URBANIZATIONIntroduction to Urbanization

The term urbanization is commonly used in demography as well as in geography. The most common measure of urbanization is the proportion of the total population of an area that lives in the urban areas as defined in the census. The process of urbanization has been going on since pre-historic times.However the range of urbanization rose sharply in the 19th and 20th centuries. During 1800, there were 27 million urban dwellers, in the world 3% of the total but that time umber has increased 40% of the total population. In the developed world 65% are dwelling in urban areas but in the developing world 25% are urban dwellers and this may be expected 45% till 2010. So, we can see that urban population is increasing day by day. This process of increaseis called urbanization.

Meaning of UrbanizationUrbanization means the inflow of rural people to urban areas. It is the movement of the people from the rural areas to urban areas. Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, "the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas", and the ways in which each society adapts to the change.

It is predominantly the process by which towns and cities are formed and become larger as more people begin living and working in central areas. The United Nations projected that half of the world's population would live in urban areas at the end of 2008. It is predicted that by 2050 about 64% of the developing world and 86% of the developed world will be urbanized. That is equivalent to approximately 3 billion urbanites by 2050, much of which will occur in Africa and Asia. Notably, the United Nations has also recently projected that nearly all global population growth from 2016 to 2030 will be absorbed by cities, about 1.1 billion new urbanites over the next 14 years.

DEFINITIONUrbanization is a process by which a society’s population increases its concentration in urban areas such as town and

cities. It short, the increase in urban population cither by migration from rural areas or by their internal growth is called urbanization.

The process of making an area more urban. The quality or state of being urbanized or the process of becoming urbanised. The process by which towns and cities are formed and become larger as more and more people begin living and working in central areas.

WHY URBANISATION REQUIRESBecause of human population growth, urbanization of rural land has become a necessity, along with the accompanying development of infrastructure to support it.One of the major trends we see in developing nations like Cambodia is an increase in urbanization, when people living in rural areas move to cities where there is more opportunity to earn a living.The increase in farming technology has decreased the amount of farmers needed to produce our food supply, leading to rapid urbanization in modern-day America.An increase in a population in cities and towns versus rural areas. Urbanization began during the industrial revolution, when workers moved towards manufacturing hubs in cities to obtain jobs in factories as agricultural jobs became less common.Urbanization is relevant to a range of disciplines, including geography, sociology, economics, urban planning, and public health. The phenomenon has been closely linked to modernization, industrialization, and the sociological process of rationalization. Urbanization can be seen as a specific condition at a set time (e.g. the proportion of total population or area in cities or towns) or as an increase in that condition over time. So urbanization can be quantified either in terms of, say, the level of urban development relative to the overall population, or as the rate at which the urban proportion of the population is increasing. Urbanization creates enormous social, economic and environmental changes, which provide an opportunity for sustainability with the “potential to use resources more efficiently, to create more sustainable land use and to protect the biodiversity of natural ecosystems.”

Urbanization is not merely a modern phenomenon, but a rapid and historic transformation of human social roots on a global scale, whereby predominantly rural culture is being rapidly replaced by predominantly urban culture. The first major change in settlement patterns was the accumulation of hunter-gatherers into villages many thousand years ago. Village culture is characterized by common bloodlines, intimate relationships, and communal behavior whereas urban culture is characterized by distant bloodlines, unfamiliar relations, and competitive behavior. This unprecedented movement of people is forecast to continue and intensify during the next few decades, mushrooming cities to sizes unthinkable only a century ago.

Today, in Asia the urban agglomerations of Osaka, Karachi, Jakarta, Mumbai, Shanghai, Manila, Seoul and Beijing are each already home to over 20 million people, while Delhi and Tokyo are forecast to approach or exceed 40 million people each within the coming decade. Outside Asia, Mexico City, São Paulo, New York, Lagos, Los Angeles, and Cairo are, or soon will be, home

to over 20 million people.

History ----- WHEN UNBANISATION STARTEDThe word urbanisation started appearing in print way back in the 1880s, which says something about the growth of American cities. The expansion of Los Angeles was an early example of uncontrolled urbanization. Urbanization is often seen as a negative trend, with bad effects on quality of life and the environment. But apartments require much less heat than houses, and commuting by mass transit rather than cars can reduce pollution and energy use, and cities offer improved opportunities for jobs (and often for education and housing as well), so city growth doesn't make everyone unhappy.From the development of the earliest cities in Mesopotamia and Egypt until the 18th century, an equilibrium existed between the vast majority of the population who engaged in subsistence agriculture in a rural context, and small centers of populations in the towns where economic activity consisted primarily of trade at markets and manufactures on a small scale. Due to the primitive and relatively stagnant state of agriculture throughout this period the ratio of rural to urban population remained at a fixed equilibrium, though a significant increase in the percentage of the global urban population can still be traced in the 1st millennium BCE.With the onset of the agricultural and industrial revolution in the late 18th century this relationship was finally broken and an unprecedented growth in urban population took place over the course of the 19th century, both through continued migration from the countryside and due to the tremendous demographic expansion that occurred at that time. In England the proportion of the population living in cities jumped from 17% in 1801 to 72% in 1891 (for other countries the figure was: 37% in France, 41% in Prussia and 28% in the United States).As labourers were freed up from working the land due to higher agricultural productivity they converged on the new industrial cities like Manchester and Birmingham which were experiencing a boom in commerce, trade and industry. Growing trade around the world also allowed cereals to be imported from North America and refrigerated meat from Australasia and South America. Spatially, cities also expanded due to the development of public transport systems, which facilitated commutes of longer distances to the city center for the working class.

