2011b) and the participation of Greek members to European network and projects (Leading Ahead; EPNoSL). But, leadership is still difficult to understand in regard to the roles and responsibilities of the Greek Heads. The Greek system is characterized by bureaucratic stability and belongs to what is called the back to the future bureaucratic system scenario by the OECD (2008a)1.

Extending the discussion to the ECE field, Moyles (2006) argued that the definition of leadership and management in early years settings is a rather underexplored area (an idea already noted by Muijs, Aubrey, Harris, Briggs, 2004) and that there seems to be confusion among practitioners about these roles. However, there have been attempts among researchers to provide some insights on both issues. Management and leadership roles and responsibilities have been defined by various researchers (Ebbeck Waniganayake, 2005; Rodd, 2006). For Ebbeck and Waniganayake (2005, pp. 2-3), administration, management, and leadership are distinct areas and understanding the content of meaning and purpose of each one of them is fundamental to be an ECE centre Head. In their distinction, administration includes general administrative/clerical work (data collection, statistics, book keeping, and correspondence). In other authors, these tasks submit to the managerial role of the ECE Head (Moyles, 2006). However, there are other texts (Boardman, 2003; Kagan Bowman, 1997; Jorde-Bloom, 1998, 1992, 1991; Rodd, 1997; Scrivens, 1999) in which the term leadership often includes both management and leadership roles. The common feature among all writers is that management is connected with the expected behaviors stemming out from either the statutory framework or the specifications of ones job description, while leadership has to do with the personal qualities and/or competencies that can inspire and affect others to perform best.

In this paper, the use of the words management and leadership follows the pattern described by Bush, Glover, and Moyles, above. Given the fact that the aspects of management and administration merge into one single word in Greek language, the administrative tasks, as they are described by Dimmock, Ebbeck, and Waniganayake, are subsumed into management.

Regarding contextual constraints, there have been significant attempts to identify EC contextual factors having an impact on ECE organizations and professionals (Nupponen, 2005; Karila, 2002). Most writers focus on the content of leadership in EC settings, by drawing a line between managing and leading roles and responsibilities (Ebbeck Waniganayake, 2005; Rodd, 2006). There are certain, but few examples in which attention has been given on how and why the burden of these roles and responsibilities may affect EC professionals during their headship (Rodd, 1999; Boardman, 2003; Nupponen, 2005). Others (Argyropoulou, 2007; Karila, 2002; Rodd, 2006) pointed out that external environment, macro-level, constraints, such as the austerity of law, in case of childrens safety and well-being, or the strictness of regulations.

The duality of roles mentioned in certain works (Rodd, 1999) usually refers to the duality of management and leadership roles. In others (Boardman, 2003; Nupponen, 2005; Rodd, 2006), the notion of duality regards the teaching role and the headship role. In these latter, there is an implication about the difference of qualities between teaching and headship. A good teacher does not necessarily mean that he/she can develop to be an effective Headteacher (Catron Groves, 1999). The transition from managing children to managing both 1 Recent attempts to move forward (proposed bill but not passed) take the system from Scenario 1 (bureaucratic system) to Scenario 4 (de-schooling, the extended market model) (OECD, 2008a, p. 21).


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adults and administrative work is a difficult task for ECE professionals (Siraj-Blatchford Manni, 2007). The burden of the managing and leading tasks along with the teaching tasks and the childrens safety and well-being responsibilities reduce the Heads time significantly. Time is conceived not only in terms of managing-leading time and/or increased working hours, but also in terms of personal time that affects personal lives. Although, a number of EC professionals seem to acquire maturity, higher competence, and an ability to combat job-related stress as they progress in their careers (Cheuk, Wong, Rosen, 2000; Jorde-Bloom, 1998; Mistry Sood, 2012; Wong Cheuk, 2005), this is not true for all of them.