Urbanization rapidly spread across the Western world and, since the 1950s, it has begun to take hold in the developing world as well. At the turn of the 20th century, just 15% of the world population lived in cities. According to the UN the year 2007 witnessed the turning point when more than 50% of the world population were living in cities, for the first time in human history.

Causes and Effects of Urbanization in IndiaUrbanisation has become a common feature of Indian society. Growth of Industries has contributed to the growth of cities. As a result of industrialisation people have started moving towards the industrial areas in search of employment. This has resulted in the growth of towns and cities.Urbanisation denotes a diffusion of the influence of urban centers to a rural hinterland.Urbanisation can also be defined as a process of concentration of population in a particular territory.According to Mitchell urbanisation is a process of becoming urban, moving to cities, changing from agriculture to other pursuits common to cities.

Causes of Urbanisation:

Major causes of urbanization: Following are the main causes of urbanization, Various reasons have led to the growth of cities. They are as follows:

Industrial revolution: Industrial employment catches the attention of people from rural to urban areas. In the urban areas, people work in modern sector in the occupations that assist national economic development. This represents that the old agricultural economics is changing to a new non-agricultural economy. This is the trend, which will build a new modern society.

1. Emergence of large manufacturing centers.2. Job opportunities: There are ample job opportunities in mega cities therefore village people or individuals from town

frequently migrate to these areas.3. Availability of transportation: Due to easy transport, people prefer to stay in big cities.4. Migration: Migration is main cause for rapid growth of mega-cities. Migration has been going on over centuries and it is

normal phenomenon. 5. Infrastructure facilities in the urban areas: Infrastructure has vital role in the process of urbanization in the

development of countries. As agriculture becomes more fruitful, cities grow by absorbing workforce from rural areas. Industry and services increase and generate higher value-added jobs, and this led to economic growth. The geographic

concentration of productive activities in cities creates agglomeration economies, which further raises productivity and growth. The augments income and demand for agricultural products in cities.

6. Growth of private sector.7. Migration of rural people to urban areas.8. Employment opportunities in urban centers.9. Transport and communication facilities.10.Educational facilities.11.Increase in the standard of living.

i. Industrialization:Industrialization is a major cause of urbanization. It has expanded the employment opportunities. Rural people have migrated to cities on account of better employment opportunities.ii. Social factors:Many social factors such as attraction of cities, better standard of living, better educational facilities, need for status also induce people to migrate to cities.iii. Employment opportunities:In rural sector people have to depend mainly on agriculture for their livelihood. But Indian agriculture is depending on monsoon. In drought situations or natural calamities, rural people have to migrate to cities.iv. Modernization:Urban areas are characterized by sophisticated technology better infrastructure, communication, medical facilities, etc. People feel that they can lead a comfortable life in cities and migrate to cities.v. Rural urban transformation:It is an interesting aspect that not only cities are growing in number but rural community is adopting urban culture, no longer rural communities are retaining their unique rural culture. Rural people are following the material culture of urban people. Urban rural transformation can be observed in the following areas.vi. Economic opportunities:It is general perception that living standard of urban area is superior as compared to village areas. People consider that more job opportunities and more jobs are offered in the city instead of rural area. Besides, the income also will be higher.viii. Human Migration :Human migration is different compared to the animal migration. It is the movement of people from one place to another to seek permanent or semi-permanent residence. The movement usually happens across the political boundary. It could be a semi-permanent movement, if you are a seasonal farm laborer. The movement can be voluntary and involuntary. Migration can be intercontinental, intercontinental, interregional or rural to urban migration. In 2014, the United Nations reported highest level of 59.5 million forced migrations of people due to violence, conflict and persecution. These figures of human migration in 2013 were 51.2 million (noticeable increase of 8.3 million). A decade ago this figure was 37 million. As of 2015, one of every 122 humans is a refugee seeking asylum or internally displaced.

Positive effects of urbanisation:With a high rate of urbanization significant changes have taken place. The effect of urbanisation can be summed up as follows:

i. Change in Dress habits.

ii. Adoption of modern Technology

iii. Enlightenment of women.

iv. Modern transport and communication. e.g. Cell phones have become common even among rural people.

v. Active involvement in politics.

vi. Growth of infrastructure like Banks, Post office.

vii. Awareness among rural consumers.

viii. Increasing demand for sophisticated products like cosmetics etc. Thus it can be noticed that there are significant changes in the life style of village people. Indian villages have adopted urban culture and urban style of living. However, all villages in India are not transformed. Only certain villages situated close to the cities have been transformed.

ix. The literacy rate has increased among the rural people. They have become more modernised.