Lack of time and job related stress are often interwoven and they become more evident when there is also lack of previous relevant training for the managing and leading roles and responsibilities. Research has repeatedly shown the importance of training as a shaping empowerment and self-developing strategy which is common to all contexts (Aubrey, 2007; Hard, 2005; Rodd, 2006; Stamopoulos, 1998; Thornton, Wansbrough, Clarkin-Phillips, Aitken, Tamati, 2009; Waniganayake, 2010). Thornton et al. (2009) emphasized on the training during the post arguing that those in leadership roles need to be further supported through the provision of appropriate training and professional development opportunities. Rodd (2005), on the other hand, insisted that the early years field can no longer afford to regard the preparation of its leaders as an optional extra.

Given that the understanding of management and leadership is rather different in the Greek educational context, the problem this paper comes to explore is how Greek ECE heads perceive their roles, what their job-related issues of concern are, whether these perceptions vary from those presented in relevant literature, and what the reasons behind these differences are, if there are any.

The Research Problem This study comes as a follow-up of previous quantitative research (Argyropoulou, 2011a), which

attempted to map kindergarten Headteachers perceptions and attitudes towards their appointment to management in education positions (LEA officials2). The previous research indicated a number of contradictory statements in the subjects responses. From these contradictory statements, we isolated the one we thought as the most interesting: Although kindergarten teachers and Headteachers realize the need to manage the ECE centers themselves and understand the way and the philosophy under which the centers function, they do not wish to undertake managing and leading positions (Argyropoulou, 2011a).

The Research Question This study focuses on the following: What is the reason for the reluctance of ECE Heads and teachers to

take up or aspire to managing and leading positions? Data were gathered by using four open-ended questions (see Appendix A). Question 1 explores the

subjects understanding of their post requirements. For question 2, subjects are asked to describe a typical day at the heads office/post. Question 3 tracks the subjects career paths, using three time and competence points: initial, middle, and mature. Question 4 seeks to find out the subjects points of view on the benefits of training provision and of suitable training course content for kindergarten Heads.

2 According to the statutory framework, any teacher of primary education or ECE, having the required qualifications and expertise, is liable for selection in LEA posts. These posts are: School Head, Director of Education (in one of the 58 directorates of education), or Regional Director (in one of the 13 regional directorates of education in the country).


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Research Methodology Qualitative methods have been considered advantageous to explore sensitive issues and that is why they

have been extensively used on leadership research (Ospina, 2004). The strength of qualitative research is its ability to provide textual descriptions of how people experience a given situation or phenomenon and to explain possible causal relationships (FHI (Family Health International)). This paper seeks to understand the complex ECE headship issue from the perspective of the actors involved, rather than explaining from the outside. Hence, it was thought suitable to use a qualitative questionnaire which can provide autobiographical elements and perceptions formed as a result of personal experiences. Open-ended questions were chosen as they have the ability to evoke responses which are meaningful and culturally salient to the participant, rich and explanatory in nature (FHI).

Content analysis (Elo Kyngas, 2008) was preferred for exploring subjects responses. An inductive analysis (open coding, creating categories and abstracting) has been chosen, as there are no previous Greek studies dealing with the issue. Repeated words, phrases, and paragraph contents were used as the basis to form theme categories and subcategories. Numerical data and supporting excerpts were also provided in certain cases to maintain the integrity of narrative materials and to offer an aspect of the richness of the original data (Elo Kyngas, 2008).

Research Tool, Sample, and Ethics The research tool had been piloted about two months before the actual research. For practical reasons

(time, distance), the research subjects were sent the questions and completion instructions and were asked to write down their responses and send them back to the researcher in the provided envelop. The questions were sent to the school address but not to individuals as care had been taken to avoid disclosing the subjects identity, possible embarrassment, and insincere answers. Envelops were posted to 120 schools in the urban and suburban parts of the three areas mentioned (two schools per borough). There was no specific criterion in choosing certain schools.