x. Spread of education

Negative Effects of Urbanisation:Extensive urbanisation or indiscriminate growth of cities may result in adverse effects. They may be as follows:i. Problem of over population:Concentration of population is a major problem of cities. It has resulted in accommodation problem, growth of slums etc.ii. Disintegration of Joint family:Joint family can’t be maintained in cities on account of high cost of living: People prefer to live in the nuclear type of families.iii. Cost of living:High cost of living is a major problem of cities. In Metro cities like Mumbai, Bangalore etc. it is very difficult for lower income groups to maintain a decent standard of living.iv. Increase in Crime rates:Urban centers are known for high rate of crimes. Theft, Dacoity, Murder, Cheating, Pick pocketing, rape etc. are common in urban centers.v. Impersonal relations:Urban centers are characterised by highly secondary relations. The concept of neighbourhood, community life are almost absent in cities. Urban life is highly monotonous. This may have an adverse psychological effect on individuals. People are often self-centered and they have no concern for the fellow human beings.vi. Problem of Pollution:In industrialized cities pollution is a major problems. It may be caused by industries or by excessive movement of vehicles.viii. Stress:Urban life is characterised by stress which may even strain family relations. In cities employment of women is almost inevitable to meet the increasing cost of living. Changing role of women in the family creates stress in the family which may result in divorce or strained relations.ix. Economic effect:In many developing countries where economies are growing, the growth is often erratic and based on a small number of industries. For young people in these countries barriers exist such as, lack of access to financial services and business advisory services, difficulty in obtaining credit to start a business, and lack of entrepreneurial skills, in order for them to access opportunities in these industries. Investment in human capital so that young people have access to quality education and infrastructure to enable access to educational facilities is imperative to overcoming economic barriers. x. Environmental effects:The existence of urban heat islands has become a growing concern over the years. An urban heat island is formed when industrial and urban areas produce and retain heat. Much of the solar energy that reaches rural areas is consumed by evaporation of water from vegetation and soil. In cities, where there is less vegetation and exposed soil, most of the sun's energy is instead absorbed by buildings and asphalt; leading to higher surface temperatures. Vehicles, factories and industrial and domestic heating and cooling units release even more heat. As a result, cities are often 1 to 3 °C (1.8 to 5.4 °F) warmer than surrounding landscapes. Impacts also include reducing soil moisture and a reduction in reabsorption of carbon dioxide emissions.xi. Health and social effects:In the developing world, urbanization does not translate into a significant increase in life expectancy. Rapid urbanization has led to increased mortality from non-communicable diseases associated with lifestyle, including cancer and heart disease. Differences in mortality from contagious diseases vary depending on the particular disease and location.Urban health levels are on average better in comparison to rural areas. However, residents in poor urban areas such as slums and informal settlements suffer "disproportionately from disease, injury, premature death, and the combination of ill-health and poverty entrenches

disadvantage over time." Many of the urban poor have difficulty accessing health services due to their inability to pay for them; so they resort to less qualified and unregulated providers.xii. Overcrowding:overcrowding is a situation in which large number of people lives in too little space. Overcrowding is a consistent result of over-population in urban areas. It is obviously expected that cities are increasing their size due to massive movement of people from undeveloped ar-eas but it squeezed in a small space due to overcrowding.xiii. Unemployment: The problem of joblessness is also serious as the problem of housing. Urban unemployment in India is estimated at 15 to 25 per cent of the labour force. This percentage is even higher among the educated people. It is approximate that about half of all knowledgeable urban unemployed youth are living in four metropolitan cities such as in Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai. Additionally, although urban incomes are higher than the rural incomes, they are awfully low because of high cost of living in urban areas. Major causes of urban unemployment are the huge relocation of people from rural to urban areas.xiv. Slums and Squatter Settlements: The natural development of unchecked, unexpected and random growth of urban areas is the growth and spread of slums and unlawful resident settlements which present a prominent feature in the environmental structure of Indian cities, particularly of urban centers. The fast urbanisation in combination with industrialisation has resulted in the enlargement of slums. The explosion of slums occurs due to many factors, such as, the lack of developed land for housing, the high prices of land beyond the reach of urban poor, a large influx of rural migrants to the cities in search of jobs.xv. Transportation problems: Urbanization created severe problem of transpiration. Due to movement of people into metropolitan cities, the number of vehicles on the road is increasing every year. Although various types of public transportation are provided in the cities but people in cities still prefer to drive private vehicles. This is due to the ineffective public transportation. The public transportation facilities are provided without referring to the need to integrate the different modes of transportation. Consequently it is difficult for the user to change the modes of transportation. Since the public transportation is not trustworthy, people usually travel from private vehicles which led to the severe problem of blockage in the cities. If any traffic jam happens, public transportation, especially bus and taxi and private vehicles are trapped together and cannot move. xvi. Water: Water is one of the most essential elements of nature to maintain life and right from the beginning of urban civilisation. However, supply of water started falling short of demand as the cities grew in size and number.xvii. Sewerage Problems: Urban centers in India are almost consistently beset with inadequate sewage facilities. Resource crisis faced by the municipalities and illicit growth of the cities are two major causes of this pitiable state of affairs. Most cities do not have proper arrangements for treating the sewerage waste and it is drained into a nearly river or in sea as in Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai and these activities pollute the water bodies.xviii. Trash Disposal: Urbanization pushed Indian cities to grow in number and size and as a result people have to face the problem of trash disposal which is in alarming stage. Enormous quantities of garbage produced by Indian cities cause a serious health problem. Most cites do not have proper arrangements for garbage disposal and the existing landfills are full to the edge. These landfills are breeding grounds of disease and countless poisons leaking into their environs. Wastes putrefy in the open inviting disease carrying flies and rats and a filthy, poisonous liquid, called leachate, which leaks out from below and contaminates ground water. People who live near the decomposing garbage and raw sewage get victims to several diseases such as dysentery, malaria, plague, jaundice, diarrhea, and typhoid.xix. Health problem due to urbanization: Factors affecting health in slums are Economic conditions, Social conditions, Living environment, Access and use of public health care services, Hidden/Unlisted slums and Rapid mobility. Environmental problems can cause many other problems such as Poor air quality that can produce asthma and allergies or contribute to physical inactivity, an impure water supply can cause the spread of infectious diseases through the water supply or through food such as waterborne and food borne diseases, climates changes can cause deaths from severe heat or cold , noise can cause sleep disturbances, and hence poor performance at work and in school, Lead poisoning leading to developmental and behaviour problems, Second-hand smoke and exposure to carcinogens can cause cancer. xx. Urban Crimes: In developed cities of India, people get connected with different types of individuals who do not have similarity with one another. The problem of crimes increases with the increase in urbanisation. In fact, the increasing trend in urban crimes tends to upset peace and tranquility of the cities and make them insecure to live in mainly for the women. The problem of urban crime is becoming more complicated in current situation because criminals often get shelter from politicians, bureaucrats and leaders of the urban society. urban crimes such as rape, murder, kidnapping, dacoity, robbery are more prominent in the northern-central parts of the nation. Even the economic crimes such as theft, cheating, breach of trust are concentrated in the north- central

region. Poverty related crimes are prevalent in the cities of Patna, Darbhanga, Gaya and Munger. This may be due to poverty existing in this area.xxi. Unsuccessful urban governance: The urban authority undergoes with multifaceted challenges to manage a city. The fast speed of urbanization is major challenges that need every party to be more focused in undertaking each responsibility in urban development. However, the involvement of several agencies and departments in urban management made it complicated to synchronize many actions and resultant, it affects the efficiency of those actions. Besides this, the local authority also deals with the different goals and interests of community groups which they need to fulfill. The local authority also needs to find solution for different social issues.

xxii. Degradation of environmental quality: Due to urbanization, there is environmental degradation especially in the quality of water, air and noise. With the influx of more people in cities, there is great demand of facilities such as housing. Some unlawful factories and even houses which have a poor infrastructure, the waste from buildings are directly channelled to the nearest river or water resources which directly pollute the water. The domestic waste, industrial effluents and other wastes that were dumped directly to the river, degrade the water quality. Another after effects of rapid urbanization is the air pollution which has also increased due to emanation from motor vehicles, industrial development and use of non-environmental friendly fuel sources. The noise pollution is produced from the various human actions which also degrade the environment and ultimately affect the human health. The growth of population has generated a very high quantity of solid waste and there is pressure to provide a waste disposal place in the urban areas. Air pollution has dangerous consequences which emerge due to urbanization. Cities are the source of several dangerous gases, particularly vehicles like passenger cars, Lorries, buses which generate carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrous oxides (Nox), benzene, ozone in addition to fine particles released by diesel motors which create a serious threat to human health.

Thus urbanisation has its own merits and de-merits. Urbanization can’t be avoided. But the negative effect of urbanization can be minimised.

PROBLEMS OF HOUSING IN URBAN AREASShelter is the basic human requirement. Even after 57 years of independence, the country is still grappling with the growing shelter problem, especially of the poor. The problem has further been compounded by the rapid increase in urban population. Constant migration of rural population to cities in search of jobs is causing unbearable strain on urban housing and basic services.There is a severe housing shortage in the urban areas with demand – supply gap increasing day-by-day. The National Building Organization (NBO) had estimated the 1991 urban housing shortage at 8.23 million, and had expected the absolute shortage to decline progressively to 7.57 million in 1997 and 6.64 million in 2001.In some small towns in India, the problem is not the lack of housing facilities but the lack of adequate housing facilities. Here, there is a surplus of houses when compared with households but these houses are unfit to reside.The people who are most likely to become homeless are those who have least resources as providing housing is a profit-oriented industry. They cannot purchase houses nor can they afford high rent, so they live in unfit accommodation, as the rents demanded for such an accommodation is much low. Some very poor people prefer to squat rather than even rent an accommodation, thus leading to the growth of slums.

Housing – Meaning, Role and Magnitude of Housing Problem in India

Food, clothing and shelter (housing) are the primary requirements of life. The availability of these necessities in sufficient quantity and quality increases the physical efficiency and productivity of the people. So housing is an important component of human resource development. In India, the problem of housing is acute. There is a wide gap between the demand and supply of houses. This gap is responsible for growth of slums in cities where crores of people live in most unhygienic and unhealthy conditions.

With population explosion, the problem of housing has become more serious. Proper housing is must as it catapults the productivity of labour and it is also a basic human right.

The Government policy of housing has been more or less passive throughout the 50 years since Independence because of resource constraint.

In 1960, National Building Construction Corporation (NBCC) incorporated as a Public Sector Undertaking was set up. In 1969, National Co-operative Housing Federation of India was set up.In 1970, HUDCO was set up as a fully owned Government Company In 1976; National Institute of Urban Affairs was set up. In 1985, National Capital Region Planning Board was constituted. In 1996, National Slum Development Programme (NSDP) launched. In 1997, the Union Cabinet approved the Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rojgar Yojana.A new Housing and Habitat Policy 1998 has been approved and laid before the Parliament on 29 July, 1998. Its objective is to create surpluses in housing stock and facilitate construction of 2 million additional dwelling units each year in pursuance of National Agenda for Governance.Under the new economic reforms, there is a scheme of Infrastructure Development in mega cities i.e., Mumbai, Chennai, Calcutta, Hyderabad and Bangalore in operation from 1993-94.The Urban Land (Ceiling and Regulation) Act came into force in 1976 to provide equitable distribution of land in order to subserve the common good. The Urban Land (C&R) Repeal Bill, 1998 was introduced on 11 June 1998.In National Housing and Habital Policy 1998, the government decided to repeal the Act through an Ordinance and the Urban Land (Ceiling and Regulation) Repeal Ordinance, 1999 was accordingly notified on 11 January, 1999.

Accelerated Urban Water Supply Programme was launched midway during the Eighth Plan period in March 1994 to provide safe and adequate water supply facilities to the entire population of towns having population less than 20,000 (as per 1991 census) in the country.