The sample included 66 kindergarten Headteachers or ex-Headteachers (but still in service as teachers3) from Crete, Thessaly, and Athens. These were the areas in which the previous extended research (Argyropoulou, 2011a) had taken place. As this was a follow-up research, it was thought useful to send the research questionnaire to the same school staff of the 2011 research. The sample was less than it had been initially expected, as the participation in the 2011 research came up to 92%. Nevertheless, it was considered sufficient for the research purpose as this research subjects would be identical with some of those in the previous research; consequently, they would share those attitudes that led to the present research question.

All subjects are women, aged 30-55, with an average age of 40-50 years (details are shown in Appendix Table B1). All of them were or had been kindergarten Heads forat leastthree years. Intensive headship training was missing for all subjects.

Presentation of Findings Analysis of the data from the open-ended questions led to the formation of six major categories:

3 The Greek framework (Law 1566/1985) provides that the school head is primus inter pares. This provision allows heads to choose to return to their teaching positions after the 4-year headship term is completed.


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perception of the managing role, perception of the leading role, reflection on the first day on the job, description of a Heads typical day at work, training for headship, and career progression and personal feelings. Then, each category was subdivided in minor subcategories, where it is possible. Findings are presented in tables and followed by a number of indicative answers. Perception of the Managing Role

The most important feature of the answers to this question is the aspect/s the subjects attributed to the managerial role. There is more than one aspect of the role discussed by each subject (see Table 3).

Table 3 Perception of the Managing Role Category 1 Subcategory 1.1 Subcategory 1.1.1 % Key elements-expressions used

Perception of the managing role

Administrative/clerical tasks 75 Official correspondence, school statistics, and bureaucratic tasks The burden of the managing responsibilities 72

School financial management 45 The greatest part of the tasks and roles Organizing, planning, delegating, and controlling 42

External environment 40 Parents, LEA, and local community

Attitudes and feelings associated with the role

Childrens security, school performance, and provision of supplies

40

Lack of time 35 Time-consuming

Anxiety for school performance 30 Anxious Personal fears for possible criticism from LEA officials, colleagues, etc..

Role dislike 28 Boring, difficult, necessary but unwanted, and uninteresting

Perception of the Leading Role Some answers indicate aspects of the managing role, but, their frequency is relatively moderate. Some

others indicate a confusion regarding the content of both the managing and the leading roles (see Table 4).

Table 4 Perception of the Leading Role Category 2 Subcategory 2.1 % Key elementsexpressions used

Perception of the leading role

Absence of the role 90 Cooperation 70 Cooperative, trustworthy, and helping others Solidarity 50 Feelings of equality, democracy, and justice for colleagues Responsibility 45 For the operation of the school Motivation 40 Inspiring, motivating, and initiative taking Conflict management 35 Smoothing conflicts, referee, and keeping the peace Guidance 30 Guiding teachers to reach decisions Collective decision-making 20 Discussing with teachers and taking decisions together

Model 18 1.5 Positive = Be the model of task performance Negative = The bad guy

Confusion of roles 1.5

Reflecting on the First Day on a Managing/Leading Post The subjects recall a variety of memories and feelings, grouped and shown below (see Table 5).


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A Kindergarten Heads Typical Day at Work The Heads of the sample stated that their time is divided into two parts: their class and their office. They

try to deal with the headship duties either before or after their morning class, that is, before 8:00 a.m. or after 12:00 at noon, depending on how much time is needed to perform each task (see Table 6).

Table 5 First Day in the Headship Post

Category 3 Subcategory 3.1 Memories-Feelings % Justification of given answers % Key elementsexpressions used

Recalling of the first day in the headship post

Positive 7.6

Mixed 3 Coincided with their first day of teaching

Happy for their teaching role/their dream came true; anxious and upset for the headship role

Neutral 1.5 Cannot recall any memories

Negative 73

Lack of relevant knowledge and experience 45

No idea of Kindergarten management, although it is in their job description

Responsibility increased 28.8

Unaware of administrative tasks and management strategies, lacking specific knowledge to deal with parents

Lack of support 10 From LEA or colleagues

Table 6 A Heads Typical Day Heads daily timetable Tasks

before-8:00 a.m.