Meaning of Housing:Generally speaking, housing may be defined as an architectural unit for accommodation in order to protect the occupants from the forces of nature. But in wider meaning housing covers all the ancillary services and community facilities which are essential to human well being. In addition to the physical structure, it includes water supply, sanitation, and disposal of water, recreation and other basic amenities of life. Thus housing can be defined as a component architectural structure within a total system consisting of various settlement variables.

Distinction between House and Home:Literally speaking house and home seems to be same in sense and meaning but a distinction between the two is must. House being narrower term, may represent only an architectural structure for accommodation. Home being wider term, includes the family relationships and bonds of affection which are nurtured within this architectural structure.

Role of Housing:Housing is closely associated to the process of overall socio-economic development. It provides shelter and raises the quality of life. It generates conditions which are congenial to the achievement of social objectives such as health, sanitation and education. It provides employment opportunities to the rural and urban people. Moreover it helps to improve urban rural equality by narrowing down the difference in the standard of living. Thus housing performs multiple functions including many social needs of the household.

Socio-cultural Variables in Housing:The socio-cultural factors decide the quality and quantity of housing in India. The caste divide in Indian rural society mainly affects the distribution of houses and the quality of housing. In Indian villages, the division on caste basis has given rise to division of housing.

Generally houses of upper castes are situated in better areas while houses of lower castes especially scheduled castes and some backward classes are situated in periphery of the village. These peripheral regions are mostly low lying areas and unhygienic. Kinship and family structure are other variables which affect the quality and quantity of housing. For example, there is shift from joint family system to nuclear families. This tendency puts pressure on the available land for housing. In Punjab and Haryana this pressure is visible. In Rajasthan where dispersed settlement pattern exists, this pressure may not be felt so far.

The household size is also important variable of housing quality and quantity. Urban families are small in comparison to rural area. The land is more costly in urban areas. So urban houses are small in size as compared to village houses. The occupational pattern and tradition also affect the housing layout. Generally, housing structure in rural areas use locally available building material, technology and man power except well to do rural families. In urban areas, building materials used are of industrial origin and durable.

Magnitude of the housing problem:The magnitude of the problem of housing in India is quite wide. The problem has both quantitative and qualitative dimensions. According to 1991 census, the housing shortage was 18.5 million dwelling units, out of which 13.7 million for rural areas and 4.8 million for urban areas 41.6 % was living in pucca houses, 30.9% was living in semi-pucca houses and 27.5% was living in kutcha (kachcha) houses.The total housing shortage at the end of tenth plan has officially been assessed as 24.71 million dwelling units for 67.4 million Households, where 98% of this shortage was in the Low Income and Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) segment. The situation even at the end of 11th Plan, despite efforts envisaged to be implemented, is also not projected to improve, but rather this shortage is expected to escalate to 26.53 million houses for 75.01 million households.

Qualitative aspect of Housing Problem: Qualitatively speaking the state of housing in India is miserable. About 80% houses in rural areas do not have basic amenities like safe drinking water, bathroom, toilets etc. Ninth Five year Plan has recorded the inter State variation in housing shortage. There is a large concentration in a few States.For example, Bihar accounted for one third of the housing scarcity followed by Andhra Pradesh, Assam, U.P. and West Bengal. In 2000, about 48.7 million people were living in urban slums in unhealthy conditions. According to Ninth Five-Year Plan, 18.77 million houses are kutcha houses. They are thatched houses made of mud, straw and bamboos. These are unable to face natural disaster like cyclone and floods etc.

Quantitative aspect of Housing Problem:Quantitatively speaking, there is acute shortage of housing in rural and urban areas in India. Presently, there is shortage of 310 lakh houses in India. Out of which 206 lakh houses are in rural area and 104 lakh houses in urban areas.Housing problems: It is another intense problem due to urbanization in India. Overcrowding leads to a constant problem of scarcity of houses in urban areas. This problem is particularly more severe in those urban areas where there is large invasion of jobless or underemployed immigrants who could not find place to live when they come in cities and towns from the nearby areas. The major factors for housing problems are lack of building materials and financial resources, insufficient expansion of public utilities into sub-urban areas, poverty and unemployment of urban immigrants, strong caste and family ties and lack of enough transportation to sub-urban areas where most of the available land for new construction is to be found.

Decline in quality of living for urban dwellers:Urbanization is major concern for management researchers because it decline in quality of living for urban inhabitants. As the metropolis becomes a developed city, the land value will also increase. The housing provision will focus more to fulfill the needs of the high-income group. As such, there will be a problem in the provision of housing, especially for the middle and low class people. The supply of housing for the urban poor is still inadequate as the cost of these houses is very high to which low and middle-income group cannot afford. The lack of housing provision for the low income group has led to the continuation of unlawful resident settlements in the city. These unlawful tenant settlements will certainly lack in proper infrastructure that will bring about many hindrances to the urban environment and create social problems such as child education, crime, drugs, delinquency and others. Besides housing problem for low income group, the process of urbanization has also increased the demand on infrastructure and utility which cannot be fulfilled from the existing facilities. The maintenance of drains and debris collection is incompetent which can raise other serious problems such as flash floods and poor public health. The reappearance

of flash floods is due to the drainage system being unable to contain surface water run-off that has greatly increased with the higher intensity of urban activities.

Proper infrastructure and utilities: In today's economy driven society, majority of nations in the world are focusing on the development of major cities as the center of government and business. As such, the cities will be certainly equipped with a better infrastructure and utilities such as roads and transportation, water, electricity and others. Apart from that, the communication and internet coverage also are good in the cities which are believed as one of the pulling factors of migration.

Availability of public facilities: To make smart city, metropolitan cities also offered better public facilities which are not there in rural areas. Since a variety of public facilities such as health and education are provided in the cities, people have more choices either to use public or private. Additionally, the provision of leisure area, postal services as well as police station and others are also provided to meet the needs of the urban community. In urban area, a greater variety of entertainment such as restaurants, movie theatres and theme parks attract more people to live in cities.Not all the urban poor live in slums, but most do:About 1 billion people in developing countries live in slums.

VARIOUS PROBLEMS REGARDING HOUSINGIn India, while home-ownership remains a long-cherished dream for the potential Affordable Housing customer, he/she faces several hurdles en route:

1. Connectivity – For Affordable Housing to be truly sustainable, it is important for both development and throughput to be speedy and large scale. However, the lack of affordable and adequately sized land parcels in inner urban localities has driven the development of Affordable Housing to urban peripheries. This is turn often poses a challenge to the Affordable Housing customer, who requires efficient connectivity to areas of work in city business districts. The development of effective mass rapid transit systems is the solution to facilitate easy commute and reduce travel time.

2. Financial literacy – Unable to produce formal pay slips and other relevant documentation to establish creditworthiness, EWS and LIG categories often find it difficult to secure formal housing finance. Financial assistance and financial literacy training is thus the need of the hour for the segment, and Non-Banking Financial Companies have stepped in to provide the needful assistance to such customers in securing home loans.

3. Cost of ownership – Lack of affordable land, various forms of taxes and levies like VAT, Service Tax, Stamp Duty etc. constitutes anywhere between 30% to 35% of the home cost, which increases the cost of home ownership. This is in addition to the inefficiencies that is brought to a project by local development rules which are more attuned to premium housing. Moreover, the lack of affordable land options within the city pushes the Affordable Housing corridors to the peri-urban areas which, when coupled with the lack of mass rapid transit systems, makes it difficult for the Affordable Housing customer to take the all-important decision of owning his/her first home. Positive intervention by respective state governments along with help from the central government will go a long way in increasing supplies within the city limits till at such time as last mile public infrastructure like mass rapid transit, water, electricity, sewage disposal facility, etc. is established in peri urban areas.

The recently announced Housing for All missions is a significant step in the right direction to transform the Affordable Housing paradigm in India. Some of the initiatives like the redefining of EWS/LIG categories, interest subvention schemes and incentives to private players are definitely great first steps taken in addressing the housing deficit challenge facing the nation today. For example, the interest subvention scheme of 6.5% is expected to substantially reduce the cost of home ownership for end users as the effective rate of interest can be as low as 3.5% to 4%, post accounting for the subvention up to a loan amount of first 6 Lakhs, which again has a scope to be relooked at for raising the limit of the loan size eligible for subvention. This can motivate the real target segment to overcome their hesitation and take that crucial first step towards formal home ownership.

(i) Homelessness:Homelessness is a complex problem; the circumstances of homeless people vary greatly. Homelessness is sometimes a product of shortage of houses, but in some cases homelessness is caused due to other reasons also. Four main issues are found to be the causes for homelessness:(ii) Shortages of housing:If there are not enough places for people to live, then someone has to go without and those who are excluded are generally the poorest people.(iii) Entitlement to land:

People erect temporary shelters rather than be homeless. Squatters usually build temporary shelters at first, but over time these settlements are given concrete shape and become more established.(iv) Entitlement to housing:If people are not entitled to use the houses which exist, they may be homeless, even when there is no apparent shortage. Some people are excluded because of their circumstances—street children are an example. The main reason for exclusion, however, is financial—homeless people are those who cannot afford the housing which is available.(v) Personal situation of homeless people:Homelessness is often attributed to the characteristics of the homeless person, such as alcoholism and psychiatric illness; or to the social situation of homeless people, such as unemployment and marital breakdown (this condition mostly happens with women in India). People in these situations only become homeless if they are excluded from housing, or do not have enough resources to secure alternative housing.(vi) Congestion:Many households in urban areas have to cope with increasingly crowded conditions, although this is certainly not true for everyone. The housing conditions improve when people build high buildings, sometimes more than five storeys, to increase the number of houses. Many urban centres have very high population densities. The house owners therefore rent out numerous rooms to migrants. Poor migrants five under the most crowded conditions. They do not have access to ancestral residential land.

Means to Overcome this ProblemIn India, housing is essentially a private activity. The state intervenes only to provide legal status to the land. The state intervention is also necessary to meet the housing requirements of the vulnerable sections and to create a positive environment in achieving the goal of ‘shelter for all’ on self-sustainable basis.In view of the above aim, the government introduced Housing and Habitat Policy in 1998, which aimed at ensuring the basic need ‘Shelter for all’ and better quality of life to all citizens by harnessing the unused potentials in the public, private and household sectors. The central theme of the policy was creating strong Public/Private partnership for tackling the housing and habitat issues.Under the new policy, government would provide fiscal concessions, carry out legal and regulatory reforms, in short government as a facilitator would create the environment in which access to all the requisite inputs will be in tune in adequate quantum and of appropriate quality and standards.The private sector, as the other partner, would be encouraged to take up the land for housing construction and invest in infrastructure facilities. Cooperative sector and Public Housing Agencies are also being encouraged to share the responsibility of providing housing facilities. The government has even repealed the Urban Land Ceiling and Regulation Act (ULCRA), 1976, to facilitate land for housing activity. Upgradation and renewal of old and dilapidated housing is also encouraged.Another major problem is the lack of resources especially with people belonging to the middle class. To overcome this problem, housing finance institutions such as National Housing Bank, a subsidiary of the Reserve Bank of India, was established in July 1988.The Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO) also started functioning with the financial support provided by the Government of India. HUDCO’s focus is on providing housing facilities for economically weaker sections (EWS) and for low income group (LIG). With the advent of many private banks, a number of schemes such as providing tax concessions and lower interest rates have been introduced to promote the housing sector.