Read in-coming correspondence. Prioritize managerial activities. Check for absent children and inform the LEA. Deal with urgent matters. Talk with parents if urgent. Check school facilities (building and yard) and sanitary conditions before children come.

8:00 a.m.-12:00 at noon Class

12:00 at noon and on (tasks demanding more time to handle)

Prepare out-coming correspondence and school statistics. Meet the staff to brief them about LEAs circulars, orders, directives, or training seminars. Organize and coordinate teaching activities or prepare teaching material for the following day. Regular parents meetings. School financial management, order school supplies, and pay bills. Plan open-day activities, school performances, visits, and excursions.

Training for Headship The subjects agree that training would solve a considerable number of problems regarding their roles and

they would not have to resort to others for help. They identify lack of training as the main reason for the insecurity, anxiety, and fear feelings, although 14 had some reservations. Moreover, the subjects offer some ideas about the type and the content of training needed (see Table 7). Career Progression and Personal Feelings

The subjects answers present two significant points in their career cycles: the initial, immature, and the present, which, according to their age and years in service, can be either the competent enough (middle-aged subjects) or the mature (late middle-aged, towards the end of their careers). Middle Point B and Mature Point C present a number of similar features. The differences, on the other hand, are due to the age and the acquired experience (see Table 8).


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Table 7 Training for Headship Training particulars Suggestions

Type Initial: In-university training Induction: Short-term pre-appointment training In-service: Regular short-term post-appointment training

Content

Organization and management of education (general introductory course) School management, financial management, and educational law ICT (information and computer technologies) School leadership (interpersonal communication, team or group leading, conflict management)

Table 8 Kindergarten Heads Career Progression Career cycles A: Initial B: Middle C: Mature Age 30-40 41-50 50+

Degree of competence

Low Moderate High Experience Lack of relevant background Life/job experienced Life/job experienced Time management Lack of time Lack of time Lack of time

Training No training No training, but some empirical knowledge

Some or no training; Some empirical knowledge of the statutory framework

Feelings

Negative Less negative to moderate Alteration of feelings Fear Less fear No fear Anxiety, stress Less stress No stress, but fatigue Insecurity Less insecurity Secure, but (often) wishing to resign

According to the perceptions expressed in the given answers, we could represent the subjects career route in a linear way (see Figure 1), marking the turning points followed by the feelings at each point:

POINT >>-----A--------------------------B---------------------------------C------>> Figure 1. Career points and feelings. Source: Jorde-Bloom, 1998. Adapted and modified accordingly4.

This linear representation shows that there is a reverse analogous relation between competence and negative feelings: As the competence increases, the initial negative feelings tend to diminish or disappear.

Discussion of Findings Role Perceptions

The above analysis put forward some important issues: (1) Kindergarten Headteachers seem not to have a complete idea of what their managing role entails. Some

cases include leading characteristics to the role (cooperation, building relations). They mentioned certain aspects of the role adding how they feel about it;

(2) In their majority, they find the managing role much less attractive than their teaching role, as it involves greater responsibilities, more time at work, and an implicit risk to make mistakes and receive criticism from LEA superiors. Moreover, this extra burden is not rewarded; 4 Jorde-Bloom (1998) used four career points for each of her subjects in a more extended research. We think that the data we collected allow the formation of only three categories.


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(3) Some of the subjects seem to feel threatened and try to defend their status. This attitude can be partly justified, as they seem not to understand the content of the role. Consequently, they feel exposed and criticized.

However, the majority of the subjects point out the leading features of the kindergarten environment: cooperation, common decision-making, inspiration, motivation, solidarity, coping with conflict, and equality. The small number of teachers in a kindergarten does not facilitate competitiveness or the willingness to distinguish among others. The ECE general mission to help children develop in every aspect of their physical, psychological, and mental life, and to keep them safe and secure in the school environment is collective, shared by all practitioners, and the reason to encourage cooperation and sustenance of a balanced environment in the institution. In other words, the ECE mission offers a platform to create and maintain a specific organizational culture.