PPP in Affordable Housing - A plethora of possibilitiesThe Affordable Housing stakeholder community is diverse and includes the Central Government, State Governments, real estate and infrastructure developers, financial institutions, urban planners and, most importantly, urban dwellers. Backed by a strong mandate of the Central Government, whose recent announcement to start building homes for the urban poor across 305 cities and towns is expected to boost the economy, the Affordable Housing segment has the potential to offer a multitude of opportunities to all stakeholders, provided there are concerted and aligned efforts in a common direction. In this context, the private sector can play a significant role in bridging the current deficit of Affordable Housing. In an ideal PPP scenario, the public sector could look into aggregating land for projects, providing single-window and time bound clearances, redrafting the local development byelaws to suit the requirements of Affordable Housing projects and re-evaluating the taxes and levies from the perspective of reducing cost of home ownership for the target segment; private sector entities can leverage core competencies such as Planning & Design, Project Development, Technology best practices, Project Financing, Human Resources, Sales and Marketing.

The way forward – An enabling ecosystemIncreasing urbanization, a renewed focus on the sector by the Government and rising income & aspirations are all key demand drivers in the Affordable Housing story. Against this backdrop, the aforementioned synergistic approach has the potential to accelerate the momentum of ‘right time right place’ Affordable Housing development across India. An enabling ecosystem can facilitate well-planned and Sustainable Urbanization that will adequately meet housing needs of the urban poor, while leveraging the strengths of key stakeholder groups:

1. Timely, single-window clearances and time bound fast-tracked approvals. Self certification should be the rule of the game with proper carrot and stick approach - Can help to significantly reduce project development costs.

2. The development of Affordable Housing Zones, along with the promotion of innovative construction technology providers co-located with the Affordable Housing projects and catering to project requirements, can be a win – win solution. This approach can entail varied benefits, both from the perspective of individual project requirements via speeding up of supplies, and to the technology provider who can achieve desired scale by catering to multiple projects within the zone. New-age construction technology like Pre–Fab can help speed up the construction process, while ensuring uniform, high quality standards.

3. Optimal FSI – This helps reduce costs per unit and increases the economic viability of Affordable Housing. FSI can also serve as a cashless subsidy, the benefits of which can then be passed on to end users/customers.

4. Reduction in stamp duty, exemption from sales tax, reduction/waiver in registration charges, VAT and service tax, etc. - All of these typically increase the cost of ownership by 30%-35%.

5. Review local byelaws like setbacks, parking norms, etc. and fine-tune the same to meet the requirements of Affordable Housing projects.

6. Reduction/exemption of taxes and duties on construction materials can significantly reduce construction-related costs.7. Development of urban infrastructure – Affordable Housing (or any form of housing development, for that matter) cannot exist

in isolation. Parallel focus on urban infrastructure development (Metro, inter and intra-city highways, mono rail, etc.) is imperative to make the Affordable Housing proposition a truly wholesome one.

It is a bit of a paradox that while a basic human necessity like housing is becoming increasingly expensive, luxury items such as smartphones and electronic goods are more and more affordable. The neighborhood taxi driver may wield the latest mobile technology, but home might still mean a compromised solution. Yet, the future holds infinite possibilities. All it needs for Affordable Housing to become a widespread reality in India is a unified and sustainable approach by all stakeholders with one common goal in mind – Quality Housing that is truly for All.

The government has also introduced some schemes to curb the housing problem. They are as

follows.

i. Subsidized industrial housing scheme:This scheme was started in September 1952, to provide houses to the labourers who worked before 1948 and 1952. The Government of India gave loans to the extent of 65 per cent to various industries, state government, legal housing construction societies and cooperative societies to construct houses for the labourers. The labourers could purchase these houses according to the rules framed by the government.But these houses could not be sold or alienated without prior permission of the government. But this scheme did not succeed much because of the lack of cooperation of mill owners. In the third Five-Year-Plan, it was made obligatory for mill owners to provide housing facilities to their labourers. In the fourth Five-Year-Plan, a provision of Rs. 45 crore was made for this purpose. The fifth plan also included similar provisions. Apart from the central government, state governments have also formed various Housing Boards and implemented societies and various schemes.ii. LIG housing schemes:This scheme was started in 1954. Persons who have income less than Rs. 600 per annum could get a loan up to 80 per cent. Local and cooperative bodies are given such loans.iii. Slum clearance and improvement scheme:This scheme was started in the year 1956 to give financial assistance to the state governments and local bodies for improving the slum areas. It was estimated then that about 12 lakh houses were not fit for dwelling. Hence, the long-term and short-term schemes were started. But as it was not possible to provide houses to all the people living in slum areas, this scheme could not progress satisfactorily.iv. Middle-income group housing scheme:Under this scheme, the people of middle-income group are given loans for constructing the houses. The state government also gives loans on low rates of interest.vi. Rental housing schemes:This scheme was started in 1959 to provide houses on rent to the state government employees.vi. Land acquisition and development scheme:

The government felt that the LIG and middle-income group people could construct houses if land was made available to them on a reasonable price. For this purpose, a plan was set up under which the state governments could acquire land and plots at suitable places, develop them and give them away to the needy people.

1. Large Brick Making Program: A large brick making program involving setting up of about 100 giant-size mechanized brick making plants each producing 100,000 to 200,000 bricks per day in various parts of the country, approximately 4 such plants in each state.2. Low cost Cement Plants: The second program required is for cement making along with surkhi and lime are required for conventional construction of buildings as well as new type of brick or block making Blocks like lime-concrete, Aerated concrete, foam concrete are new concepts of brick making where clay is not available. Cement for low cost housing can be made in small plants using VSK (Vertical Shaft Kilns).3. Set up Large Size Float Glass Plants: Glass sheets can be made in existing or new glass plants to be set up specifically for building and housing projects. Though there are automatic or semiautomatic glass plants in India both in container and tube and bulb making sectors, the number of sheet and plate glass plants are only a few. All efforts to set up large size Float glass plants have not yet been fully successful in India. More efforts should be made to either manufacture Float glass in India on a very large scale or partly substitute it with imported glass sheets at a cheaper rate from China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan and other South- East Asian countries.4. Modernization of Mud Houses: For rural and cheap housing several authorities should be set up modernizing mud housing partly replacing with brick walls with roofs made of clay tiles, Asbestos and corrugated galvanized iron sheets.ConclusionThus a huge and massive Housing program should be made by central Government along with all state Governments so that by 2050 all people can have some sort of housing and may not stay in dilapidated, thatched, straw made, bamboo made, made of leaves & bamboos.The people in slum areas and foot paths should also be brought under some sort of housing schemes so that India can as a whole ensure that none of people is houseless in this country.

Remedy to fix issues of urbanization in IndiaIndia has rapidly increasing population. According to the estimates of New McKinsey Global Institute research, cities of India could produce 70 percent of net new jobs by 2030, may generate around 70 percent of Indian GDP, and drive a near fourfold increase in per capita incomes across the country. If India upgrades its urban operating model, it has the capacity to reap a demographic dividend from the increase of around 250 million expected in the next decade in the working-age inhabitants.India's current Prime Minister Mr. Narendra Modi also came forward to resolve the issues related to urbanization. To manage city system and fulfill the great demands of inhabitants due to the rapid urbanization, specialists have stated that government must focus on two critical factors which is solid waste management and waste water treatment. But the Gujarat government on its part has taken up 50 towns in the state and took initiatives like 'Clean city, Green city' in partnership to execute solid waste management and waste water treatment. In order to decrease discrimination, Mr. Modi stated that there is a need to concentrate on comprehensive growth and must recognize the most backward areas in cities and towns and provide basic amenities in place. There is an urgent need to develop social mechanisms which will assist to reduce inequality and make sure the basics like health, sanitation, education to reach those who have been underprivileged of the same. Mr. Modi has realized that most of the urban actions are technical but the employees who do these jobs are often clerical level therefore there must be focus on opening universities on urban planning, urban infrastructure, urban development for the assistance of young people to learn how to meet the demands of urbanization. To lessen urban crime, Mr. Modi stresses that police staff in urban areas need a specific training to maintain demands of the law and order situation.

Possible remedy for the urbanization issues and problems at global levelThe most effectual way to resolve issues of urbanization is to make the economy of village and small scale fully viable. Economies must be revitalized if government undertakes huge rural development program. It is suggested that surplus manpower must be absorbed in village in order to migrate to urban areas. It is needed to control traffic congestion in urban region and people must be encouraged to use public transport. India must improve the traffic control system to avoid accidents. It is necessary to implement resilient clean-up campaign. Government must make polices to construct low cast multi-storied flats in order to accommodate the slum dwellers. Government should provide funds to encourage entrepreneurship and also find solution for pollution in the nation. Reports of WHO stated that the health cities proposal aimed to develop the physical, mental, environmental, and social welfare of people who live and work in urban centers. People from different backgrounds, including community members to government representatives, from cities were organized and encouraged to come together and work together in order to deal with the problems that emerge in urban environments. This association of people shared strategies, success stories, and resources to tackle the concerns of the local society. WHO reports indicated that, "A healthy city is one that is continually creating and improving the physical and social environments and expanding the community resources that enable people to mutually support each other in performing all the functions of life and in developing to their maximum potential."To summarize, Urbanization is the substantial expansion of urban areas due to rural migration and it is strongly related to modernization, industrialization, and the sociological process of rationalization. Urbanization commonly occurred in developing

countries because government has keenness to accomplish a developed city status. As a result, almost all area in the city has been developed and in the worst case scenario, even the green areas are also turned into industrial or business area. It illustrates that speedy urbanization has many unconstructive implications especially towards social and environmental aspects. While the process of urbanization occurs at global scale, it is more visible in developing countries. This growth has led to concerns about the sustainability of these urban centers. Explosive growth in the world population and migration of people to in urban centers is causing major concern about the quality of life in these urban centers and the life-supporting capacity of the planet ecologically and communally.The government should not be keen to develop a city without considering the impacts towards the social and environmental aspect. Instead, the government should modify the urban development process in order to accomplish a developed city and make efforts to lessen the possibility of problems that might arise. In order to triumph over urbanization issues and problems, Khosh-Chashm (1995) recommended that the society should work together closely with the authorities to assist in modernizing life in urban area. The changeover from a rural to urban wealth is very rapid in historical terms for most economic systems. The task to fulfill all the demands for jobs, shelter, water, roads, transport and other urban infrastructure is overwhelming. Presently, India already has numerous mega cities. Many researchers believe that urbanization is good for the financial growth of country but careful planning is required to develop cities and offer basic amenities for healthy living.

ConclusionThe government has now started focusing on providing housing facilities but has not thought much about solving problems that are connected with human settlements, such as the problems of improving and managing the civic services, constructing inexpensive houses and conserving energy and recycling waste. Lack of proper water supply and sanitation facilities for drainage system and garbage disposal are major problems in most of the modern urban centers of today.