As for those who do not think they have a leading role, a careful look at their answers reveals that almost all of them work in one-position schools. There are some subjects who state that they dare not consider themselves as leaders as they may not want to sound arrogant.

Quite often, there seems to be a confusion of the managing and leading roles resulting from the fact that subjects lack the understanding of the role content for both managing and leading. This confusion seems to be a common issue in various contexts. Thornton et al. (2009) had also ascertained such confusion in their own research. Hard (2005) attributed the confusion of the managing and leading roles to the fact that prospective ECE Headteachers do not receive special training on leadership issues, as it is thought that effective teaching requirements would suffice for headship positions as well. She added, however, that this concept remains contentious. Hard argued that seniority, expressed by years in service (as it also happens in this case), is not enough for an EC professional to assume managing and leading roles and responsibilities. Nevertheless, training for teaching young children is much different than training for managing and leading and EC organizations. Emphasis on the latter would eliminate confusion.

Additionally, role perceptions may reflect a deeper, not explicit, expression of the satisfaction people get from their jobs. In the case of ECE Heads, job satisfaction is related to teaching which they considered their primary and ultimate task. Consequently, the dissatisfaction expressed in this research stems mainly from the managing/leading role. The subjects see the headship roles as an extra burden, while teaching young children offers them safety and security and releases them from stress and dependence on others. This result has been repeated in the previous research (Argyropoulou Hatira, to be published in 2014). Emerging Leading Skills: Building and Sustaining Meaningful Teams

Although several Heads stated that they do not see themselves as leaders, obviously, misinterpreting the notion of leadership, they commented on various aspects of leadership by talking about leading roles and qualities (collaboration with colleagues; working harmonically with others, children, colleagues, and parents; and meaningful team building). They pointed out that a Head should have communication skills, the ability to listen to others and then make decisions, to be a model, and to guide others. Nupponen (2005) had also noted the importance of communicative skills which she calls intrapersonal and interpersonal qualities to deal with colleagues, parents, and social partners. Working with parents and sustaining a sincere relation with them are of great importance for ECE institutions (Ebbeck, Zaccardo, Hill, Hughes, 2003; Nupponen, 2005; Rodd, 2006). Parents constitute a strong group; working with them, although desirable, may be difficult and demanding. Heads have to face diverted family needs that may lead to various parental attitudes towards the kindergarten


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staff. Colleagues as a group often cause worries. The repeated emphasis on solidarity, working well and/or

collaborating with colleagues, or not seeing themselves as leaders indicates another constraint of the internal environment. Subjects often note that conflicts tend to affect the centre function and require extra time to work towards a solution.

A considerable number of Heads expressed their strong feelings about the development and the well-being of the young children. Although they have a diverse range of administrative responsibilities they remain focused that the core of their work is providing quality care for children. This stance indicates both strong pedagogical focus on the primary task and professionalism.

Although the model of leadership used by the Greek state kindergarten Heads has not been a specific objective in this study, it is likely that the combination of the two elementsworking harmonically with others (parents, teachers, and the community) and providing a meaningful learning and developing environment for young childrenimplies a type of leadership, often residing in ECE environments, which is called pedagogical leadership5. Perception of Contextual Constraints

Knowledge and intention are not the sole factors contributing to harmony and job satisfaction in modern schools. The school context constitutes another crucial parameter. Results regarding macro-environmental constraints are also common in Nupponen (2005), who emphasized on the increased regulatory requirements and a number of considerable external environment pressures (parents, community, and business competitiveness, in case of privately-owned centers) that EC leaders face.

In the case of Greek state kindergarten Heads, the major constraint seems to be the duality between the teaching and the headship roles. This duality causes negative feelings. Can they teach a class and lead the EC school at the same time? Their answers are negative, but both roles are imposed by the strict statutory framework. The duality of EC heads teaching and managing/leading roles has also been noted by Boardman (2003). Karila (2002) had also indicated regulations as the constraining factor in EC environments.

Moreover, the Greek law about childrens safety is strict: Legal consequences for accidents involving young children may include EC teachers dismiss from their job plus the loss of all job benefits (Argyropoulou, 2007). This explains why they would like training on educational law. Lack of relevant training is another cause of stress.

The stress factor has been mentioned repeatedly in a variety of expressions. Some subjects attribute stress to lack of knowledge, resulting from lack of training, some others to lack of adequate headship time; all identify job dissatisfaction due to stress. The stress caused by the duality of roles (headship and teaching) has also been one of the main results in previous research (Argyropoulou Hatira, to be published in 2014).

This finding seems to align with Cheuk, Wong, and Rosen (2000) who argued that More experienced principals experience less job-related stress. as they probably have developed an understanding of the work in leading their school. This is because they can make proper preparations and planning to prevent 5 Heikka and Waniganayake (2011) stated that there is a confusion in the use of the term in early childhood settings, which is rooted in the way the notion of pedagogy is conceived, applied, and researched in contemporary work in various national contexts. However, in the relevant literature about pedagogical leadership (Sergiovanni, 1998; Andrews, 2009; Katz, 1997; Waniganayake, 2010; Hujala Heikka, 2007), the latter, as they are referred in Heikka and Waniganayake (2011), has two major themes around which the epistemological discussion is involved: (1) the way/method and the content of teaching to young children; and (2) the dynamics of creating an environment of good relations among all those involved in the teaching and learning of young children.


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task-related difficulties and they have developed skills and confidence to work out effective solutions to arising problems. However, age-related, negative feelings, fatigue (possibly from life and job), and (occasionally) resignation cannot be generalized characteristics, as they reflect individual personality traits.

Cheuk, Wong, and Rosen (2000) and Wong and Cheuk (2005) emphasized the close association of stress with negative emotions and less job satisfaction. The situation is likely to worsen when any type of support is absent.

Stress has always been identified as affecting the quality of subjects personal lives. Lack of time is interpreted as the insufficient time to complete the range of responsibilities in both roles. Rodd (2006) noted that it is due to the staff-to-child ratio defined by the government regulations and that time management has to do with each individuals ability to deal with it. For many practitioners, the job takes as long as it does to get done regardless of statutory working hours, a fact is often pointed out by one of our research subjects: I usually take work home. I do it either in the afternoon or during the weekend. In such cases, pressure is placed on the work-life balance. Boardman (2003) identified time as an organizational aspect of the EC environment; she supported the idea that the lack-of-time issue represents the conflict associated with the time for teaching and (the time for) leadership responsibilities. She also highlighted the dilemma associated with dual teaching and leading roles, which is also true for the Greek case.

Views on training for headship are likely to build on the difficulties the subjects face in praxis; they are closely interwoven with statutory and management aspects of the organization and, to a lesser degree, with pure leadership issues. The type and content of training program at each level of competence (Jorde-Bloom, 1998) and in each national case is differentiated according to local job descriptions and needs; however, research has repeatedly shown that the importance of training as a shaping empowerment and self-developing strategy is common to all contexts; training as a notion and a necessity are associated with all parameters in this study. Lack of relevant training is likely to be blamed for all the inconsistencies put forward by this research. The majority of the subjects have attributed almost all their problems to this lack; consequently, their reluctance to undertake managing and leading roles is seldom based on lack of intention to get involved, but on lack of the required skills to be successful in these roles and on the negative feelings arising from this lack.

Conclusions Data from material provided by the open-ended questions led to the following conclusions: (1) The fact that ECE Heads perform their teaching tasks at the same working hours with the performance

of managing and leading tasks is the main cause of post-related stress and dissatisfaction and the one that averts them from aspiring for a headship post at their own will;

(2) The environmental constraints of the ECE head role are so powerful that they form specific attitudes towards the headship post. The macro-level environmental constraints, especially the ones imposed by the legal framework (organizational and operational), are also important factors for their not aspiring for headship posts. As the main criterion for ECE headship is still the seniority, Heads are obliged to undertake the centralized tasks (continuous reporting to LEA, lack of individual decision-making within school) of the post without their own will. Their perception of headship is that they have to implement the authority that comes with the post, to execute prescribed tasks; they are not entitled to the autonomy to take decisions for the benefit of the school as an organization. This explains why the majority of the samples claim the absence of leading role;


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(3) Lack of relevant training before or during headship makes the post responsibilities onerous and undesirable. Moreover, it makes difficult for them to distinguish between management and leadership and accept the importance of leadership;

(4) ECE practitioners prefer to remain focusing on teaching young children instead of aspiring for headship posts. The seniority criterion will eventually lead them to the post; this is, actually, a vicious circle, as they are neither opt for any post-related preparation on their own nor will they receive any training on the behalf of the LEA or the Ministry.

A number of key themes emerged from this research: (1) In most cases, there is confusion between the managing and the leading roles and responsibilities. Even

in cases that leading roles are present, the subjects believe that they are not leaders; (2) The status of the Greek ECE Heads is confusing per se. They are obliged (by the statutory

framework) to perform two distinct roles (teacher-school leader) in one without previous understanding of the demands of each role. This implies a potential inadequacy in both. The one role closer to the training they have received is that of the teacher. As for the second, there is a lack of cognition which, combined with time shortage because of teaching, results in stress and dissatisfaction. Consequently, the role of school leader is not included in their career aspirations;

(3) The small size of ECE schools, with only one (Head) teacher, known in Greece as one-position schools, also contributes to the forming of specific attitudes. The one teacher-Head is difficult to realize the notion of leadership in a school without other teaching staff;

(4) The ECE Heads learn the ropes of their role either by apprenticing (in case of larger schools) or by living experience, a fact that questions the quality of the services they offer and the effectiveness of their performance;

(5) ECE Heads realize that the difficulties of the job are more than they had initially expected and they often get discouraged. Interim training and/or support from critical friends and colleagues would reduce negative feelings, especially at the beginning of their headship career.

Implications The leadership challenge within the Greek school environment lies in two major points: understanding the

importance of leadership and implementing/realizing it in a less bureaucratic and more re-schooling system scenario.

For the first point, it is important for all involved parts in the educational system to move from a rather managerial, industrial-like, attitude towards headship to a broader concept of the authority to lead, probably, shared among several people. To achieve this transition, it is necessary to distinguish between the two notions-poles, management, and leadership, where to start from, where to go to, and where to do both. Sound and systematic relevant training before assuming the post and during the early steps in the post would be the best remedy to all discrepancies mentioned above.

Understanding the importance of school leadership is not enough unless it is made a policy priority. At the macro-level, this means redesigning the organizational structure of the educational system on a more decentralized basis, allowing more freedom to the periphery than to the centre. At the micro-level, we support that the redesigning of the organization and the operation of Greek ECE institutions, would facilitate to change ECE Heads perceptions and attitudes towards their roles and responsibilities. The small number of


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children and the small number of teachers in ECE institutions do not allow the creation of a more concrete organizational mind. In the past, this had been put forward as an asset, as kindergartens were supposed to replace the family environment. Nowadays, as the demand for effectiveness in the provision of ECE augments, the family/cozy environment can be maintained only for the children. The ECE institution should be a more organized setting where strategic planning, quick and appropriate decision-making, and collaboration among an increasing number of professionals need to take place. Reorganizing the structure of ECE institutions will facilitate professionals to understand the importance of being active members of a flourishing organization and think and act accordingly. In such a case, ECE effective Headteachers cannot perform dual duties, teach and lead, at the same time.

Concluding, the commonality of the findings of this research with those from previous research shows that the lack of training is a dominant problem in almost all national contexts. However, the origins of the problem are not identical. The interpretation of findings in each national case needs to be approached cautiously through the understanding of the contextual factors and their impact on perceptions and attitudes.

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